Public health benefits of reducing exposure to ambient fine particulate matter in South Africa

A spatial approach to assessing PM2.5 exposure level of a brickmaking community in South Africa

Globally, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 µm or less poses a significant threat to human health. The first step in quantifying human health impacts caused by exposure to PM2.5 pollution is exposure assessment. Population-weighted exposure level (PWEL) estimation is one of the methods that provides a more precise exposure assessment since it incorporates the spatiotemporal distribution of population with the pollution concentration estimate. In this study, PM2.5 exposure levels in the local communities around brickmaking industries were investigated, using the population census data of the study area and 1-year data from nine PM2.5 monitoring stations installed in and around the brickmaking industries. The observed PM2.5 data was spatially interpolated using inverse distance weight (IDW). Data on PM2.5 levels across the study area were classified based on the World Health Organization interim target (IT) guidelines and the South African National ambient air quality standard (NAAQS). An annual PM2.5 population weighted exposure level of 27.6 µg/m3 was estimated for the study area. However, seasonal exposure levels of 28.9, 37.6, 26.5, and 20.7 µg/m3 were estimated for the autumn, winter, spring, and summer seasons, respectively. This implies that local communities around the brick kiln in the Vhembe District are exposed to high levels of PM2.5, especially in winter. The PM2.5 levels in the brickmaking industries as well as its other sources in the Vhembe District, therefore, need to be lowered. Findings from population exposure level to pollutants can provide valuable data for formulating policies and recommendations on exposure reduction and public health protection.Implications: PM2.5 concentration in any given environment has high spatial and temporal variability due to the presence of diffused sources in the environment. Using ambient air concentrations to directly estimate population exposure without taking into consideration the disproportionate spatial and temporal distribution of the pollutant and the population may not yield accurate results on human exposure levels. It is, therefore, important to assess the aggregated PM2.5 exposure of a populace within a given area. This study therefore examines the PM2.5 population-weighted-exposure level of the host communities of the brickmaking industry in Vhembe District, South Africa.

Estimation of health-related and economic impacts of PM2.5 in Arak, Iran, using BenMAP-CE

Ambient air quality is one of the most critical threats to human health. In this study, the health and economic benefits of reducing PM2.5 were estimated in the city of Arak during the period of 2017-2019. The concentration data were obtained from the Environmental Protection Organization of Central Province, while the demographic data were obtained from the website of the Iran Statistics Center. The number of premature deaths from all causes, ischemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer, attributable to PM2.5 pollution was estimated using the Environmental Benefits Mapping and Analysis Program-Comprehensive Version (BenMAP_CE) to limit the guidelines of the World Health Organization. The results showed that improving air quality in 2017, 2018, and 2019 in Arak could prevent the deaths of 729, 654, and 460 people, respectively. The number of years of life lost (YLL) in 2017, 2018, and 2019 was 11383, 10362, and 7260 years, respectively. The total annual economic benefits of reducing the PM2.5 concentration in Arak under the proposed scenarios in 2017, 2018, and 2019 were estimated to be 309,225,507, 262,868,727, and 182,224,053 USD, respectively, using the statistical life method (VSL). Based on the results of this study, there are significant health and economic benefits to reducing PM2.5 concentrations in Arak City. Therefore, planning and adopting control policies to reduce air pollution in this city are necessary.

Health benefits of reducing ambient levels of fine particulate matter: a mortality impact assessment in Taiwan

