Spatial variation in determinants of agricultural land abandonment in Europe

Effect of jujube orchard abandonment time on soil properties and enzyme activities at soil profile in the Loess Plateau

In the Loess Plateau, the impact of abandoned farmland on soil properties and enzyme activity, along with its temporal variations and potential driving factors, remains a mystery. This study was designed to systematically and comprehensively examine the variations in soil enzyme activities, particle size distribution, and stability of soil aggregates at different stages of ecological recovery in the Loess Plateau. Our findings reveal a nuanced temporal pattern: with the progression of cropland abandonment, there is a notable decrease in soil bulk density. Concurrently, a dynamic trend in enzyme activities is observed-initially exhibiting a decline, followed by an increase over extended periods of recovery. Notably, prolonged abandonment leads to marked enhancements in soil structure. Parameters such as the mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric mean diameter (GMD) of soil aggregates show an overall increasing trend. In terms of the Relative Dissipation Index (RSI), our data indicate a sequence of control > 2 years of abandonment > 4 years > 6 years > 14 years. From this, it can be seen that fallowing may be an effective natural restoration strategy for improving the physical structure of soils in the Loess Plateau and restoring soil nutrients. However, positive changes may take a long time to become evident.

Characterizing land use transition in China by accounting for the conflicts underlying land use structure and function

Human activities and global changes have undergone significant transformations in land systems. It is imperative to comprehend the intricacies of land use transitions (LUT), as they serve as indicators of the evolving dynamics within the complex human-environmental relationship. In this study, we adopt the conflict-coordination theoretical framework to delve into the role of land-use conflicts (LUC) in driving LUT. Our investigation involves the quantification of LUT and the assessment of LUC within China, spanning from 1980 to 2020. Subsequently, we scrutinized the interplay between LUT and LUC using Spearman correlation analysis and the Wilcoxon test. Our findings reveal that greater diversity in land-use structure can be attributed to ecological land fragmentation and the restoration of unused land, while the expansion of urban and cropland areas contributes to a less diverse land-use pattern. Furthermore, there is a discernible upward trend in land use function. Although the overall degree of LUC in China is relatively mild, there is a noticeable upward trajectory over the past four decades. More pronounced conflicts within land-use patterns promote a diversified land-use pattern, while conflicts arising from competing land-use functions elevate the level of land-use functionality. Moreover, a dynamic interplay between land-use transitions and conflicts becomes evident, with intense conflicts within land-use patterns weakening land-use functionality, and imbalances in functionality driving greater diversity in land-use patterns. Our research introduces an innovative analytical framework that elucidates LUT through the lens of LUC, with the potential for broader applicability across different regions. This framework not only enhances our understanding of LUT but also provides valuable scientific guidance for the effective management of conflicts to promote the sustainable development of land resources.

Patterns and drivers of carbon stock change in ecological restoration regions: A case study of upper Yangtze River Basin, China

Balancing ecology and human development has been a long and wide concern. The upper Yangtze River Basin (UYRB) of China has implemented large important ecological restoration projects since the last century. These restoration practices have changed land use patterns within the UYRB, consequently impacting the local carbon cycle. The most noteworthy project is the Grain for Green Program, which returns cropland to natural vegetation (forest and grassland). Yet the effects of restoration on land use change, carbon sequestration, and associated food production remain unclear. This study utilized remote sensing data and conversion coefficients to analyze the ecological-policy-induced land use changes of the UYRB from 2000 to 2020 and their impacts on terrestrial carbon sequestration. Linear regression, machine learning, and structural equation modeling (SEM) were utilized to evaluate the correlations between environmental and socio-economic factors and the distribution of carbon stocks. The results indicated positive effects of ecological activities on the UYRB, despite decreases in cropland. Over the past 20 years, the UYRB had sequestered carbon by a total amount of 1796 ± 926 Mt C. The spatial distribution of sequestered carbon demonstrated a strong correlation with slopes, followed by temperatures. The SEM results indicated that agricultural production and carbon sequestration were enhanced synergically under land use changes. This further demonstrated the effectiveness of these land policies in achieving a balance between crop productivity and ecology protection. We emphasized the importance of vegetation restoration in achieving carbon neutrality and the necessity to continue these projects. We suggested a more reasonable land management for the future UYRB based on the characteristics of each geographical subregion. This work serves as an example of effective land management to other locations worldwide perusing the harmony of ecological restoration and human development.

The neglected role of abandoned cropland in supporting both food security and climate change mitigation

Despite the looming land scarcity for agriculture, cropland abandonment is widespread globally. Abandoned cropland can be reused to support food security and climate change mitigation. Here, we investigate the potentials and trade-offs of using global abandoned cropland for recultivation and restoring forests by natural regrowth, with spatially-explicit modelling and scenario analysis. We identify 101 Mha of abandoned cropland between 1992 and 2020, with a capability of concurrently delivering 29 to 363 Peta-calories yr-1 of food production potential and 290 to 1,066 MtCO2 yr-1 of net climate change mitigation potential, depending on land-use suitability and land allocation strategies. We also show that applying spatial prioritization is key to maximizing the achievable potentials of abandoned cropland and demonstrate other possible approaches to further increase these potentials. Our findings offer timely insights into the potentials of abandoned cropland and can inform sustainable land management to buttress food security and climate goals.

Risk assessment and validation of farmland abandonment based on time series change detection

Farmland abandonment, a widespread phenomenon during land-use transition, leads to a cycling or vanishing evolution of farmland resources. As urbanization advances, an increasing number of agricultural laborers migrate from rural to urban areas, causing ongoing farmland abandonment. However, in contrast to the abandoned information extraction and driving mechanisms revelation, the potential risk of farmland abandonment has received insufficient attention. This study took Yangtze River Economic Belt of China as study area, selected multiple aspects to construct a risk assessment system for farmland abandonment, and applied time series change detection to verify the results. The results showed that (1) farmland abandonment risk, with a regional average value of 0.0978, has strong spatial heterogeneity, with high values clustering in Yunnan-Guizhou and Sichuan-Chongqing mountainous areas and low values distributed in the midstream and downstream plains and the Sichuan Basin. (2) The proportion of farmland area gradually decreased as the risk grade increased. Farmland, with low abandonment risk, occupied an area of 204,837 km², constituting the highest percentage of 35.18% among the overall farmland, and was mainly distributed in the provinces of Jiangsu and Anhui. The area of farmland with high risk was 16,458 km², only accounting for 2.83%, the majority of which was clustered in Sichuan and Yunnan provinces. (3) The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series change detection validated the reliability of the risk assessment system. Samples of farmland having low abandonment risk indeed had the lowest abandonment rate of 10%, and those which indicated high risk had the highest abandonment rate of 32%. We propose differentiated managements for farmland resources with high and low abandonment risk from the perspective of sustainable use. This study provides a more reasonable and scientific system for farmland abandonment risk assessment and helps to fill the research gap.

Co-seeding grasses and forbs supports restoration of species-rich grasslands and improves weed control in ex-arable land

Sowing is widely used for the restoration of species-rich grasslands but still there are knowledge gaps regarding the most suitable application of different seed mixtures. We tested the effect of seed mixtures application timing on the establishment of sown forbs and weed control. 36 experimental plots with nine sowing treatments were established in an abandoned cropland in Hungary. Grass-seeds, diverse forb seed mixture and the combination of the two were applied: diverse forb mixture was sown simultaneously or 1, 2 or 3 years after grass sowing, in plots sown previously with grass or in empty plots (fallows). All sowing treatments supported the rapid establishment of the sown species in large cover and hampered weed encroachment. Forbs performed better when sown into fallows than in grass-matrix and forbs establishment was worse in older fallows than in younger ones. Grasses expressed a strong priority effect, especially when forbs were sown at least two years later than grasses. We also investigated the relation between seed germinability, weather parameters and establishment success. Germination rate in the greenhouse could not predict the establishment success of forbs in the field and showed great differences between years, hence we recommend sowing target forbs in multiple years.

