Linking environmental sustainability and nutritional quality of the Atlantic diet recommendations and real consumption habits in Galicia (NW Spain)

The Environmental Sustainability of Plant-Based Dietary Patterns: A Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

A large part of the existential threat associated with climate change is the result of current human feeding patterns. Over the last decade, research evaluating the diet-related environmental impacts of plant-based diets has emerged, and a synthesis of the available data is now due.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the study were as follows: 1) to compile and summarize the literature on diet-related environmental impacts of plant-based dietary patterns; 2) to assess the nature of the data on impacts of plant-based dietary patterns on both environmental parameters and health (e.g., if land use is reduced for a particular diet, is cancer risk also reduced?); and 3) to determine where sufficient data exist for meta-analyses, in addition to identifying gaps within the literature.

METHODS

Global peer-reviewed studies on the environmental impacts of plant-based diets were searched in Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Web of Science. After removing duplicates, the screening identified 1553 records. After 2 stages of independent review by 2 reviewers, 65 records met the inclusion criteria and were eligible to be used in synthesis.

RESULTS

Evidence suggests that plant-based diets may offer lower greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs), land use, and biodiversity loss than offered by standard diets; however, the impact on water and energy use may depend on the types of plant-based foods consumed. Further, the studies were consistent in demonstrating that plant-based dietary patterns that reduce diet-related mortality also promote environmental sustainability.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, there was agreement across the studies regarding the impact of plant-based dietary patterns on GHGE, land used, and biodiversity loss despite varied plant-based diets assessed.

Nutritional Analysis of the Spanish Population: A New Approach Using Public Data on Consumption

Official population consumption data are frequently used to characterize the diet of countries; however, this information may not always be representative of reality. This study analyses the food consumption of the Spanish population by reconstructing the whole food chain. The results have been compared with the data provided by the National Consumption Panel to which the food losses/waste reported in the literature along the distribution chain have been added. The difference between them allowed a new calculation of the estimated food consumption that was subjected to a dietary-nutritional analysis. Most of the foods were consumed more than those officially reported (range of 5-50%). The unhealthy ratios of consumed foods and recommended servings were: meat products (Rcr = 3.6), fruits and legumes (Rcr = 0.5), and nuts (Rcr = 0.14). Caloric intake surpasses needs. The results were consistent with the data on the prevalence of overweight and obesity in Spain, as well as with the prevalence of associated diseases. To make a judgment about the quality of a country's diet, it is necessary to have reliable data on food consumption, as well as energy and nutrient intake. This study encourages other authors to implement this method to verify and quantify the possible difference between official and real consumption data.

Nutrition and its footprints: Using environmental indicators to assess the nexus between sustainability and food

Current food systems are associated with the unsustainable use of natural resources; therefore, rethinking current models is urgent and is part of a global agenda to reach sustainable development. Sustainable diets encompass health, society, economy, culture as well as the environment, in addition to considering all the stages that make up the food production chain. This study aimed to perform a review on the importance of using environmental footprints (EnF) as a way of assessing the environmental impacts of food systems. The most used EnF to assess impacts related to the food system was the carbon footprint, followed by the water footprint, and the land use footprint. These EnF usually measured the impacts mainly of the current diet and theoretical diets. Animal-source foods were the ones that most contribute to the environmental impact, with incentives to reduce consumption. However, changing dietary patterns should not be restricted to changing behavior only, but should also involve all stakeholders in the functioning of food systems. We conclude that EnF are excellent tools to evaluate and guide the adoption of more sustainable diets, and can be applied in different contexts of food systems, such as food consumption analysis, menu analysis, food waste, and inclusion of EnF information on food labels.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and adherence to Mediterranean diet in an adult population: the Mediterranean diet index as a pollution level index

BACKGROUND

Research related to sustainable diets is is highly relevant to provide better understanding of the impact of dietary intake on the health and the environment.

AIM

To assess the association between the adherence to an energy-restricted Mediterranean diet and the amount of CO₂ emitted in an older adult population.

DESIGN AND POPULATION

Using a cross-sectional design, the association between the adherence to an energy-reduced Mediterranean Diet (erMedDiet) score and dietary CO₂ emissions in 6646 participants was assessed.