While numerous studies have found a relationship between long-term exposure to airborne fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and higher risk of death, few investigations examined the contribution that a reduction of exposure to ambient PM2.5 levels might exert on mortality rates. This study aimed to collect data on changes in annual average ambient levels of PM2.5 from 2006 to 2020 and consequent health impact in public health in 65 municipalities in Taiwan. Avoidable premature mortality was used here as an indicator of adverse health impact or health benefits. Annual PM2.5 levels were averaged for the years 2006, 2010, and 2020. In accordance with World Health Organization (WHO) methodology, differences were estimated in the number of deaths attributed to ambient PM2.5 exposure which were derived from concentration-response data from prior epidemiological studies. PM2.5 concentrations were found to have been decreased markedly throughout Taiwan over the two-decade study. As the PM2.5 concentrations fell, so was the health burden as evidenced by number of deaths concomitantly reduced from 22.4% in 2006 to 8.47% in 2020. Data demonstrated that reducing annual mean levels of PM2.5 to PM10 ug/m3 was associated with decrease in the total burden of mortality, with a 2.22-13.18% fall in estimated number of PM2.5-related deaths between 2006 and 2020. Based upon these results, these declines in ambient PM2.5 levels were correlated with significant improvement in public health (health benefits) and diminished number of deaths in Taiwan.

Chronic and acute health effects of PM2.5 exposure and the basis of pollution control targets

Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) is changing and expanding quickly, leading to environmental consequences that seriously threaten human health. PM2.5 pollution is one of the main causes of premature death. In this context, studies have evaluated strategies to control and reduce air pollution; such pollution-control measures need to be economically justified. The objective of this study was to assess the socio-economic damage caused by exposure to the current pollution scenario, taking 2019 as the base year. A methodology for calculating and evaluating the economic and environmental benefits of air pollution reduction was implemented. This study aimed to simultaneously evaluate the impacts of both short-term (acute) and long-term (chronic) PM2.5 pollution exposure on human health, providing a comprehensive overview of economic losses attributable to such pollution. Spatial partitioning (inner-city and suburban) on health risks of PM2.5 and detailed construction of health impact maps by age group and sex on a spatial resolution grid (3.0 km × 3.0 km) was performed. The calculation results show that the economic loss from premature deaths due to short-term exposure (approximately 38.86 trillion VND) is higher than that from long-term exposure (approximately 14.89 trillion VND). As the government of HCMC has been developing control and mitigation solutions for the Air Quality Action Plan towards short- and medium-term goals in 2030, focusing mainly on PM2.5, the results of this study will help policymakers develop a roadmap to reduce the impact of PM2.5 during 2025-2030.

Identifying the causal effects of long-term exposure to PM2.5 and ground surface ozone on individual medical costs in China-evidence from a representative longitudinal nationwide cohort

BACKGROUND

There is little evidence on whether PM_2.5 and ground surface ozone have consistent effects on increased individual medical costs, and there is a lack of evidence on causality in developing countries.

METHODS

This study utilized balanced panel data from 2014, 2016, and 2018 waves of the Chinese Family Panel Study. The Tobit model was developed within a counterfactual causal inference framework, combined with a correlated random effects and control function approach (Tobit-CRE-CF), to explore the causal relationship between long-term exposure to air pollution and medical costs. We also explored whether different air pollutants exhibit comparable effects.

RESULTS

This study encompassed 8928 participants and assessed various benchmark models, highlighting the potential biases from failing to account for air pollution endogeneity or overlooking respondents without medical costs. Using the Tobit-CRE-CF model, significant effects of air pollutants on increased individual medical costs were identified. Specifically, margin effects for PM_2.5 and ground-level ozone signifying that a unit increase in PM_2.5 and ground-level ozone results in increased total medical costs of 199.144 and 75.145 RMB for individuals who incurred fees in the previous year, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The results imply that long-term exposure to air pollutants contributes to increased medical costs for individuals, offering valuable insights for policymakers aiming to mitigate air pollution's consequences.