Status, Trend, and Prospect of Global Farmland Abandonment Research: A Bibliometric Analysis

Farmland abandonment is one of the most important land use changes in the world today and crucial to the sustainable development of the global environment. The authors carried out extensive research on farmland abandonment from many perspectives, but, due to the variety of the research contents, rich research perspectives, and complex research objects, the current research in this field lacks comprehensiveness, objectivity, and systematization. In this study, the bibliometric R software packages bibliometrix and biblioshiny (K-Synth Srl, Naples, Italy) were used to analyze the development history and current situation of 896 articles on farmland abandonment in the Web of Science core collection database from 1980 to 2021, revealing their research hotspots and predicting the future development trends. Over the past 40 years, the number of published papers on abandoned farmland has continuously increased. Research mainly focused on the ecological environment, with natural succession, biodiversity, and vegetation restoration being high-frequency keywords in this field. Research on the social aspects of farmland abandonment has developed rapidly in the past 6 years. Based on these findings, this paper put forward four future research directions: the data source for the extraction of abandoned farmland should transform to high spatial-temporal resolution and hyperspectral remote sensing images; the method should pay more attention to the time series change detection and the application of the model; future research should focus on the economic costs of the reclamation of abandoned farmland and the ecological consequences of such reclamation; and the global ecological impact of vegetation succession after the abandonment of farmland should be further discussed from a broader perspective.

The Influence of Land Attachment on Land Abandonment from the Perspective of Generational Difference: Evidence from Sichuan Province, China

The deepening of rural population aging and the lack of labor transfer cause the phenomenon of land abandonment to become more serious, which threatens regional and even national food security. Based on the survey data of 540 farmers in Sichuan Province, the theoretical analysis framework of land attachment, intergenerational difference and land abandonment was constructed, and Probit and Tobit models were constructed to empirically analyze the influence of land attachment and intergenerational difference on land abandonment. Research results show that: (1) 10.9% of the farmers abandoned their arable land, with an average area of 0.17 mu; the interviewed farmers are mainly of the middle-aged generation; the scores of the three dimensions of farmers' land attachment were all at the above average level. (2) Land dependence has no significant effect on land abandonment, while satisfaction and embeddedness have significant negative effects on land abandonment. (3) There are generational differences in the influence of land attachment on land abandonment. Among them, the land attachment of the middle-aged generation had no significant effect on land abandonment; the satisfaction and embeddedness of the older generation of farmers have negative effects on land abandonment; the satisfaction of the new-generation farmers has a significant negative effect on farmland abandonment. Based on this research, countermeasures and suggestions are put forward: (1) Pay attention to the emotional appeals of farmers and improve their well-being. (2) Cultivate new types of agricultural business entities and stimulate the potential of new human resources.

Mapping Arable Land and Permanent Agriculture Extent and Change in Southern Greece Using the European Union LUCAS Survey and a 35-Year Landsat Time Series Analysis

Agricultural land extent and change information is needed to assess food security, the effectiveness of land use policy, and both environmental and societal impacts. This information is especially valuable in biodiversity hotspots such as the Mediterranean region, where agricultural land expansion can result in detrimental effects such as soil erosion and the loss of native species. There has also been a growing concern that changing agricultural extent in fire-prone regions of the Mediterranean may increase fire risk due to accumulation of fuel in abandoned areas. In this study, we assessed the extent and change of agricultural land in Southern Greece from 1986 to 2020 using a combined European Land Use/Cover Area frame Survey (LUCAS) and Landsat time series approach. The LUCAS data and Landsat spectral-temporal metrics were used to train a random forest classifier, which was used to classify arable land and permanent agriculture (e.g., olive orchards, vineyards) at annual time steps. A post-processing step was taken to reduce spurious landcover class transitions using transition likelihoods and annual class membership likelihoods. A validation dataset consisting of 2666 samples, identified via a stratified random sampling approach and high-resolution imagery and time series analysis, were used to evaluate stable and change strata accuracies. Overall accuracies were greater than 70% and strata-specific accuracies were highly variable between stable and change strata. The results show that southern Greece has experienced a recent gain in arable land (~12,000 ha from ~2009–2020) and a much larger gain in permanent agriculture (>115,000 ha from ~1993–2020). Arable land loss mainly occurred from 1987 to ~2002 when extent decreased by 15,000 ha, of which 66% was abandoned. The semi-automated approach described in this paper provides a promising approach for monitoring agricultural land change and enabling assessments of agriculture policy effectiveness and environmental impacts.

The Effect of High-Speed Rail on Cropland Abandonment in China

This study analyzed Chinese labor-force survey data to determine the relationship between cropland abandonment and high-speed rail (HSR) infrastructure. A PSM-DID approach was employed to examine 2014 and 2016 data from the China Labor-force Dynamics Survey and estimate the impact of HSR, from which it was found that HSR accessibility promoted cropland abandonment in local farm households with a coefficient of 0.206, that is, HSR projects led to a 20.6% increase in area of cropland abandonment and these impacts were found to be greater in hilly areas and lower in plain areas. The results also suggested that HSR accessibility could have a “pull” effect, which resulted in rural labor force shifts to non-agricultural sectors in the local region. Countermeasures and policy suggestions are given to reduce cropland abandonment.

Historical Agricultural Landforms—Central European Bio-Cultural Heritage Worthy of Attention

Knowledge about past agricultural land management can bring solutions for future needs. One undervalued historical type of historical rural landscape in temperate Europe is termed plužiny. It consists of individual historical agricultural landforms framed by linear woody vegetation. Our multidisciplinary research quantified the distribution of plužiny in Czechia, utilizing archive materials, geographic information systems, and field surveys for verification. Several case studies give merit to the societal relevance of plužiny and justification for their protection and inclusion in landscape planning. We have assessed the contribution of plužiny to secondary geodiversity by describing the landforms morphometrically, using geophysical imaging of their inner structure, and assessing the possible downslope erosive segregation of soil particles. The results of these analyses prove the positive effect of these landscape features on secondary geodiversity and biodiversity at the species level through the process of induced landscape diversification. The results also document management changes during the last 170 years and provide a basis for assessing their present-day endangerment. Although plužiny are less known compared to bocage landscapes of Western Europe, they are similarly valuable. Landscape managers should better recognize the ecological, cultural, and aesthetic values of plužiny as historical agricultural landforms and protect them as a bio-cultural heritage.

Dynamic response relationship between cultivated land marginalisation and rural labour out-migration in mountainous areas in China: evidence from a vector autoregressive model

Understanding the dynamic interaction between cultivated land marginalisation (CLM) and rural labour out-migration (RLM) is vital for the sustainable utilisation of cultivated land, particularly in mountainous areas. Most previous research focused on unilateral CLM or RLM in mountainous areas, with limited research on the dynamic response between these two factors. To address this gap, we identified the characteristics of CLM and analysed the changing trends in RLM in 19 counties of western Hubei Province, China, from 2000 to 2018. The dynamic response relationship between the two phenomena was identified using a vector autoregressive model. CLM showed a volatile trend throughout the study area, with fluctuations most evident during 2004-2007 and 2009-2015. The rural labour population showed an inverted U-shaped trend with an increase during 2003-2015 and a decrease afterward, which is consistent with the trends in socioeconomic development. The dynamic response between the two factors showed large fluctuations in the short term but a stable relationship in the long term. These findings have important implications for differentiated land management, comprehensive land improvement, and rural land use policies and indicate that the added value of agricultural products from mountainous areas should be strengthened.

