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Cha JY, Lee K, Lee SC, Lee EJ, Yim KJ, Ryoo I, Kim M, Ahn J, Yi SM, Park CR, Oh NH. Fossil and non-fossil sources of the carbonaceous component of PM 2.5 in forest and urban areas. Sci Rep 2023; 13:5486. [PMID: 37016024 PMCID: PMC10073123 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32721-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Atmospheric particulate matter (PM2.5) can damage human health. Biogenic organic compounds emitted from trees may increase the concentration of PM2.5 via formation of secondary aerosols. Therefore, the role of biogenic emissions in PM2.5 formation and the sources of PM2.5 need to be investigated. Dual carbon isotope and levoglucosan analyses are powerful tools to track the sources of total carbon (TC) in PM2.5. We collected a total of 47 PM2.5 samples from 2019 to 2020 inside a pine forest and in urban areas in South Korea. The average δ13C and Δ14C of TC in PM2.5 at the Taehwa Research Forest (TRF) were - 25.7 and - 380.7‰, respectively, which were not significantly different from those collected at Seoul National University (SNU) in urban areas. Contribution of fossil fuel, C3-, and C4- plants to carbonaceous component of PM2.5 were 52, 27, and 21% at SNU, whereas those were 46, 35, and 19% at TRF, respectively. The biomass burning tracer, levoglucosan, was most abundant in winter and correlated with the contribution of C4 plants derived carbon. Results indicate that biogenic aerosols emitted from trees is less likely to be an important source of PM2.5 and that trees can act as a bio-filter to reduce PM2.5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Yeon Cha
- Department of Environmental Planning, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyuyeon Lee
- Department of Environmental Planning, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Cheol Lee
- Department of Environmental Planning, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Ju Lee
- Environmental Planning Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Jin Yim
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Ilhan Ryoo
- Department of Environmental Health, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Minhye Kim
- Department of Environmental Health, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinho Ahn
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Muk Yi
- Department of Environmental Health, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Health and Environment, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Chan-Ryul Park
- Urban Forests Division, National Institute of Forest Science, Seoul, 02455, Republic of Korea
| | - Neung-Hwan Oh
- Department of Environmental Planning, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea.
- Environmental Planning Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea.
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Jung CC, Syu ZH, Su HJ, Lian PY, Chen NT. Stable C and N isotopes of PM 2.5 and size-segregated particles emitted from incense stick and cigarette burning. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 212:113346. [PMID: 35461851 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This work measured the δ13C and δ15N signatures in PM2.5 and size-segregated particles emitted from incense stick and cigarette burning in different brands or nicotine contents for pollution source identification indoors. Three popular brands of incense stick and cigarette were selected for experiments. A personal environmental monitoring sampler and a Sioutas cascade impactor were used to collect PM2.5 and size-segregated particles, respectively, for isotopic signatures analyses. Our data showed that both δ13C and δ15N values were heavier from incense stick burning (δ13C: 27.3 ± 0.5; δ15N: 8.63 ± 1.35) than cigarette (δ13C: 28.5 ± 0.2; δ15N: 4.15 ± 0.69). The scatter plots of δ13C and TC/PM2.5 and of δ15N and TN/PM2.5 can be applied to distinguish particle pollution sources and assess the influence of cigarette burning to PM2.5 according to different nicotine contents. The δ13C values in size-segregated particles were similar to incense stick or cigarette burning; the δ13C values in PM2.5 were significantly higher than those in size-segregated particles. However, the nitrogen amount was too low in most of the size-segregated particles to analyze δ15N from incense stick and cigarette burning. These results suggest that the δ13C signatures on PM2.5 cannot represent the isotopic characteristics of size-segregated particles and δ15N has limitation for pollution source identification of different particle sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Cheng Jung
- Department of Public Health, China Medical University, Taichung City, Taiwan.
| | - Zih-Hong Syu
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan.
| | - Huey-Jen Su
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan.
| | - Pei-Yu Lian
- Department of Public Health, China Medical University, Taichung City, Taiwan.
| | - Nai-Tzu Chen
- Research Center of Environmental Trace Toxic Substances, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan.