An assessment of aerosol optical depth over three AERONET sites in South Africa during the year 2020

It is important to notice that the world health organization (WHO) on  the 11th of March 2020,  declared COVID-19 a global pandemic and in response governments around the world introduced lockdowns that restricted human and traffic movements including South Africa. This pandemic resulted in a total lockdown from 26 March until 16 April 2020 in South Africa with expected  decrease in atmospheric aerosols. In this present study,  the aerosol optical depth (AOD) over Southern Africa based on ground-based remotely sensed data derived from three AERONET sites (Durban, Skukuza and Upington) during 2020 were used to detrermine the restriction resopnse on atmospheric aerosol pollution  The study used data from 2019, 2018 and 2017  as base years. The AERONET derived data was complemented with the HYSPLIT Model and NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data. The study findings show that peak increase of AOD corresponds to Angstrom exponent (AE) enhancement for two sites Durban and Skukuza during winter (JJA) while the Upington site showed a different trend where peak AOD were observed in spring (SON). The study also observed the influence of long transport airmasses particularly those originating from the Atlantic and Indian ocean moreso for the Durban and Skukuza sites (summer and autumn) thus these sites received fresh marine aerosols however this was not the case for Upington which fell under the influence of short-range inland airmasses and was likely to receive anthropogenic and dust aerosols. The major results  suggest that the lockdowns did not translate into a significant decrease in AOD levels compared to previous immediate years. The results has presented restriction response of AOD over South Africa but additional analysis is required using more locations to compare results.

Health Benefits Quantification for New-Energy Vehicles Promotion: A Case Study of Beijing

Considering that the promotion of new-energy vehicles (NEVs) is a potential measure to address urban air pollution, the Chinese government has launched subsidy schemes to improve its market penetration. The purpose of this study is to quantify the economic benefits of NEV promotion from 2016 to 2019 and compare them with the cost of government subsidies in Beijing, so the effectiveness of the NEV policies can be evaluated and valuable recommendations can be provided for decision-making. The exposure-response model and the cost of illness approach was applied to evaluate the health and economic benefits of NEV promotion. Our results are as follows: (1) promoting NEVs can reduce the PM_2.5 concentration significantly, the average annual concentration reduction was between 3.23 μg/m³ and 4.61 μg/m³; (2) at least 37,545 illnesses and deaths in Beijing could be reduced through NEV promotion annually, internal disease (15-64) was the most affected illness; (3) the economic benefits of NEV promotion were far more than the cost and the net benefits stock reached 33.71 billion CNY in 2019, accounting for 0.95% of Beijing's GDP in the same period. This study provides references in the perspective of environmental economics for the policy formulation of promoting NEVs.

Estimating the burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution (ambient PM2.5 and ambient ozone) in South Africa for 2000, 2006 and 2012

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Health impact assessment and evaluation of economic costs attributed to PM2.5 air pollution using BenMAP-CE

Air pollution is considered the most prominent public health. Economically, air pollution imposes additional costs on governments. This study aimed to quantify health effects and associated economic values of reducing PM_2.5 air pollution using BenMAP-CE in Qom in 2019. The air quality data were acquired from Qom Province Environmental Protection Agency, and the population data were collected from Qom Province Management and Planning Organization website. The number of deaths due to Stroke, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Lung Cancer, and Ischemic Heart Disease attributable to PM_2.5 were estimated using BenMAP-CE based on two control scenarios, 2.4 and 10 μg/m³, known as scenarios I and II, respectively. The associated economic effect of premature deaths was assessed by value of a statistical life (VSL) approach. The annual average of PM_2.5 concentration was found to be 16.32 μg/m³ (SD: 9.93). A total of 4694.5 and 2475.94 premature deaths in scenarios I and II were found to be attributable to PM_2.5 in overall, respectively. The total associated cost was calculated to be 855.91 and 451.40 million USD in scenarios I and II, respectively. The total years of life lost due to PM_2.5 exposure in 2019 was 158,657.06 and 78,351.51 in scenarios I and II, respectively. The results of both health and economic assessment indicate the importance of solving the air pollution problem in Qom, as well as other big cities in Iran. The elimination of limitations, such as insufficient local data, should be regarded in future studies.

Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Characterization, Air Quality Level and Origin of Air Masses in an Urban Background in Pretoria

Several sources have been identified as contributing to the concentration of ambient fine particulate matter, which has been associated to a variety of health issues. The chemical characteristics and sources of trace elements in PM_2.5, as well as the air quality index, were investigated in this study. Twenty four-hour fine aerosol particles were collected in an urban area in Pretoria, South Africa, from April 2017 to April 2018. Eighteen trace elements were determined using an XEPOS 5 energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometer, while black and organic carbon were estimated using an optical transmissometer from the samples collected. The HYPLIT model (version 4.9) was used to estimate air mass trajectories. Health risk was calculated by comparing it to the World Health Organization's air quality index (AQI). The overall mean PM_2.5 concentration of the collected sample equals 21 µg/m³. Majority of PM_2.5 exceedances were reported during mid-autumn and winter seasons, as compared to daily WHO guidelines and South African standards. S had the highest concentrations, greater than 1 µg/m³. Ni, Se, Br and Sb showed they were extremely enriched, (EF > 10) and suggestive of anthropogenic or non crustal origin The 24-h PM, soot, BC and OC were significantly different by the geographical origin of air masses (p < 0.05). The AQI showed that 70% of the samples showed levels above the AQI range of good and healthy air. The findings include details on the concentration, composition, and potential sources of fine PM_2.5, which is essential for policy formulation and mitigation strategies in South Africa's fight against air pollution.

State of ambient air quality in a low-income urban settlement of South Africa

Air pollution remains one of the leading global environmental-health challenges the world is facing today, particularly within urban environments. amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, air pollution has been brought back into the spotlight as both attack the human respiratory systems. The purpose of the study was to investigate the quality of ambient air in a low-income urban settlement of Jabavu located within the City of Johannesburg during the year 2018. Air pollution and meteorological data were gathered from the South African Air Quality System network. The study focused on three pollutants namely PM₁₀, SO₂ and O₃. Findings were that the seasonal ambient mean concentrations for PM₁₀ in summer was (28.99 µg/m³), autumn (33.32 µg/m³), winter (61.71 µg/m³) and spring (48.44 µg/m³). On the other hand, the seasonal ambient mean concentrations for SO₂ was summer (4.45ppb), autumn (3.19ppb), winter (5.65ppb) and spring (3.54ppb). The O₃ seasonal ambient mean concentrations were summer (40.97ppb), autumn (21.01ppb), winter (15.90ppb) and spring (33.59ppb). Furthermore, the study observed that in summer, winter and spring the dominant long-range transport air masses originated from the South Atlantic Ocean, Madagascar Island-India Ocean and the Indian Ocean while in autumn the dominant air masses are short-range inland air masses. For SO₂ and PM_10, ambient concentrations were found to be more problematic during winter; while for O₃ substantial levels were unexpectedly recorded in summer. When analysing the diurnal profiles of PM₁₀, SO₂ and O_3, each of these pollutants revealed a unique distribution pattern, which, despite having seasonal variance, was consistent throughout the year. For instance, irrespective of the season, PM₁₀ mostly peaked in the mornings and evenings; meanwhile SO₂ and O₃ often spiked during the midday and mid-afternoon, respectively. These findings indicate that air quality within this low-income settlement is poor. To improve air quality within low-income settlements there is a need for a shift from reliance on solid fuels to cleaner energy sources such as LP gas, biogas and solar accompanied by an increase in community awareness about air quality issues. This study contributes to knowledge building within the air quality monitoring scientific community while for policymakers it assists in policy formulation to enable air quality management.

Spatial and Temporal Variations in PM10 Concentrations between 2010-2017 in South Africa

Particulate matter less than or equal to 10 μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM₁₀ µg/m³) is a priority air pollutant and one of the most widely monitored ambient air pollutants in South Africa. This study analyzed PM₁₀ from monitoring 44 sites across four provinces of South Africa (Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal) and aimed to present spatial and temporal variation in the PM₁₀ concentration across the provinces. In addition, potential influencing factors of PM₁₀ variations around the three site categories (Residential, Industrial and Traffic) were explored. The spatial trend in daily PM₁₀ concentration variation shows PM₁₀ concentration can be 5.7 times higher than the revised 2021 World Health Organization annual PM₁₀ air quality guideline of 15 µg/m³ in Gauteng province during the winter season. Temporally, the highest weekly PM₁₀ concentrations of 51.4 µg/m³, 46.8 µg/m³, 29.1 µg/m³ and 25.1 µg/m³ at Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and Western Cape Province were recorded during the weekdays. The study results suggest a decrease in the change of annual PM₁₀ levels at sites in Gauteng and Mpumalanga Provinces. An increased change in annual PM₁₀ levels was reported at most sites in Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal.