What Drives Land Abandonment in Core Grain-Producing Areas? Evidence from China

Food security remains a major issue for developing countries. Reducing arable land abandonment (ALA) is crucial to ensuring food security. In China, the ‘decline in both quantity and quality’ of arable land resources, especially in major grain-producing areas, has become increasingly serious. This study uses fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to explore the core conditions and combinations of paths leading to explicit and implicit abandonment using 30 typical cases in the main grain-producing areas of Hubei Province. The results show that (1) three combined pathways lead to explicit ALA (EALA) and that two pathways lead to implicit ALA (IALA); (2) laborer health (LH) is the core condition leading to EALA; and (3) LH, agricultural laborer (AL), per capita income (PCI) and social relationships (SRs) are the core conditions leading to IALA. To effectively alleviate ALA, the government should improve production conditions, pay attention to laborer health issues, improve agricultural returns and strengthen food security publicity and guidance, thereby promoting the rational use of arable land in these areas. The findings in this study link the changes in arable land use and provide a reference for other developing countries in ensuring food security.

Degree of Abandoned Cropland and Socioeconomic Impact Factors in China: Multi-Level Analysis Model Based on the Farmer and District/County Levels

At present, abandoned cropland has become a common phenomenon spreading to countries around the world. China has seen widespread abandoned cropland in recent years. However, there are extremely few empirical studies of cropland abandonment and influencing factors nationwide. In this study, survey data from 8071 farmer households in 14 Chinese provinces were used to analyze the degree of cropland abandonment in China and its spatial distribution. A multi-level model was constructed to quantitatively explore the socioeconomic factors affecting the degree of cropland abandonment, at both the farmer and district/county levels. The results show that: (1) the proportion of farmers and the spatial distribution of abandoned cropland are consistent. (2) Chongqing City, Guangdong Province, and Shanxi Province are high-value areas of abandoned cropland, while Shandong, Liaoning, Henan and Jiangsu provinces are low-value areas. (3) Among the differences in cropland abandonment, 68.5% and 31.5% can be explained at the farmer and district/county level, respectively. (4) At the farmer level, all labor and cropland transfer indicators, including land labor quantity per unit area, male agricultural labor ratio, farmers mainly of middle-aged labor, cropland transfer area and cropland subcontract amount, have significant negative effects on the degree of abandoned cropland. There is a significant negative correlation between the value of agricultural operating fixed assets in the agricultural input indicators and the degree of abandoned cropland, but participation in professional, cooperative, economic, agricultural organizations has no significant impact on the degree of abandoned cropland. The per capita disposable income, which represents the quality of life indicator, has a significant positive impact on the degree of abandoned cropland. (5) At the district/county level, the proportion of the total co-working labor force and the transfer rate of cropland are negatively related to the degree of cropland abandonment, and the proportion of the co-working labor force outside the district/county is positively related to the degree of cropland abandonment. In addition, we briefly analyzed the mechanism and process of cropland abandonment from the perspective of farmers’ decision-making. Finally, the policy suggestions to alleviate the abandonment of cropland were put forward from the district/county and farmer level, respectively.

Characterization of the main land processes occurring in Europe (2000-2018) through a MODIS NDVI seasonal parameter-based procedure

The identification and recognition of the land processes are of vital importance for a proper management of the ecosystem functions and services. However, on-ground land uses/land covers (LULC) characterization is a time-consuming task, often limited to small land areas, which can be solved using remote sensing technologies. The objective of this work is to investigate how the different MODIS NDVI seasonal parameters responded to the main land processes observed in Europe in the 2000-2018 period; characterizing their temporal trend; and evaluating which one reflected better each specific land process. NDVI time-series were evaluated using TIMESAT software, which extracted eight seasonality parameters: amplitude, base value, length of season, maximum value, left and right derivative values and small and large integrated values. These parameters were correlated with the LULC changes derived from COoRdination of INformation on the Environment Land Cover (CLC) for assessing which parameter better characterized each land process. The temporal evolution of the maximum seasonal NDVI was the parameter that better characterized the occurrence of most of the land processes evaluated (afforestation, agriculturalization, degradation, land abandonment, land restoration, urbanization; R² from 0.67-0.97). Large integrated value also presented significant relationships but they were restricted to two of the three evaluated periods. On the contrary, land processes involving CLC categories with similar NDVI patterns were not well captured with the proposed methodology. These results evidenced that this methodology could be combined with other classification methods for improving LULC identification accuracy or for identifying LULC processes in locations where no LULC maps are available. Such information can be used by policy-makers to draw LULC management actions associated with sustainable development goals. This is especially relevant for areas where food security is at stake and where terrestrial ecosystems are threatened by severe biodiversity loss.

Spatial Indicators to Monitor Land Consumption for local Governance in Southern Germany

Land consumption for settlement and infrastructure development has been extensively discussed and analyzed in the last two decades. In Germany, existing governance at the state level seems to hardly foster effective land management at the municipal level to achieve overarching goals at the level of the European Union such as "no net land take". Germany aims to limit land consumption to less than 30 ha per day by 2030. This goal is hardly translated to the municipal level where actual land-use decisions are taken due to the municipal planning sovereignty. In order to address these deficiencies, this study characterizes land consumption in the Nuremberg Metropolitan Region with self-organizing maps and identifies major factors explaining cluster differences using boosted regression trees. We identified four major clusters: booming, prosperous, moderate, and transition regions. Generally, beneficial demographics (population growth and lower old-age dependency ratio) and financial power of municipalities come at the expense of considerable settlement and traffic infrastructure development (i.e., increased land consumption), creating the impression of a rather unregulated market despite the existing planning framework in Germany. Based on these clusters, we developed an indicator set through a participatory process to improve land-use planning following three dimensions: efficient land use, preservation of cultural landscapes and its services, and fostering the regional added value of agricultural products beyond the current local political focus. Future research should assess whether municipalities with better information will reduce land consumption due to increased awareness.

Five Ways of Characterizing Agricultural Land Use Dynamics and Abandonment from Subsidy Data

Abandonment of agricultural land is a process described from different regions of many industrialized countries. Given the current focus on land use, land use change and food security, it appears highly relevant to develop improved tools to identify and monitor the dynamics of agricultural land abandonment. In particular, the temporal aspect of abandonment needs to be assessed and discussed. In this study, we used the detailed information available through the Norwegian subsidy claim database and analyzed the history of use of unique land parcels through a fourteen-year period. We developed and tested five different statistics identifying these land parcels, their temporal dynamics and the extent of occurrence. What became apparent was that a large number of land parcels existing in the database as agricultural land were taken out of production, but then entered into production again at a later stage. We believe that this approach to describe the temporal dynamics of land abandonment, including how it can be measured and mapped, may contribute to the understanding of the dynamics in land abandonment, and thus also contribute to an improved understanding of the food production system.

Spatial ecology of conflicts: unravelling patterns of wildlife damage at multiple scales

Human encroachment into natural habitats is typically followed by conflicts derived from wildlife damage to agriculture and livestock. Spatial risk modelling is a useful tool to gain the understanding of wildlife damage and mitigate conflicts. Although resource selection is a hierarchical process operating at multiple scales, risk models usually fail to address more than one scale, which can result in the misidentification of the underlying processes. Here, we addressed the multi-scale nature of wildlife damage occurrence by considering ecological and management correlates interacting from household to landscape scales. We studied brown bear (Ursus arctos) damage to apiaries in the North-eastern Carpathians as our model system. Using generalized additive models, we found that brown bear tendency to avoid humans and the habitat preferences of bears and beekeepers determine the risk of bear damage at multiple scales. Damage risk at fine scales increased when the broad landscape context also favoured damage. Furthermore, integrated-scale risk maps resulted in more accurate predictions than single-scale models. Our results suggest that principles of resource selection by animals can be used to understand the occurrence of damage and help mitigate conflicts in a proactive and preventive manner.