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3
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Lim S, Hwang J, Lee M, Czimczik CI, Xu X, Savarino J. Robust Evidence of 14C, 13C, and 15N Analyses Indicating Fossil Fuel Sources for Total Carbon and Ammonium in Fine Aerosols in Seoul Megacity. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:6894-6904. [PMID: 35394741 PMCID: PMC9178921 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c03903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Carbon- and nitrogen-containing aerosols are ubiquitous in urban atmospheres and play important roles in air quality and climate change. We determined the 14C fraction modern (fM) and δ13C of total carbon (TC) and δ15N of NH4+ in the PM2.5 collected in Seoul megacity during April 2018 to December 2019. The seasonal mean δ13C values were similar to -25.1‰ ± 2.0‰ in warm and -24.2‰ ± 0.82‰ in cold seasons. Mean δ15N values were higher in warm (16.4‰ ± 2.8‰) than in cold seasons (4.0‰ ± 6.1‰), highlighting the temperature effects on atmospheric NH3 levels and phase-equilibrium isotopic exchange during the conversion of NH3 to NH4+. While 37% ± 10% of TC was apportioned to fossil-fuel sources on the basis of fM values, δ15N indicated a higher contribution of emissions from vehicle exhausts and electricity generating units (power-plant NH3 slip) to NH3: 60% ± 26% in warm season and 66% ± 22% in cold season, based on a Bayesian isotope-mixing model. The collective evidence of multiple isotope analysis reasonably supports the major contribution of fossil-fuel-combustion sources to NH4+, in conjunction with TC, and an increased contribution from vehicle emissions during the severe PM2.5 pollution episodes. These findings demonstrate the efficacy of a multiple-isotope approach in providing better insight into the major sources of PM2.5 in the urban atmosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saehee Lim
- Department
of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Korea
University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, South Korea
| | - Joori Hwang
- Department
of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Korea
University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, South Korea
| | - Meehye Lee
- Department
of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Korea
University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, South Korea
| | - Claudia I. Czimczik
- Department
of Earth System Science, University of California,
Irvine, Irvine, 92697, United States
| | - Xiaomei Xu
- Department
of Earth System Science, University of California,
Irvine, Irvine, 92697, United States
| | - Joel Savarino
- Institute
of Environmental Geosciences (IGE), Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IRD,
Grenoble INP, 38000 Grenoble, France
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Li M, Hu M, Walker J, Gao P, Fang X, Xu N, Qin Y, Zhou L, Liu K, Czimczik CI, Xu X. Source apportionment of carbonaceous aerosols in diverse atmospheric environments of China by dual-carbon isotope method. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 806:150654. [PMID: 34597568 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Carbonaceous aerosols are major components in PM2.5 of both polluted and clean atmosphere. Accurate source apportionment of carbonaceous aerosols may support effective PM2.5 control. Dual-carbon isotope method (14C and 13C) was adopted to identify the contribution of three main air pollution sources biogenic and biomass (fbb), liquid fossil (fliq.fossil) and coal (fcoal). The aerosol samples were collected at three types of sites with distinctly different degree of air pollution: urban, rural and regional background. The seasonal variation of source apportionment of the carbonaceous aerosols in urban Beijing was discussed. Modern biogenic and biomass made an absolute dominance of 92.9 ± 0.5% contribution to the carbonaceous aerosols at the background site Mt. Yulong due to long-range transport from Southeast Asia. The three main sources contributed jointly to the atmospheric carbonaceous aerosols at the rural site Wangdu and the urban site Beijing. The biogenic and biomass source was the major contribution in summer (47.0 ± 0.3%) and autumn (49.3 ± 0.3%) of Beijing, while coal source increased from summer (26.8 ± 13.8%) to autumn (34.7 ± 11.5%). Heating significantly increased the coal source to the dominant contribution (47.0 ± 16.9%) in winter of Beijing. Separate day and night time coal contributions were used to evaluate the two origins of coal combustion: industrial use vs. residential use. The results of source apportionment for carbonaceous aerosols provide scientific support for the prevention and control of air pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengren Li
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, International Joint Laboratory for Regional Pollution Control, Ministry of Education (IJRC), College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Min Hu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, International Joint Laboratory for Regional Pollution Control, Ministry of Education (IJRC), College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Jennifer Walker
- Keck Carbon Cycle AMS Laboratory, Department of Earth System Science, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-3100, USA
| | - Pan Gao