A machine learning model to estimate ambient PM2.5 concentrations in industrialized highveld region of South Africa

Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) has been linked to a substantial disease burden globally, yet little has been done to estimate the population health risks of PM_2.5 in South Africa due to the lack of high-resolution PM_2.5 exposure estimates. We developed a random forest model to estimate daily PM_2.5 concentrations at 1 km² resolution in and around industrialized Gauteng Province, South Africa, by combining satellite aerosol optical depth (AOD), meteorology, land use, and socioeconomic data. We then compared PM_2.5 concentrations in the study domain before and after the implementation of the new national air quality standards. We aimed to test whether machine learning models are suitable for regions with sparse ground observations such as South Africa and which predictors played important roles in PM_2.5 modeling. The cross-validation R² and Root Mean Square Error of our model was 0.80 and 9.40 μg/m³, respectively. Satellite AOD, seasonal indicator, total precipitation, and population were among the most important predictors. Model-estimated PM_2.5 levels successfully captured the temporal pattern recorded by ground observations. Spatially, the highest annual PM_2.5 concentration appeared in central and northern Gauteng, including northern Johannesburg and the city of Tshwane. Since the 2016 changes in national PM_2.5 standards, PM_2.5 concentrations have decreased in most of our study region, although levels in Johannesburg and its surrounding areas have remained relatively constant. This is anadvanced PM_2.5 model for South Africa with high prediction accuracy at the daily level and at a relatively high spatial resolution. Our study provided a reference for predictor selection, and our results can be used for a variety of purposes, including epidemiological research, burden of disease assessments, and policy evaluation.

Research trends in the field of ambient air quality monitoring and management in South Africa: A bibliometric review

Air pollution is a leading environmental-health challenge facing the world today. Besides, the emergency of the COVID-19 pandemic has also put some spotlight on issues related to air pollution as both attack the same human respiratory organs. The purpose of this study was to provide an overview of research performance, trends and evolution in the field of ambient air quality monitoring and management in South Africa over the last decade (2010-2021) through the application of a bibliometric approach and a data mining software VOSViewer. Findings were that there has been a steady increase in the number of ambient air quality monitoring and management publications per year. Over the period under review, 2014 contributed 14 % while 2020 contributed 27 % of the total publications. Also, the study established that throughout the period South African scientist collaborated extensively with scientists from Finland, the United States of America, France, and Switzerland. Besides raising awareness levels in the field, the increase in studies can also assist policy formulation and development. In the meantime, the South African National government has also put in place several mitigation strategies to reduce emissions for example the enactment of ambient air quality guidelines.

Spatial-temporal patterns of ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon (BC) pollution in Accra

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is rapidly urbanizing, and ambient air pollution has emerged as a major environmental health concern in growing cities. Yet, effective air quality management is hindered by limited data. We deployed robust, low-cost and low-power devices in a large-scale measurement campaign and characterized within-city variations in fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon (BC) pollution in Accra, Ghana. Between April 2019 and June 2020, we measured weekly gravimetric (filter-based) and minute-by-minute PM2.5 concentrations at 146 unique locations, comprising of 10 fixed (∼1 year) and 136 rotating (7 day) sites covering a range of land-use and source influences. Filters were weighed for mass, and light absorbance (10-5m-1) of the filters was used as proxy for BC concentration. Year-long data at four fixed sites that were monitored in a previous study (2006-2007) were compared to assess changes in PM2.5 concentrations. The mean annual PM2.5 across the fixed sites ranged from 26 μg m-3 at a peri-urban site to 43 μg m-3 at a commercial, business, and industrial (CBI) site. CBI areas had the highest PM2.5 levels (mean: 37 μg m-3), followed by high-density residential neighborhoods (mean: 36 μg m-3), while peri-urban areas recorded the lowest (mean: 26 μg m-3). Both PM2.5 and BC levels were highest during the dry dusty Harmattan period (mean PM2.5: 89 μg m-3) compared to non-Harmattan season (mean PM2.5: 23 μg m-3). PM2.5 at all sites peaked at dawn and dusk, coinciding with morning and evening heavy traffic. We found about a 50% reduction (71 vs 37 μg m-3) in mean annual PM2.5 concentrations when compared to measurements in 2006-2007 in Accra. Ambient PM2.5 concentrations in Accra may have plateaued at levels lower than those seen in large Asian megacities. However, levels are still 2- to 4-fold higher than the WHO guideline. Effective and equitable policies are needed to reduce pollution levels and protect public health.