Habitat heterogeneity helps to mitigate pollinator nectar sugar deficit and discontinuity in an agricultural landscape

The scarcity of floral resources and their seasonal discontinuity are considered as major factors for pollinator decline in intensified agricultural landscapes worldwide. The consequences are detrimental for the stability of the environment and ecosystems. Here, we quantified the production of nectar sugars in plant species occurring in man-made, non-cropped areas (non-forest woody vegetation, road verges, railway embankments, field margins, fallow areas) of an agricultural landscape in SE Poland. We also assessed changes in the availability of sugar resources both in space (habitat and landscape scales) and in time (throughout the flowering season), and checked to what extent the sugar demands of honeybees and bumblebees are met at the landscape scale. At landscape-level, 37.6% of the available sugar resources are produced in man-made, non-cropped habitats, while 32.6% and 15.0% of sugars derive from winter rape crops and forest vegetation, respectively. Nectar sugar supplies vary greatly between man-made, non-cropped habitat types/sub-types. These areas are characterized by a high richness of nectar-producing species. However, a predominant role in total sugar resources is ascribable to a few species. Strong fluctuations in nectar resources are recorded throughout the flowering season. March and June are periods with food shortages. Abundant nectar sugars are generally found in April-May, mainly due to the mass flowering of nectar-yielding species in the forests, meadows/pastures and orchards/rapeseed crops. Heterogeneity of man-made, non-cropped habitats is essential to support the supply of July-October nectar sugars for honeybees and bumblebees. Reduced flowering in man-made non-cropped habitats can generate serious food deficiencies, as from summer towards the end of the flowering season >90% of sugars are provided by the flora of these areas. Therefore, highly nectar-yielding plant species that flower during periods of expected food shortages should be a priority for conservation and restoration programs.

Analysis of spatiotemporal changes of agricultural land after the Second World War in Czechia

The term Sudetenland refers to large regions of the former Czechoslovakia that had been dominated by Germans. German population was expelled directly after the Second World War, between 1945 and 1947. Almost three million people left large areas in less than two years. This population change led to a break in the relationship between the people and the landscape. The aim of the study is to compare the trajectories of these changes in agricultural landscapes in lower and higher altitudes, both in depopulated areas and areas with preserved populations. This study included ten sites in the region of Northern Bohemia in Czechia (18,000 ha in total). Five of these sites represent depopulated areas, and the other five areas where populations remained preserved. Changes in the landscape were assessed through a bi-temporal analysis of land use change by using aerial photograph data from time hoirzons of 2018 and 1953. Land use changes from the 1950s to the present are corroborated in the studied depopulated and preserved areas mainly by the trajectory of agricultural land to forest. The results prove that both population displacement and landscape type are important factors that affect landscape changes, especially in agricultural landscapes.

Agricultural Land Abandonment in the Hill Agro-ecological Region of Nepal: Analysis of Extent, Drivers and Impact of Change

Despite widely reported trends of agricultural land abandonment across many parts of the globe, this land use change phenomenon is relatively new in the context of Nepal. In recent years, rural farming communities in the hill region are gradually reducing the intensity of farming, leading to underutilisation and abandonment of agricultural lands. Adopting a mixed methods research approach, this study investigated the extent of agricultural land abandonment, its underlying causal drivers and perceived impacts in the hill agro-ecological region of Nepal. A structured survey of 374 households and six focus group discussions were carried out in three districts. The study revealed that around 40% of agricultural lands in the hill agro-ecological region have been abandoned and 60% of farmers have left at least one parcel of agricultural land abandoned. It was found that biophysical drivers (distance from homestead to parcel, slope of the parcel, land fragmentation, land quality and irrigation availability) and socio-demographic drivers (family size, higher education of the household members, domestic migration and out-migration) were responsible for agricultural land abandonment. Negative impacts of land abandonment were observed on the rural landscape, human-made farm structures, socio-economic systems, local food production and food security. In line with global studies, this research suggest that marginal land quality, demographic changes and rising alternative economic opportunities elsewhere contribute to farmland abandonment. This study also discusses land management approaches and policy implications to address the issue of agricultural land abandonment.

Livelihood Capital and Land Transfer of Different Types of Farmers: Evidence from Panel Data in Sichuan Province, China

Farmers’ livelihood and land have been the focus of academic and political attention for a long time. In the process of rapid urbanization in China, as farmers change their livelihood strategies and livelihood capital allocation driven by economic interests, farmland abandonment increases, which is not conducive to the guarantee of food security. This study aims to explore the characteristics of livelihood capital and land transfer of farmers under different livelihood strategies and the effect of livelihood capital on land transfer. Based on the data obtained from Sichuan Province in 2012, 2016 and 2019 by the China Rural Development Survey Group, this paper divides farmers into pure farmers, part-time farmers and non-farmers according to the proportion of non-agricultural income in total income, and constructed the panel binary Logit model and panel Tobit model. The analysis points to the following results: (1) pure farmers tend to shift other capitals toward natural capital, so their livelihood capital total index value decreased. The part-time farmers have different shift characteristics but their livelihood capital total index value both increased first and then decreased. Non-farmers tend to shift natural capital towards other livelihood capitals, so their livelihood capital total index value increased. (2) The higher the natural capital and human capital, the higher the probability of land transfers in. The higher the natural capital, the larger the area of land transfers in. The higher the financial capital, the higher the probability of land transfers out. The higher the financial capital and social capital, the larger the area of land transfers out. It is expected to provide suggestions for the policy of farmers’ land transfer under different livelihood capital endowments.

20 years of landscape dynamics within the world's largest multinational network of protected areas

The world's largest network of protected areas (PAs), Natura 2000, is facing different types of disturbances and pressures, however, it still remains unclear the impact they have on the conservation status of sites. Remote sensing big data analysis and satellite data were used to quantify dynamics of the dominant land cover category, landscape structure, and vegetation greenness, as indicators of conservation status, as well as drivers of change, between 2000 and 2018, within each Natura 2000 protected area, across the entire European Union. Our results show that the majority of sites are 'favourable' on natural land cover range and areas, but heading to 'unfavourable' status regarding the landscape structure, while an alarmingly high number of sites experience both net loss of the dominant land cover type and degradation of landscape structure, labeled consequently as having an 'unfavourable' conservation status. The results also showed high differences between biogeographic regions and countries, with an extremely low number of sites suffering dramatic changes to other dominant land cover types, mainly among grasslands. Mediterranean region showed a high net forest increase (mainly extension of existing forests) as well as insignificant changes of landscape fragmentation and diversity (predominantly in Greece, Spain and, Italy), related to the intensification of forest planting, and to a high loss of grassland area and cropland (land abandonment). High net forest gain, but increasing landscape fragmentation, was observed in the Continental region (mainly in Bulgaria, Poland, Germany and, Italy), suggesting that forest developed in numerous new smaller patches, due to the development of invasive species through natural processes (agricultural land abandonment) and natural system modifications. The Alpine region also showed a low positive net forest change, but with significant dynamics of gains due to reducing of agricultural activities and human disturbances, and losses due to natural catastrophes such as natural fires, storms, avalanches or landslides. Contrarily, the Boreal and Atlantic regions recorded considerable net forest loss during the analyzed period, caused mainly by the occurrence of natural catastrophes, natural biotic and abiotic processes (erosion, parasitism, diseases), and the increase of forestry clearance. These results show the high potential of moderate resolution remote sensing big data in assessing PAs, even more as higher spatial and temporal resolution satellite data are continuously emerging.