METHODS

Food intake and adherence to the erMedDiet was assessed using validated food frequency questionnaire and 17-item Mediterranean questionnaire. Sociodemographic characteristics were documented. Environmental impact was calculated through greenhouse gas emissions estimations, specifically CO₂ emissions of each participant diet per day, using a European database. Participants were distributed in quartiles according to their estimated CO₂ emissions expressed in kg/day: Q1 (≤2.01 kg CO₂), Q2 (2.02-2.34 kg CO₂), Q3 (2.35-2.79 kg CO₂) and Q4 (≥2.80 kg CO₂).

RESULTS

More men than women induced higher dietary levels of CO₂ emissions. Participants reporting higher consumption of vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, whole cereals, preferring white meat, and having less consumption of red meat were mostly emitting less kg of CO₂ through diet. Participants with higher adherence to the Mediterranean Diet showed lower odds for dietary CO₂ emissions: Q2 (OR 0.87; 95%CI: 0.76-1.00), Q3 (OR 0.69; 95%CI: 0.69-0.79) and Q4 (OR 0.48; 95%CI: 0.42-0.55) vs Q1 (reference).

CONCLUSIONS

The Mediterranean diet can be environmentally protective since the higher the adherence to the Mediterranean diet, the lower total dietary CO₂ emissions. Mediterranean Diet index may be used as a pollution level index.

Health and Sustainable Nutritional Choices from Childhood: Dietary Pattern and Social Models

BACKGROUND

The role of diet in the pediatric age for optimal development, achievement, and maintenance of a healthy status is well recognized. Increasing attention is nowadays also paid to reducing the burden of human nutrition on the planet's health for present and future generations.

SUMMARY

Beyond environmental sustainability, the transition to diets rich in animal and processed foods contributes to an overall unhealthy nutritional status leading to an increased prevalence of obesity- and diet-related noncommunicable diseases. Childhood overweight and obesity are a growing public health crisis worldwide. The aim of this narrative review was to summarize evidence of the nutritional status and dietary habits in children and the link with environmental sustainability.

KEY MESSAGE

Optimizing nutrition in infancy and establishing healthy lifestyles from the preschool years might help to reduce the risk of overweight, and all the disorders related, respecting the sustainability dimension.

Epigenetic Effects of Healthy Foods and Lifestyle Habits from the Southern European Atlantic Diet Pattern: A Narrative Review

Recent scientific evidence has shown the importance of diet and lifestyle habits for the proper functioning of the human body. A balanced and healthy diet, physical activity, and psychological well-being have a direct beneficial effect on health and can have a crucial role in the development and prognosis of certain diseases. The Southern European Atlantic diet, also named the Atlantic diet, is a unique dietary pattern that occurs in regions that present higher life expectancy, suggesting that this specific dietary pattern is associated with positive health effects. In fact, it is enriched with nutrients of high biological value, which, together with its cooking methods, physical activity promotion, reduction in carbon footprint, and promoting of family meals, promote these positive effects on health. The latest scientific advances in the field of nutri-epigenetics have revealed that epigenetic markers associated with food or nutrients and environmental factors modulate gene expression and, therefore, are involved with both health and disease. Thus, in this review, we evaluated the main aspects that define the Southern European Atlantic diet and the potential epigenetic changes associated with them based on recent studies regarding the main components of these dietary patterns. In conclusion, based on the information existing in the literature, we postulate that the Southern European Atlantic diet could promote healthy aging by means of epigenetic mechanisms. This review highlights the necessity of performing longitudinal studies to demonstrate this proposal.

Driving commitment to sustainable food policies within the framework of American and European dietary guidelines

Diet and nutrition are essential factors in promoting good health throughout life. Their role as determinants of chronic non-communicable diseases is widely recognized. Additionally, the demand for food involves relevant environmental burdens that have to be taken into account on the way to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. As an important part of nutrition policy, food-based dietary guidelines (FBDGs) have been revised. The key question is: Are environmental considerations being incorporated into them? To address this issue, we modeled and compared both the main environmental indicators in terms of carbon footprint (CF) and water footprint (WF), and nutritional quality (according to the Nutrient Rich Diet index, NRD9.3 and a health gain score) of dietary guidelines from Northern and Southern Europe and America. Particularly, the FBDGs compared were Dutch Dietary Guidelines (DDG), New Nordic Diet (NND), Spanish Strategy for Nutrition, Physical Activity and Obesity Prevention (NAOS), Mediterranean Diet (MD), Italian Dietary Guidelines (IDG) and American Dietary Guidelines (DGA). The IDG and MD offered the best profiles from a climate change perspective (2.04 and 2.21 kgCO₂eq·day^-1). Overall, DGA had the highest CF (2.98 kgCO₂eq·day^-1). WF presented greater fluctuations, not only due to daily-recommended amounts, but also because of different climate conditions and production systems of the reference countries. Hence, WF ranged from 1760 L·person^-1·day^-1 in IDG to 3181 L·person^-1·day^-1 in NAOS. Finally, the nutritional value of MD, which had the highest NRD9.3 (477) and health gain score (178), has been demonstrated when the comparison was made with DDG, the one with the lowest health gain score (97) and DGA, the worst in terms of NRD9.3 (391). To go ahead of the FBDGs that bet on all dimensions of sustainability, multi-criteria analysis is needed. Nutrition and environmental performance are not the only aspects of the problem; economy and sociocultural variables should be considered.