Extremely high concentrations of zinc in birch tree leaves collected in Chelyabinsk, Russia

Zinc is an essential trace element and a vital microelement for human health. Zinc can be toxic when exposures exceed physiological needs. Toxic effects in humans are most evident from inhalation exposure to high concentrations of Zn compounds. Urban air pollution can be especially dangerous due to the Zn content in airborne dust. Tree leaves can absorb significant levels of zinc. In this study, leaf deposition of Zn was investigated in Chelyabinsk, Russia. Russian zinc production plant and metallurgical plant are located in Chelyabinsk. Extremely high concentrations of Zn (316-4000 mg kg^-1) were found in the leaves of birch trees. It is well known that traffic also is Zn source in an urban environment. Trees, growing at the different distances from zinc production and metallurgical plants and road to identify the contribution of each source (road or industry), were studied. Through SEM analysis, the prevalence of small particulates (PM10 and less), containing Zn, illustrated leaf Zn deposition from the air by passing root accumulation. It was shown that emission of zinc production plant and the metallurgical plant is the main source of leaf Zn deposition in Chelyabinsk.

Major climate change-induced risks to human health in South Africa

There are many climatic changes facing South Africa which already have, or are projected to have, a detrimental impact on human health. Here the risks to health due to several alterations in the climate of South Africa are considered in turn. These include an increase in ambient temperature, causing, for example, a significant rise in morbidity and mortality; heavy rainfall leading to changes in the prevalence and occurrence of vector-borne diseases; drought-associated malnutrition; and exposure to dust storms and air pollution leading to the potential exacerbation of respiratory diseases. Existing initiatives and strategies to prevent or reduce these adverse health impacts are outlined, together with suggestions of what might be required in the future to safeguard the health of the nation. Potential roles for the health and non-health sectors as well as preparedness and capacity development with respect to climate change and health adaptation are considered.

Health benefits of achieving fine particulate matter standards in India - A nationwide assessment

BACKGROUND

Ambient fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) is one of the leading risk factors in India. The elevated levels of PM_2.5 exposure concentration in India are related to higher premature mortality. However, health benefits or avoidable premature mortality by reducing PM_2.5 concentration is uncertain.

OBJECTIVES

Here we simulated the health benefits by assuming the achievement of 1) National Ambient Air Quality Standards of India (PM_2.5 annual average = 40 μg m^-3), 2) National Clean Air Programme policy (30% reduction) and 3) World Health Organization standard (10 μg m^-3).

METHODOLOGY

Using Environmental Benefits Mapping and Analysis Program - Community Edition (BenMAP-CE), the health benefits are estimated at national, state and district levels for various health endpoints viz., all-cause, ischaemic heart disease (IHD), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer and stroke. PM_2.5 data, concentration-response coefficient, population, and baseline incidence rate are specified as input data in BenMAP-CE.