Mapping abandoned farmland in China using time series MODIS NDVI

Farmland abandonment is an important aspect of land cover land use (LCLU) that has both positive and negative effects on the environment. There is limited information regarding the spatial distribution of abandoned farmland in China. In this study, we 1) use a C5.0 decision tree classification based on a 250 m spatial resolution Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series to develop LCLU maps for the period 2000-2017; 2) produce time series maps of the abandoned farmland during the period 2002-2017 based on LCLU maps; and 3) analyze spatial distribution, intensity, trend, frequency, and recultivation in terms of farmland abandonment. The results show that the overall accuracy of the LCLU maps ranged from 85.45% to 90.56% over the study period (2002-2017). The average national rate of farmland abandonment was 5% over the period 2002-2017, with the lowest rate in 2002 and the highest in 2015. Approximately 60% of the 34 agricultural areas in China showed an increasing trend for abandonment including some of the main grain-producing areas such as the North China Plain and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Abandoned farmland areas with an abandonment frequency of ≤ 3 y comprised 58.24% of the total area of abandoned farmland. The first map detailing the distribution of the abandoned farmland across China was produced in this study, providing guidance for the development of a method of identifying abandoned farmland on a large spatial scale.

Modelling agricultural land abandonment in a fine spatial resolution multi-level land-use model: An application for the EU

In the majority of EU Member States, agricultural land is expected to decrease not only due to land-use changes in favour of urban expansion and afforestation but also to land abandonment processes. The knowledge on location and extent of agricultural land abandonment is relevant for estimating local external effects and adapting policy interventions. Currently, multi-level land-use models are able to capture determined processes of demand-driven redevelopment. However, land abandonment is much more difficult to capture because of its more ambiguous definition and the lack of data on its spatial distribution. This paper presents a method to explicitly model agricultural abandonment as a choice of disinvestment, which in turn is embedded in a utility-based land-use modelling framework that projects land-use changes for the EU and the UK. Validation exercises using observed spatial distribution of abandoned farmland show that the proposed method allows to model abandonment with acceptable accuracy.

Identifying Agricultural Frontiers for Modeling Global Cropland Expansion

The increasing expansion of cropland is major driver of global carbon emissions and biodiversity loss. However, predicting plausible future global distributions of croplands remains challenging. Here, we show that, in general, existing global data aligned with classical economic theories of expansion explain the current (1992) global extent of cropland reasonably well, but not recent expansion (1992-2015). Deviations from models of cropland extent in 1992 ("frontierness") can be used to improve global models of recent expansion, most likely as these deviations are a proxy for cropland expansion under frontier conditions where classical economic theories of expansion are less applicable. Frontierness is insensitive to the land cover dataset used and is particularly effective in improving models that include mosaic land cover classes and the largely smallholder-driven frontier expansion occurring in such areas. Our findings have important implications as the frontierness approach offers a straightforward way to improve global land use change models.

Abandonment and Recultivation of Agricultural Lands in Slovakia—Patterns and Determinants from the Past to the Future

Central and Eastern Europe has experienced fundamental land use changes since the collapse of socialism around 1990. We analyzed the patterns and determinants of agricultural land abandonment and recultivation in Slovakia during the transition from a state-controlled economy to an open-market economy (1986 to 2000) and the subsequent accession to the European Union (2000 to 2010). We quantified agricultural land-use change based on available maps derived from 30-m multi-seasonal Landsat imagery and analyzed the socioeconomic and biophysical determinants of the observed agricultural land-use changes using boosted regression trees. We used a scenario-based approach to assess future agricultural land abandonment and recultivation until 2060. The maps of agricultural land use analysis reveal that cropland abandonment was the dominant land use process on 11% of agricultural land from 1986 to 2000, and on 6% of the agricultural land from 2000 to 2010. Recultivation occurred on approximately 2% of agricultural land in both periods. Although most abandoned land was located in the plains, the rate of abandonment was twice as high in the mountainous landscapes. The likelihood of abandonment increased with increased distance from the national capital (Bratislava), decreased with an increase of annual mean temperatures and was higher in proximity to forest edges and on steeper slopes. Recultivation was largely determined by the opposite effects. The scenario for 2060 suggests that future agricultural land abandonment and recultivation may largely be determined by climate and terrain conditions and, to a lesser extent, by proximity to economic centers. Our study underscores the value of synergetic use of satellite data and land-use modeling to provide the input for land planning, and to anticipate the potential effects of changing environmental and policy conditions.

Farmland abandonment and its determinants in the different ecological villages of the Koshi river basin, central Himalayas: Synergy of high-resolution remote sensing and social surveys

Globally, there is a noticeable increasing trend in farmland abandonment, which directly affects farmers' livelihood and food security. The abandonment status, its determinants and impact vary by spatial and socioeconomic context. In order to study this important issue, we selected three different villages representing three ecological regions (Mountain, Hill, and Tarai) in the Koshi River Basin (KRB), and applied two methods: the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and a social survey. The UAV captured 3711 images and we carried out 162 households' survey with structured questionnaires. Pix4Dmapper and ArcGIS tools were used for combining and processing the images. On-screen digitalization and binary logistic regression (BLR) were applied to examine the status and determinants of farmland abandonment. The results show a higher proportion of farmland abandonment in the villages located in the Hill and Mountain regions compared to those in the Tarai region. Almost 10.3% area of total land and 22.3% area of total farmland was abandoned in the Hill village. The Tarai village had the least farm abandonment (3.7%). Farmers perceived that climate change (less precipitation, increasing temperatures, and drought), shifting occupations, crops damaged by wildlife, migration, lack of irrigation, and a labor shortage are the leading determinants of farmland abandonment. These factors varied slightly across the different ecological regions. The BLR model was a good fit with Nagelkerke's R² = 0.776, with a correct model prediction (87.7%) and p = 0.032. The results from the regression model suggest that an increase in temperature (p = 0.000), decrease in rainfall (p = 0.001), lack of machinery used for farm-work (p = 0.000), lack of irrigation (p = 0.000), and reduction of labor-force (p = 0.000) are the main contributing determinants of farmland abandonment. This synergy of high-resolution remote sensing and farmers' perception-based findings facilitates the improvement of land-use governmental policies to improve farmers' quality of life and build sustainable farmland management.

An inverted U-shaped curve relating farmland vulnerability to biological disasters: Implications for sustainable intensification in China

Sustainable farmland intensification is necessary in order to harmonize relationships between food security, socioeconomic development, and ecological civilization. However, the degradation of farmland sustainability because of biological disasters represents a major challenge if we are to achieve this intensification. Our understanding of farmland vulnerability to biological disasters (FVBD) remains relatively rudimentary and subjective, limiting its effectiveness as a tool for farmland sustainability analysis. Limited research has also been carried out on FVBD changes taking into account human decisions on farmland use. The aim of this study is to achieve a novel understanding of FVBD change and its implications for sustainable intensification using evidence from Chinese farmland use. A theoretical framework based on an inverted U-shaped curve that depicts FVBD as well as an assessment framework for FVBD were established using induced substitution of agricultural production. Across China and considering 15 provincial districts with scarce farmland, the relationship between FVBD and socio-economic development was identified as consistent with an inverted U-shaped curve at both national and provincial levels. FVBD values in 2016 across Southern China, on the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, and on the middle-lower Yangtze Plain were 45.44, 40.58, and 37.22, respectively. These values also decreased in provinces on the middle-lower Yangtze Plain between 1995 and 2016, but increased markedly across provinces in Southern China and on the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain. Contributions to FVBD changes during stages of growth and decline were also analyzed between 1995 and 2016. An inverted U-shaped curve was effective in investigating the responses of farmland sustainability to a range of alternative future socioeconomic development pathways. Thus, in the Chinese settings, a typical country with scarce farmland, policies on FVBD control are essential if we are to promote sustainable farmland intensification. The findings of this work are important and present us with a new way to understand FVBD from a human perspective.