A Scoping Review of Indicators for Sustainable Healthy Diets

Introduction: Diets are currently unsustainable in many countries as evidenced by the growing burden of malnutrition, degradation of natural resources, contributions to climate change, and unaffordability of healthy diets. Agreement on what constitutes a healthy and sustainable diet has been debated. In 2019, FAO and WHO published the Sustainable Healthy Diets Guiding Principles, defining what qualifies as a sustainable healthy diet. While valuable, these principles require measurable indicators to support their operationalization. Our scoping review aims to describe how sustainable healthy diets have been assessed in the literature since 2010.

Methods: A search for English-language articles published in peer-reviewed journals was conducted from January 2010 through February 2020 across three databases. Out of the 504 articles initially identified, 103 articles were included. Metadata were extracted from each article on: publication year, country of study, study aims, methods, main data sources, indicators used to assess sustainable healthy diets, reported indicator strengths or limitations, and main study findings. A qualitative content analysis identified major conceptual themes across indicators and their frequency of use.

Findings: From the 103 empirical articles included in our review, 57.3% were published after 2017. Most studies were carried out in high-income countries (74%). Approximately 42% of the articles assessed the sustainability of diets using solely health and environmental indicators; <25% assessed the sustainability of diets across health, environmental, and sociocultural aspects of sustainability. We found a substantial number of unique indicators used for assessing health (n = 82), environmental (n = 117), and sociocultural (n = 43) aspects of diets. These indicators covered concepts related to health outcomes, aspects of diet quality, natural resources, climate change, cultural acceptability, and cost of diets. The preponderance of indicators currently used in research likely poses challenges for stakeholders to identify the most appropriate measures.

Conclusion: Robust indicators for sustainable healthy diets are critical for understanding trends, setting targets, and monitoring progress across national and sub-national levels. Our review highlights the geographical imbalance, the narrow focus on health and environmental aspects, and the lack of common measures used in research. Measures registries could provide the decision-support needed by stakeholders to aid in the indicator selection process.

Changes in Dietary Patterns through a Nutritional Intervention with a Traditional Atlantic Diet: The Galiat Randomized Controlled Trial

Unhealthy dietary patterns (DPs) can lead to cardiovascular and other chronic diseases. We assessed the effects of a community-focused intervention with a traditional Atlantic diet on changes in DPs in families and the associations of these changes with weight loss. The Galiat study is a randomized, controlled trial conducted in 250 families (720 adults and children) and performed at a primary care setting with the cooperation of multiple society sectors. Over 6 months, families randomized to the intervention group received educational sessions, cooking classes, written supporting material, and foods that form part of the Atlantic diet, whereas those randomized to the control group followed their habitual lifestyle. At baseline, five DPs that explained 30.1% of variance were identified: “Caloric”, “Frieds”, “Fruits, vegetables, and dairy products”, “Alcohol”, and “Fish and boiled meals.” Compared to the controls, the intervention group showed significant improvements in “Fruits, vegetables, and dairy products” and “Fish and boiled meals” and reductions in the “Caloric” and “Frieds”. Changes in bodyweight per unit increment of “Frieds” and “Fruits, vegetables, and dairy products” scores were 0.240 kg (95% CI, 0.050–0.429) and −0.184 kg (95% CI, −0.379–0.012), respectively. We found that a culturally appropriate diet improved DPs associated with weight loss.

Greenhouse gases emissions from the diet and risk of death and chronic diseases in the EPIC-Spain cohort

BACKGROUND

Evidence from the scientific literature shows a significant variation in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the diet, according to the type of food consumed. We aim to analyze the relationship between the daily dietary GHG emissions according to red meat, fruit and vegetables consumption and their relationship with risk of total mortality, and incident risk of chronic diseases.