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Department of Geography, Institute of Ocean Research, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xin Fang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, International Joint Laboratory for Regional Pollution Control, Ministry of Education (IJRC), College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Nan Xu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, International Joint Laboratory for Regional Pollution Control, Ministry of Education (IJRC), College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yanhong Qin
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, International Joint Laboratory for Regional Pollution Control, Ministry of Education (IJRC), College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Liping Zhou
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Department of Geography, Institute of Ocean Research, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Kexin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Nuclear Science and Technology and Institute of Heavy Ion Physics, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Claudia I Czimczik
- Keck Carbon Cycle AMS Laboratory, Department of Earth System Science, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-3100, USA
| | - Xiaomei Xu
- Keck Carbon Cycle AMS Laboratory, Department of Earth System Science, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-3100, USA
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Varga T, Major I, Gergely V, Lencsés A, Bujtás T, Jull AJT, Veres M, Molnár M. Radiocarbon in the atmospheric gases and PM 10 aerosol around the Paks Nuclear Power Plant, Hungary. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY 2021; 237:106670. [PMID: 34144248 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2021.106670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Our study shows a one-year-long, monthly integrated continuous monitoring campaign of gaseous radiocarbon emission and ambient air compared with 4 event-like, weekly (168 h) atmospheric aerosol radiocarbon data in every season of 2019, at 4 locations (n = 16 aerosol sample) around the Paks Nuclear Power Plant, Hungary. The study shows the first aerosol radiocarbon results around a nuclear power plant measured by accelerator mass spectrometry in Hungary. There was no dominant contribution detected in the atmospheric CO2 gas fraction, but we could detect excess radiocarbon in the total gaseous carbon fraction at almost every sampling point around the Paks Nuclear Power Plant. The highest Δ14C value in the total gaseous carbon form was 157.9 ± 4.6‰ in November and the highest Δ 14C value in the CO2 fraction was 86.1 ± 4.0‰ in December during 2019. Observed 14C activity excess is not higher than previously published values around the Paks Nuclear Power plant at the same sampling points (Molnár et al., 2007; Varga et al., 2020). Our aerosol radiocarbon measurements show that there is no significant contribution from the nuclear power plant to the atmospheric PM10 fraction. We could not detect a Δ 14C value higher than 0‰ in any season. The results show that the simple aerosol sampling, without pre-treatment of the filters, is appropriate for the measurement of excess radiocarbon at the vicinity of nuclear power plants. The applied preparation and measurement method can be applicable for detection of hot (14C) particles and early identification of radiocarbon emission from nuclear power plants in the PM10 fraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamás Varga
- International Radiocarbon AMS Competence and Training (INTERACT) Center, Institute for Nuclear Research, Debrecen, H-4026, Hungary; Doctoral School of Physics, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, H-4026, Hungary; Isotoptech Ltd, Debrecen, H-4026, Hungary.
| | - István Major
- International Radiocarbon AMS Competence and Training (INTERACT) Center, Institute for Nuclear Research, Debrecen, H-4026, Hungary; Isotoptech Ltd, Debrecen, H-4026, Hungary
| | - Virág Gergely
- International Radiocarbon AMS Competence and Training (INTERACT) Center, Institute for Nuclear Research, Debrecen, H-4026, Hungary; Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Debrecen, H-4028, Hungary
| | | | | | - A J Timothy Jull
- International Radiocarbon AMS Competence and Training (INTERACT) Center, Institute for Nuclear Research, Debrecen, H-4026, Hungary; Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA; University of Arizona AMS Laboratory, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Mihály Veres
- International Radiocarbon AMS Competence and Training (INTERACT) Center, Institute for Nuclear Research, Debrecen, H-4026, Hungary
| | - Mihály Molnár
- International Radiocarbon AMS Competence and Training (INTERACT) Center, Institute for Nuclear Research, Debrecen, H-4026, Hungary
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Lim S, Yang X, Lee M, Li G, Gao Y, Shang X, Zhang K, Czimczik CI, Xu X, Bae MS, Moon KJ, Jeon K. Fossil-driven secondary inorganic PM 2.5 enhancement in the North China Plain: Evidence from carbon and nitrogen isotopes. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 266:115163. [PMID: 32682020 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Measuring isotopic ratios in aerosol particles is a powerful tool for identifying major sources, particularly in separating fossil from non-fossil sources and investigating aerosol formation processes. We measured the radiocarbon, stable carbon, and stable nitrogen isotopic composition of PM2.5 in Beijing (BJ) and Changdao (CD) in the North China Plain (NCP) from May to mid-June 2016. The mean PM2.5 concentrations were 48.6 ± 28.2 μg m-3 and 71.2 ± 29.0 μg m-3 in BJ and CD, respectively, with a high contribution (∼66%) from secondary inorganic aerosol (SIA; NO3-, NH4+, and SO42-). The mean δ13C of total carbon (TC) and δ15N of total nitrogen (TN) values differed significantly between the two sites (p-value of <0.001): -25.1 ± 0.3‰ in BJ and -24.5 ± 0.4‰ in CD and 10.6 ± 1.8‰ in BJ and 5.0 ± 3.1‰ in CD, respectively. In BJ, the average δ15N (NH4+) and δ15N (NO3-) values were 12.9 ± 2.3‰ and 5.2 ± 3.5‰, respectively. The ionic molar ratios and isotopic ratios suggest that NO3- in BJ was formed through the phase-equilibrium reaction of NH4NO3 under sufficient NH3 (g) conditions, promoted by fossil-derived NH3 (g) transported with southerly winds. In BJ, fossil fuel sources comprised 52 ± 7% of TC and 45 ± 28% of NH4+ on average, estimated from radiocarbon (14C) analysis and the δ15N and isotope mixing model, respectively. These multiple-isotopic composition results emphasize that PM2.5 enhancement is derived from fossil sources, in which vehicle emissions are a key contributor. The impact of the coal source was sporadically noticeable. Under regional influences, the fossil fuel-driven SIA led to the PM2.5 enhancements. Our findings demonstrate that the multiple-isotope approach is highly advantageous to elucidate the key sources and limiting factors of secondary inorganic PM2.5 aerosols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saehee Lim
- Dept. of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Korea University, 02841, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Xiaoyang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Meehye Lee
- Dept. of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Korea University, 02841, Seoul, South Korea.
| | - Gang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Yuanguan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Xiaona Shang
- Dept. of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Korea University, 02841, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Kai Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Claudia I Czimczik
- Dept. of Earth System Science, University of California, 92697, Irvine, USA
| | - Xiaomei Xu
- Dept. of Earth System Science, University of California, 92697, Irvine, USA
| | - Min-Suk Bae
- Environmental Engineering Department, Mokpo National University, 58554, Muan, South Korea
| | - Kwang-Joo Moon
- National Institute of Environmental Research, 22689, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Kwonho Jeon
- National Institute of Environmental Research, 22689, Incheon, South Korea
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He H, Shen Y, Jiang C, Li T, Guo M, Yao L. Spatiotemporal Big Data for PM 2.5 Exposure and Health Risk Assessment during COVID-19. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17207664. [PMID: 33096649 PMCID: PMC7589865 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17207664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 10/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) first identified at the end of 2019, significantly impacts the regional environment and human health. This study assesses PM2.5 exposure and health risk during COVID-19, and its driving factors have been analyzed using spatiotemporal big data, including Tencent location-based services (LBS) data, place of interest (POI), and PM2.5 site monitoring data. Specifically, the empirical orthogonal function (EOF) is utilized to analyze the spatiotemporal variation of PM2.5 concentration firstly. Then, population exposure and health risks of PM2.5 during the COVID-19 epidemic have been assessed based on LBS data. To further understand the driving factors of PM2.5 pollution, the relationship between PM2.5 concentration and POI data has been quantitatively analyzed using geographically weighted regression (GWR). The results show the time series coefficients of monthly PM2.5 concentrations distributed with a U-shape, i.e., with a decrease followed by an increase from January to December. In terms of spatial distribution, the PM2.5 concentration shows a noteworthy decline over the Central and North China. The LBS-based population density distribution indicates that the health risk of PM2.5 in the west is significantly lower than that in the Middle East. Urban gross domestic product (GDP) and urban green area are negatively correlated with PM2.5; while, road area, urban taxis, urban buses, and urban factories are positive. Among them, the number of urban factories contributes the most to PM2.5 pollution. In terms of reducing the health risks and PM2.5 pollution, several pointed suggestions to improve the status has been proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongbin He
- School of Geography and Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China; (H.H.); (C.J.); (T.L.)
- Institute of International Rivers and Eco-security, Yunnan University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Yonglin Shen
- School of Geography and Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China; (H.H.); (C.J.); (T.L.)
- State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China;
- Correspondence: (Y.S.); (M.G.)
| | - Changmin Jiang
- School of Geography and Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China; (H.H.); (C.J.); (T.L.)
| | - Tianqi Li
- School of Geography and Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China; (H.H.); (C.J.); (T.L.)
| | - Mingqiang Guo
- School of Geography and Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China; (H.H.); (C.J.); (T.L.)
- Correspondence: (Y.S.); (M.G.)
| | - Ling Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China;
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