Drivers of land-use changes in societies with decreasing populations: A comparison of the factors affecting farmland abandonment in a food production area in Japan

The extraordinary population growth of the 20^th century will subside in the 21^st century, followed by depopulation, constituting the first population decline phase in human history in Japan and other developed countries. The drivers of land-use change during the population decline phase are expected to differ from those of the population growth phase; however, research on land-use drivers during the decline phase is limited. Identifying these drivers is necessary to develop effective management plans for biodiversity and ecosystem services in the decline phase. First, we calculated the probability of farmland abandonment in Hokkaido, a Japanese food production area, from 1973–2009 and divided the period into the population growth phase (1978–1997) and the decline phase (1997–2009). We examined various geographical and social factors that were assumed to alter the land use during these two phases. Geographical and social conditions are key factors in determining the probability of farmland abandonment, but their influences varied between the two phases. The farmlands located on geographically uncultivable sites, such as marginal, underproductive, narrow, and steep land, were abandoned during these phases; however, social conditions, such as the distance from densely inhabited districts (DIDs) and the population, exerted opposite effects during these two phases. Farmland abandonment occurred near DIDs (i.e., urban areas) during the population growth phase, whereas farmland abandonment occurred far from DIDs and sparsely populated farmlands during the decline phase. Farmland abandonment was strongly affected by government policy during the population growth phase, but the policy weakened during the decline phase, which triggered farmland abandonment throughout Hokkaido. The geographical and social drivers found in the present study may provide new insights for other developed countries experiencing depopulation problems.

Cost-effectiveness of the common agricultural policy and environmental policy in country districts: Spatial spillovers of pollution, bio-uniformity and green schemes in Poland

A significant part of the common agricultural policy (CAP) focuses on implementing environmentally friendly practices, which have been evaluated in many studies. However, these analyses do not usually consider spatial spillovers that may concern pollution and biodiversity, as well as participation in policy schemes. Most studies evaluate national environmental policies at the macroeconomic level, focusing on cities. However, the majority of natural resources are in rural districts, and environmental policy is mainly implemented at the local level, where most of the budgets for environmental protection are decided. Thus, in this paper, our first objective is to assess the cost-effectiveness of Poland's environmental policy schemes, combining local expenditures at the county level with the CAP's green schemes. Additionally, we investigate the spatial (neighbourhood) effects of environment quality and the policy, as well as their mutual interactions. First, the environmental quality at the county level is proxied by the composite environmental quality index (CEQI); second, the Spatial Durbin Model (SDM) with endogenous covariates is estimated. Third, the interactions among the policy's spatial effects are explored using the structural equation model (SEM). We find that the CAP's green component not only positively affects the environmental quality in the long term but also generates positive spillovers that have been hitherto underestimated.

The Price of Farmland as a Factor in the Sustainable Development of Czech Agriculture (A Case Study)

Each year, around 2% of the four million hectares of farmland in Czechia changes owners. However, after years of significant growth in prices, a slowdown in pace and demand is expected. Rising interest rates, a strengthening of the crown and legislative changes in 2018 have influenced the price of farmland. Yet the prices of farmland in Czechia are a third of those in the countries of Western Europe, and so it still represents an interesting opportunity for investors. Currently, land is bought primarily by the farmers who work it. In Czechia, 80% of farmers farm on hired land, and rent increases are starting to be an issue for many of them. The return on the investment in agricultural land is currently around 50 years for an owner and 25 years for a farmer working the land. As research has shown, the price of farmland is an important factor in the sustainable development of agriculture in Czechia, along with the greening of production and the fight against soil erosion and the effects of climate change.

Intensity and Driving Forces of Land Abandonment in Eastern Poland

Agricultural land is an important natural resource and forms the basis for food production. Global and local socio-economic and environmental changes are often the driving forces of changes in land cover and land use. Land abandonment in rural areas is one of the processes observed in Europe today and usually leads to increased afforestation. The intensity of this process in Central Europe is linked to the political and economic changes that took place at the end of the 20th century. The study objective was to identify the natural and socio-economic factors of this process in Lublin Province—a major region of agricultural production in Poland. From 1990 to 2018, over 130,000 ha were excluded from agricultural use, which represents 7% of the arable land in 1990. Land abandonment showed considerable spatial differences when comparing different counties: its magnitude ranged from 4% to 13% of the county area. At the same time, due to the specific type of land use in the province (small farm holdings divided into several fields), the intensity of land abandonment was underestimated when based on overview data (CORINE). It was observed that the intensity of this process was correlated with the natural conditions (topography, soils) for agricultural production and the socio-economic characteristics (area of arable land, forest cover changes, farm size) of the counties as well as the absorption of Common Agricultural Policy funds.

Topography and human pressure in mountain ranges alter expected species responses to climate change

Climate change is leading to widespread elevational shifts thought to increase species extinction risk in mountains. We integrate digital elevation models with a metric of human pressure to examine changes in the amount of intact land area available for species undergoing elevational range shifts in all major mountain ranges globally (n = 1010). Nearly 60% of mountainous area is under intense human pressure, predominantly at low elevations and mountain bases. Consequently, upslope range shifts generally resulted in modeled species at lower elevations expanding into areas of lower human pressure and, due to complex topography, encountering more intact land area relative to their starting position. Such gains were often attenuated at high elevations as land-use constraints diminished and topographic constraints increased. Integrating patterns of topography and human pressure is essential for accurate species vulnerability assessments under climate change, as priorities for protecting, connecting, and restoring mountain landscapes may otherwise be misguided.

It is often assumed that many species will move upslope in mountainous regions as the climate warms. However, the authors show here that as many species move to higher elevations they will enter areas of lower human footprint but potentially more constraining topography.

An Assessment and Spatial Modelling of Agricultural Land Abandonment in Spain (2015–2030)

This article presents a study based on the outputs from the LUISA Territorial modelling platform (Joint Research Centre of the European Commission) focused on regional and local future projections of land abandonment between 2015 and 2030. Spain is taken as representative of one of the countries highly affected by agricultural land abandonment in the European Union. The most relevant factors driving land abandonment (biophysical, agroeconomics, farm structure and demographic) are described and mapped. Results from the analysis reveal that the Galicia region, northern Spain (Asturias, Cantabria, Gipuzkoa, Bizkaia), north-eastern Spain (Aragón region), central Pyrenees/Ebro basin (Huesca, Navarra, Lleida) and south-eastern Spain (Murcia, Almería, Alicante, Málaga) are expected to undergo important abandonment processes. The study also concludes that land abandonment within mountainous, high nature value farmland and Natura 2000 areas is lower compared to the outside area without conservation and protection measures.