METHODS

We examined data on the EPIC-Spain prospective study, with a sample of 40 621 participants. Dietary GHG emission values were calculated for 57 food items of the EPIC study using mean emission data from a systematic review of 369 published studies.

RESULTS

Dietary GHG emissions (kgCO2eq/day), per 2000 kcal, were 4.7 times higher in those with high red-meat consumption (>140 g/day) than those with low consumption (<70 g/day). The average dietary GHG emissions were similar in males and females, but it was significantly higher in youngest people and in those individuals with lower educational level, as well as for northern EPIC centers of Spain. We found a significant association with the risk of mortality comparing the third vs. the first tertile of dietary GHG emissions [hazard ratio (HR) 1.095; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.007-1.19; trend test 0.037]. Risk of coronary heart disease (HR 1.26; 95% CI 1.08-1.48; trend test 0.003) and risk of type 2 diabetes (HR 1.24; 95% CI 1.11-1.38; trend test 0.002) showed significant association as well.

CONCLUSIONS

Decreasing red-meat consumption would lead to reduce GHG emissions from diet and would reduce risk of mortality, coronary heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

Household Food Metabolism: Losses, Waste and Environmental Pressures of Food Consumption at the Regional Level in Spain

Dealing with an increasing population is challenging the global food system not only in productive terms, but also through the associated environmental pressures. A growing diagnostic effort is being made by global and national agencies. Innovative approaches are needed to support effective policy efforts. This study aims to illustrate the potentialities of the household metabolism approach in the diagnosis of the environmental pressures derived from household food consumption, using the Spanish regions and the effects of the 2008 crisis as case studies. The direct information concerning food consumption in physical terms provided by the Spanish household budget survey is used to estimate some relevant environmental pressures (food losses and waste along the food chain, as well as water and carbon footprint) for the Spanish food system at a sub-national level. These data are directly translated into differences in environmental pressures and compared with other dietary profiles. Furthermore, the physical information of environmental pressures is related to household socio-economic status, showing the potentialities of the association with household socio-economic information. Finally, our data illustrate with some examples how the economic crisis has acted as a driver of change in food consumption, promoting a better environmental performance at the cost of poorer diets.

Environmental assessment of menus for toddlers serviced at nursery canteen following the Atlantic diet recommendations

Menus served at public services can be considered as a good opportunity for consumers to demand a service that ensures healthy and environmentally friendly food. It is especially in the sector of nurseries and schools, where these demands make the most sense since they call for the protection of particularly vulnerable population: children. The purpose of this study is to analyze the biweekly menus served at a public Spanish nursery canteen considering the link with the two most recognized environmental indicators: the consumptive water footprint (WF) and the carbon footprint (CF). The WF and CF of the menus vary considerably between menus (619-1359 L·menu^-1 and 0.75-2.95 kg CO₂eq·menu^-1). The assessment has identified non-dairy sources of protein and dairy-based products as the key food categories in all menus. Menus with more meat (mostly beef) and dairy products (mainly cheese) were associated with higher impacts. That is, the average impact of menus with beef is about 2 times greater than the one of all other menus. The distribution and cooking stages presented negligible contributions in terms of greenhouse gases emissions, mainly due to the consumption of local/regional products and low-energy intensive cooking techniques. The most important strategy for reducing environmental impacts is based on reducing the frequency of consumption of beef, so that poultry and lean pork are consumed alternately. This reduction should not compromise the necessary protein intake for toddlers. Attention should also be paid to afternoon snacks that are rich in cold meat and dairy products. Considering these issues, significant reductions in WF and CF indicators could be achieved, up to 550 L·menu^-1 and 0.70 kg CO₂eq·menu^-1. Since eating habits introduced at an early stage are more likely to develop into adult behaviour, children canteen services are an excellent opportunity to promote healthy eating habits in children and their families.

Effects of a Community-Based Behavioral Intervention with a Traditional Atlantic Diet on Cardiometabolic Risk Markers: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial ("The GALIAT Study")

The Atlantic diet, the traditional dietary pattern in northern Portugal and northwest Spain, has been related to metabolic health and low ischemic heart disease mortality. The Galiat Study is a randomized controlled trial aimed to assess the effects of the Atlantic diet on anthropometric variables, metabolic profile, and nutritional habits. The dietary intervention was conducted in 250 families (720 adults and children) and performed at a primary care center. Over six months, families randomized to the intervention group received educational sessions, cooking classes, written supporting material, and foods that form part of the Atlantic diet, whereas those randomized to the control group followed their habitual lifestyle. 213 families (92.4%) completed the trial. Adults in the intervention group lost weight as opposed to controls who gained weight (adjusted mean difference -1.1 kg, p < 0.001) and total serum cholesterol (adjusted mean difference -5.2 mg/dL, p = 0.004). Significant differences in favor of the intervention were found in other anthropometric variables and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, but changes in triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, inflammation markers, blood pressure, and glucose metabolism were not observed. A family-based nutritional intervention based on the Atlantic diet showed beneficial effects on adiposity and the lipid profile.

The Southern European Atlantic diet

The Southern Europe Atlantic Diet (SEAD) is the traditional diet consumed in the Northwestern region of the Iberian Peninsula: Galicia (Spain) and North of Portugal. These regions have geographical, climatic and cultural characteristics that had led them to develop their own dietary pattern. This dietary pattern integrated into its environment is based on fresh, local and seasonal products intake. In this diet there is a high intake of fish, seafood, cereals, potatoes, legumes, fruits, dairy products and vegetables. Meat, preferably lean meat, is consume moderately as well as eggs and wine. SEAD is more than a diet, it is a lifestyle where exercise, simples cooking techniques, respect for the traditions and pleasure of eating accompanied are constants. Although this pattern has been known for centuries, it did not begin to be define as such until the signing of "Baione Declaration" in 2006. Some bioactive compounds of SEAD had showed health benefits and protect against acute myocardial infarction. Data supports that SEAD is a sustainable diet. In the presented review, results of studies on the SEAD are presented and discussed. Also, a recent proposal of SEAD Index is reported. Therefore, SEAD should be considered as an excellent dietary pattern and lifestyle.

Tracking the environmental footprints of institutional restaurant service in nursery schools

When dietary habits are analyzed in the framework of school catering services, nutritional indicators are essential criteria in the definition of menus, but attention should also be paid to the associated environmental impacts. It is especially relevant to assess food patterns in nursery schools when consumption habits are most strongly implemented, and they must be healthy and sustainable. With the aim of evaluating the main environmental indicators: Carbon and water footprints (CF and WF), ten menus consisting of lunch and afternoon snack were evaluated, which comprise a wide range of food categories (fruits and vegetables, starch-based products, milk and milk products, non-dairy sources of protein, and others). The CF of the menus varied considerably according to their composition, with beef-rich menus having the worst profile (up to 2.24 kg CO₂/menu and 0.39 kg CO₂/100 kcal). Regarding the WF, meals rich on animal-based products also entailed water implications and mainly associated with the consumption of beef. Green WF and blue WF are responsible for 88% of the contributions to this indicator, on average. The WF indicator reaches up to 1271 L·menu^-1 and 223 L/100 kcal for a menu containing beef meat. This study confirms the effect on CF and WF from animal-based products, specifically beef meat and dairy products. The findings of the study can be useful to make recommendations not only to consumers on reducing the environmental impacts from food production and consumption, but also to design balanced menus with better environmental scores based on the combination of low and high footprint food products, always providing the necessary energy and nutrients, an unquestionable issue in toddlers and pre-school children whose need to follow balanced and healthy diets, being meat an important foodstuff.

Dietary recommendations in Spain -affordability and environmental sustainability?