Determinants of Land Use/Cover Change in the Iberian Peninsula (1990–2012) at Municipal Level

This work analyzes the determinants associated with main land use/cover changes in the Iberian Peninsula during the 1990–2012 period using a decision tree model. Our main objective is to identify broad-scale patterns that associate the characteristics of geographic areas with the dominant land use/cover change process based on CORINE Land Cover (Coordination of Information on the Environment) and defined in a previously published work. Biophysical, structural and socioeconomic variables were considered as potentially explanatory of the dominant change process at municipal scale. The resulting model allowed identification of a common pattern in Portugal and Spain (urbanization being highly associated to areas already densely populated in the previous period), but also some diverging ones. In particular, dominant trends in Portuguese territory appear to be highly determined by wildfire occurrence. In contrast, Spanish municipalities showed more diverse patterns, usually associated to biophysical determinants like average forest productivity or average terrain slope.

Outmigration and Land-Use Change: A Case Study from the Middle Hills of Nepal

Outmigration has become a key livelihood strategy for an increasing number of rural households, which in turn has a profound effect on land management. Studies to date have mainly focused on migrant households, and there is limited literature on the differences in land management practices of migrant and nonmigrant households. This article drew on a current study to explore how outmigration affects land management practices in the context of rapidly changing rural communities and economics in the middle hills of Nepal. The data were collected in Lamjung District in western Nepal using a mixed-method approach. We found that underutilization of farmland is a more prominent phenomenon than land abandonment, with rural communities moving to less intensive farming. Importantly, the increasing underutilization of farmland is not just occurring among migrant households. There are a range of complex factors which influence land-use decisions and the subsequent outcomes for landscapes. A high risk of food insecurity in Nepal is likely to be exacerbated if the current trajectory of underutilization and abandonment of farmland continues. A suite of policy tools that can be selectively applied depending on the local context may be more effective than broad-brush national policies in tackling the underlying causes faced by rural communities.

Dynamics of Runoff and Soil Erosion on Abandoned Steep Vineyards in the Mosel Area, Germany

The Mosel Wine region has suffered during the last decades a decrease in productive area, mostly on steep sloping vineyards. To avoid the spread of diseases, the extraction of grapevines on abandoned vineyards is mandatory in Rhineland-Palatinate. At the same time, the organic production of wine is growing slowly, but well established in the area. We assess in this paper the degree of the land-use changes, as well as their effect on runoff generation and sediment production, depending on the age of the abandonment, as well as the type and age of the land management, whether organic or conventional. Land use data were obtained to identify land-use change dynamics. For assessment of runoff generation and soil erosion, we applied rainfall simulation experiments on the different types of vineyard management. These were organically managed, conventionally managed and abandoned ones, all of varying ages. During the last decades of the last century, a decrease of around 30% of vineyard surface could be observed in Germany’s Mosel Wine Region, affecting mostly the steep sloping vineyards. Despite a high variability within the types of vineyard management, the results show higher runoff generation, and soil erosion associated with recently installed or abandoned vineyards when compared to organic management of the vineyards, where erosion reached only 12%. In organic management, runoff and erosion are also reduced considerably, less than 16%, after a decade or more. Thus, organic vineyard management practices show to be very efficient for reduction of runoff and erosion. Consequently, we recommend to adopt as far as possible these soil management practices for sustainable land management of steep sloping vineyards. In addition, soil protection measures are highly recommended for vineyard abandonment according to the law.

Power of Agricultural Credit in Farmland Abandonment: Evidence from Rural China

Labor, land, and funds are keys to revitalizing rural areas around the world. Previous studies have focused on the impacts of funds on agricultural production, but placed little emphasis on its role in agricultural land-use transformation. Thus, this study explores the quantitative relationship between agricultural credit and farmland abandonment from the perspective of rural revitalization. Using data on 8031 households from 27 provinces obtained from China’s Labor Force Dynamics Survey (CLDS), this study uses a Tobit model to examine the quantitative impacts of informal and formal agricultural credit on farmland abandonment. The results indicate that: (1) Access to agricultural credit helps to reduce farmland abandonment. (2) Compared with formal agricultural credit (provided by institutions), informal agricultural credit (provided by family and friends) is more significant in reducing farmland abandonment. Thus, this study enhances our understanding of the relationship between agricultural credit and farmland use. It will also prompt policymakers to improve rural financial markets in order to reduce the misallocation of farmland resources, thereby improving food security and rural economies.

The Availability of Non-Timber Forest Products under Forest Succession on Abandoned Fields along the Wild Coast, South Africa

Large swathes of arable fields have been abandoned in many areas of the world over the last few decades driven by a multitude of local and broader-scale factors. Many former fields experience a change in vegetation composition and structure post-abandonment, typically through a process of plant succession. The changes in species and abundance mean that the nature and quantity of ecosystem services provided by the former fields also varies. We examined the types of provisioning services obtained from non-timber forest products (NTFPs) with increasing age since field abandonment. We sampled 43 former fields ranging in age since abandonment from approximately 7 to 55 years, and seven plots in intact forests. We held seven focus group discussions with local residents to determine uses of species found in the former fields. Plant cover and species richness increased with former field age, although old field community composition was also influenced by soil chemistry. Of the 177 species recorded, 70 (40%) had one or more uses, spanning six NTFP categories namely, food, building, medicinal, craft, cultural and energy. The number of NTFP species increased with increasing age of the former field, but the proportion of NTFP species declined from 80% in the youngest former fields to 65% in the oldest ones, which were similar to the 63% recorded within intact forests. The youngest former fields had more medicinal species than the older ones, as the abundance and diversity of herbaceous species declined with increasing woody plant cover. Species used for building and food (especially fruits) peaked when the former fields became dominated by woody plants. NTFPs used for craft were most abundant in the oldest sites.

Mountain Arable Land Abandonment (1968–2018) in the Romanian Carpathians: Environmental Conflicts and Sustainability Issues

The agricultural mountain landscape in the Romanian Carpathians follows the same change trend in other European mountains, from variety and individuality to simplification and uniformization. Our paper proposes two complementary case studies from the Southern Carpathians—Poiana Mărului and Fundata, representative areas for the entire Carpathian ecoregion. The research focuses on a remote sensing approach with Corona KH-4B (1968) and Planet Scope (2018) images at 2.0–3.0 m resolution used for mapping arable plots pattern and size change. Landscape transformation modelling is focused on four-hectare sampled grid for both case study areas, followed by a landscape metric analysis. Fundata area is the most transformed, where arable plots disappeared under the service-based economy pressure. Poiana Mărului shows an earlier stage of landscape transformation, where the arable land abandonment process is incipient. The spatial and statistical analysis and field survey confirmed that tourism changed the traditional agricultural landscape, generating potential environmental conflicts and indicating the sustainability degree.

A Review of the Application of Remote Sensing Data for Abandoned Agricultural Land Identification with Focus on Central and Eastern Europe

This study aims to analyze and assess studies published from 1992 to 2019 and listed in the Web of Science (WOS) and Current Contents (CC) databases, and to identify agricultural abandonment by application of remote sensing (RS) optical and microwave data. We selected 73 studies by applying structured queries in a field tag form and Boolean operators in the WOS portal and by expert analysis. An expert assessment yielded the topical picture concerning the definitions and criteria for the identification of abandoned agricultural land (AAL). The analysis also showed the absence of similar field research, which serves not only for validation, but also for understanding the process of agricultural abandonment. The benefit of the fusion of optical and radar data, which supports the application of Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 data, is also evident. Knowledge attained from the literary sources indicated that there exists, in the world literature, a well-covered problem of abandonment identification or biomass estimation, as well as missing works dealing with the assessment of the natural accretion of biomass in AAL.

Status of Farmland Abandonment and Its Determinants in the Transboundary Gandaki River Basin

Farmland abandonment is a common phenomenon worldwide, including in the Gandaki River Basin (GRB) in the central Himalayas. This study examined the status of farmland abandonment, along with its trends and determinants, based primarily on interviews with 639 households in different physiographic regions: Mountain, Hill, Tarai and Gangetic Plain (GP). Binary logistic regression was used to examine the contributions of various factors of farmland abandonment. The results indicate that nearly 48%, 15%, 4%, and 16% of total farmland (khet and bari) in the Mountain, Hill, Tarai and GP regions, respectively, has been abandoned. Such differences in the proportion of farmland abandonment among the regions are mainly due to variations in biophysical conditions, agricultural productivity, access to infrastructure facilities, off-farm employment opportunities, and the occurrence of natural hazards. The major determinants for farmland abandonment were also found to vary within the region. Distance from market centers to residence, reduction in the labor force as a result of migration, and household head age were found to be significant factors in farmland abandonment in the Mountain region. Similarly, in the Hill region, eight significant factors were identified: distance from market centers to residence, distance from residence to farmland, lack of irrigation facilities (p = 0.004), reduction in labor force (p = 0.000), household head occupation, lack of training for household head and size of bari land. Household head occupation and household head age were found to play significant roles for farmland abandonment in the Tarai region. In the GP region, distance to market centers and lack of irrigation facilities had positive relationships with farmland abandonment. It is suggested that specific policies addressing the differences in physiographic region, such as horticulture and agroforestry for the Mountain and Hill regions and crop diversification and the adaptation of drought tolerant species with improvement in irrigation systems for the GP region, need to be formulated and implemented in order to utilize the abandoned farmland and have environmental, economic, and sustainable benefits.

Wall-to-wall parcel-level mapping of agricultural land abandonment in the Polish Carpathians

Accurate estimations of the extent of agricultural land abandonment (ALA) are critical to the sustainable management of agricultural resources and forestry, the understanding of ALA determinants, and the development of future agricultural policies. Although ALA is widespread in Europe, mapping it over large areas using remote sensing data is difficult as a result of the complexity of this phenomenon. This study aims to develop methods for a detailed wall-to-wall regional-scale mapping of ALA using vegetation height and secondary forest succession indicators. The rates and distribution of ALA were analyzed at the parcel and communal level in the Polish Carpathians using a high-resolution vegetation height model (VHM) derived from Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) point clouds and topographic data. Depending on the parcel-level secondary forest succession threshold (10, 20, and 50%), the regional ALA rates were 18.8, 9.0, and 2.1%, respectively. Regardless of the threshold, abandoned grasslands covered about three times more area than abandoned croplands. The highest ALA rates were observed in communes located in the western part of the study area, as well as east and south of Rzeszów. We found that areas receiving European Union Common Agricultural Policy payments very rarely showed signs of secondary forest succession and land abandonment. The developed method proved to be effective for detailed ALA mapping at various spatial scales.

Climatic and socioeconomic effects on land cover changes across Europe: Does protected area designation matter?

Land cover change is a dynamic phenomenon driven by synergetic biophysical and socioeconomic effects. It involves massive transitions from natural to less natural habitats and thereby threatens ecosystems and the services they provide. To retain intact ecosystems and reduce land cover change to a minimum of natural transition processes, a dense network of protected areas has been established across Europe. However, even protected areas and in particular the zones around protected areas have been shown to undergo land cover changes. The aim of our study was to compare land cover changes in protected areas, non-protected areas, and 1 km buffer zones around protected areas and analyse their relationship to climatic and socioeconomic factors across Europe between 2000 and 2012 based on earth observation data. We investigated land cover flows describing major change processes: urbanisation, afforestation, deforestation, intensification of agriculture, extensification of agriculture, and formation of water bodies. Based on boosted regression trees, we modelled correlations between land cover flows and climatic and socioeconomic factors. The results show that land cover changes were most frequent in 1 km buffer zones around protected areas (3.0% of all buffer areas affected). Overall, land cover changes within protected areas were less frequent than outside, although they still amounted to 18,800 km² (1.5% of all protected areas) from 2000 to 2012. In some parts of Europe, urbanisation and intensification of agriculture still accounted for up to 25% of land cover changes within protected areas. Modelling revealed meaningful relationships between land cover changes and a combination of influencing factors. Demographic factors (accessibility to cities and population density) were most important for coarse-scale patterns of land cover changes, whereas fine-scale patterns were most related to longitude (representing the general east/west economic gradient) and latitude (representing the north/south climatic gradient).

Impact of Farmland Abandonment on Water Resources and Soil Conservation in Citrus Plantations in Eastern Spain

Due to the reduction in the prices of oranges on the market and social changes such as the ageing of the population, traditional orange plantation abandonment in the Mediterranean is taking place. Previous research on land abandonment impact on soil and water resources has focused on rainfed agriculture abandonment, but there is no research on irrigated land abandonment. In the Valencia Region—the largest producer of oranges in Europe—abandonment is resulting in a quick vegetation recovery and changes in soil properties, and then in water erosion. Therefore, we performed rainfall simulation experiments (0.28 m2; 38.8 mm h−1) to determine the soil losses in naveline orange plantations with different ages of abandonment (1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 10 years of abandonment) which will allow for an understanding of the temporal changes in soil and water losses after abandonment. Moreover, these results were also compared with an active plantation (0). The results show that the soils of the active orange plantations have higher runoff discharges and higher erosion rates due to the use of herbicides than the plots after abandonment. Once the soil is abandoned for one year, the plant recovery reaches 33% of the cover and the erosion rate drops one order of magnitude. This is related to the delay in the runoff generation and the increase in infiltration rates. After 2, 3, 5, 7 and 10 years, the soil reduced bulk density, increase in organic matter, plant cover, and soil erosion rates were found negligible. We conclude that the abandonment of orange plantations reduces soil and water losses and can serve as a nature-based solution to restore the soil services, goods, and resources. The reduction in the soil losses was exponential (from 607.4 g m−2 in the active plot to 7.1 g m−2 in the 10-year abandoned one) but the water losses were linear (from 77.2 in active plantations till 12.8% in the 10-year abandoned ones).

Cropland Use Transitions and Their Driving Factors in Poverty-Stricken Counties of Western Hubei Province, China

Agriculture is important for economic development in most poverty-stricken areas in China, but cropland use is facing challenges due to rapid industrialization and urbanization, causing serious issues for poverty alleviation and sustainable socioeconomic development. Cropland Use Transition (CUT) is one way to alleviate poverty and develop the economy in poverty-stricken areas. This paper chose 16 typical poverty-stricken counties in Western Hubei province as the case area. A morphology index system was established to evaluate CUT, and geographic information system software was used to analyze the temporal-spatial variations in CUT. Using the Radial Basis Function Neural Network (RBFNN) model, contributions of driving factors of population, economy, and industrial structure to CUT were analyzed. The results show that: (1) cropland use morphology can be divided into functional morphology and spatial morphology; (2) the spatial distribution of CUT was high in the north and low in the south, the temporal variation of CUT from 1995 to 2013 showed fluctuations, and the coefficient of CUT changed from 0.460 to 0.649 with a growth rate of 41%; (3) for the driving factors, population factors most significantly contributed to CUT, followed by industrial structure and economic factors. The results obtained in this study are in line with the findings of previous studies. The RBFNN model is suitable for evaluating the contributions of driving factors, which can solve the deficiency in previous studies caused by ignoring the internal relationship and target orientation of driving factors. This study suggests that poverty-stricken counties should narrow the urban–rural divide, encourage balanced labor and investment flow into cropland by formulating relevant economic policies, motivate farmers’ agricultural engagement, and use science and technology to promote CUT and the growth of the agricultural economy, poverty alleviation, and to coordinate urban–rural development.