Global food demand is increasing due to population growth and dietary transitions, resulting from rising incomes, are associated with increased prevalence of non-communicable diseases. Improving the sustainability of the food sector is also critical for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. This study assesses for the first time the greenhouse gases emissions (Carbon Footprint - CF), the water footprint (WF) and the cost of three omnivorous diets recommended in Spain due to their health benefits: the Mediterranean diet (MD), the Southern European Atlantic diet (SEAD) and the Spanish dietary guidelines (NAOS). Analysis was conducted using standard Life Cycle Assessment and WF methods together with current Spanish food price data. The dietary energy recommendation of the SEAD is greater than that of MD and NAOS (11 and 15% respectively), and SEAD also has greater animal source food content than the other two diets. SEAD has a concomitantly higher CF, WF and cost scores in comparison with MD (+30%, +23% and +21% respectively) and NAOS (+15%, +9% and +21% respectively). Adjusting recommendations to meet the suggested Spanish adult dietary energy of 2228 kcal.capita-1.day-1 changed the environmental profiles of the diets and the NAOS has the highest environmental impact. However, the isocaloric diets had approximately the same cost. Analysis of the WF of the diets identified the major contribution of precipitation (the green WF) to the overall WF (88% of the total) and the significant contribution of animal-source foods to dietary WF. Regardless of the dietary scenario, better scores were identified for the Spanish recommendations analysed than those reported for other healthy diets identified in Europe. Differences in the recommended intake levels of certain food groups, cooking techniques and the origin of food products are behind these results. Environmental indicators should be considered alongside nutrition and health metrics when defining national dietary guidelines. Supporting citizens to follow healthy and environmentally-friendly dietary recommendations through, among other things, information campaigns and nutritional education programmes is essential. It is recommended the incorporation not only of health, but also of environmental indicators of these dietary options in the national dietary guidelines, as well as implementation of information campaigns and nutritional education programs among citizens to promote their adhesion since balanced dietary habits rich on plant-based products and low on animal-based ones involve multiple health and environmental benefits.

Dietary recommendations in Spain -affordability and environmental sustainability?

Global food demand is increasing due to population growth and dietary transitions, resulting from rising incomes, are associated with increased prevalence of non-communicable diseases. Improving the sustainability of the food sector is also critical for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. This study assesses for the first time the greenhouse gases emissions (Carbon Footprint - CF), the water footprint (WF) and the cost of three omnivorous diets recommended in Spain due to their health benefits: the Mediterranean diet (MD), the Southern European Atlantic diet (SEAD) and the Spanish dietary guidelines (NAOS). Analysis was conducted using standard Life Cycle Assessment and WF methods together with current Spanish food price data. The dietary energy recommendation of the SEAD is greater than that of MD and NAOS (11 and 15% respectively), and SEAD also has greater animal source food content than the other two diets. SEAD has a concomitantly higher CF, WF and cost scores in comparison with MD (+30%, +23% and +21% respectively) and NAOS (+15%, +9% and +21% respectively). Adjusting recommendations to meet the suggested Spanish adult dietary energy of 2228 kcal.capita^-1.day^-1 changed the environmental profiles of the diets and the NAOS has the highest environmental impact. However, the isocaloric diets had approximately the same cost. Analysis of the WF of the diets identified the major contribution of precipitation (the green WF) to the overall WF (88% of the total) and the significant contribution of animal-source foods to dietary WF. Regardless of the dietary scenario, better scores were identified for the Spanish recommendations analysed than those reported for other healthy diets identified in Europe. Differences in the recommended intake levels of certain food groups, cooking techniques and the origin of food products are behind these results. Environmental indicators should be considered alongside nutrition and health metrics when defining national dietary guidelines. Supporting citizens to follow healthy and environmentally-friendly dietary recommendations through, among other things, information campaigns and nutritional education programmes is essential. It is recommended the incorporation not only of health, but also of environmental indicators of these dietary options in the national dietary guidelines, as well as implementation of information campaigns and nutritional education programs among citizens to promote their adhesion since balanced dietary habits rich on plant-based products and low on animal-based ones involve multiple health and environmental benefits.

Comparing the Environmental Impacts of Meatless and Meat-Containing Meals in the United States

This study compares the environmental impacts of meatless and meat-containing meals in the United States according to consumption data in order to identify commercial opportunities to lower environmental impacts of meals. Average consumption of meal types (breakfast, lunch, dinner) were assessed using life cycle assessment. Retail and consumer wastes, and weight losses and gains through cooking, were used to adjust the consumption quantities to production quantities. On average, meatless meals had more than a 40% reduction in environmental impacts than meat-containing meals for any of the assessed indicators (carbon footprint, water use, resource consumption, health impacts of pollution, and ecosystem quality). At maximum and minimum for carbon footprint, meat-containing dinners were associated with 5 kgCO2e and meatless lunches 1 kg CO2e. Results indicate that, on average in the US, meatless meals lessen environmental impacts in comparison to meat-containing meals; however, animal products (i.e., dairy) in meatless meals also had a substantial impact. Findings suggest that industrial interventions focusing on low-impact meat substitutes for dinners and thereafter lunches, and low-impact dairy substitutes for breakfasts, offer large opportunities for improving the environmental performance of the average diet.