RESULTS

At the national level, all-cause health benefits in three simulations range from 0.79 to 2.1 million cases during 2019. Similarly, IHD, COPD, lung cancer, and stroke related health benefits are in the range of 0.28-0.68, 0.17-0.39, 0.01-0.03, and 0.14-0.34 million cases, respectively. State-level estimates showed that Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal are having maximum health benefits whereas north-eastern states are found with lowest estimates. Districts such as Allahabad, Lucknow, Muzaffarpur, Patna, and Sultanpur are estimated to have highest health benefits. States and districts with higher PM_2.5 concentration and exposed population are found with maximum health benefits. Among the three simulations, achievement of the World Health Organization standard resulted in highest estimates. Further, the limitations and sensitivity of input parameters used in this study are discussed in detail.

CONCLUSION

Study results highlighted the need for state and district-specific air quality management measures to increase PM_2.5 related health benefits.

Health Risk Assessment of PM2.5 and PM2.5-Bound Trace Elements in Thohoyandou, South Africa

We assessed the health risks of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) ambient air pollution and its trace elemental components in a rural South African community. Air pollution is the largest environmental cause of disease and disproportionately affects low- and middle-income countries. PM_2.5 samples were previously collected, April 2017 to April 2018, and PM_2.5 mass determined. The filters were analyzed for chemical composition. The United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (US EPA) health risk assessment method was applied. Reference doses were calculated from the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, South African National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), and US EPA reference concentrations. Despite relatively moderate levels of PM_2.5 the health risks were substantial, especially for infants and children. The average annual PM_2.5 concentration was 11 µg/m³, which is above WHO guidelines, but below South African NAAQS. Adults were exposed to health risks from PM_2.5 during May to October, whereas infants and children were exposed to risk throughout the year. Particle-bound nickel posed both non-cancer and cancer risks. We conclude that PM_2.5 poses health risks in Thohoyandou, despite levels being compliant with yearly South African NAAQS. The results indicate that air quality standards need to be tightened and PM_2.5 levels lowered in South Africa.

Road dust trace elements contamination, sources, dispersed composition, and human health risk in Chelyabinsk, Russia

There are many sources of urban road dust, such as soil dispersal, emissions of industrial enterprises and thermal power plants, road traffic-related processes. Chelyabinsk was selected as a typical Russian industrial city. This work was the first pollution study of road dust in Chelyabinsk. We examined 125 road dust samples were on the content toxic trace elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sr, and Zn). The concentrations of trace elements in road dust were determined using ICP-MS. Results showed that the metal concentrations in dust were higher than the background value of local soil. The distribution curves of dust were asymmetric, had have two peaks, and showed significant unimodal distribution. The higher share of particles was in the range from 30 … 40 to 250 … 300 μm. The thoracic fraction volume (%) and concentrations of trace elements were higher near metallurgical plants. Cadmium, Сu, Mn, Ni, Sr, Pb and Zn were originated from industry and transport; electrometallurgical plant was source of Cr; Al, Co, and Fe derived from local soils and pavement erosion; As, Hg and Sb were the tracers of coal-fired power stations emission. Ingestion was a major exposure way of toxic elements in the dust. The results suggested that there was no significant potential health risk to both children and adults from exposure to any elements in road dust. The cancer risk for adults and children from exposure to As, Cd, Cr, and Pb was found to be at the acceptable or tolerable level. The study deals with the contamination of potentially toxic trace elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sr and Zn) in road dust collected from Chelyabinsk urban area.

PM2.5 chemical composition and geographical origin of air masses in Cape Town, South Africa

PM2.5 in the indoor and outdoor environment has been linked in epidemiology studies to the symptoms, hospital admissions and development of numerous health outcomes including death. The study was conducted during April 2017 and April 2018. PM2.5 samples were collected over 24 h and every third day. The mean PM2.5 level was 13.4 μg m-3 (range: 1.17-39.1 μg m-3). PM2.5 levels exceeded the daily World Health Organization air quality guideline (25 μg m-3) on 14 occasions. The mean soot level was 1.38 m-1 × 10-5 (range: 0 to 5.38 m-1 × 10-5). Cl-, NO3 -, SO4 2-, Al, Ca, Fe, Mg, Na and Zn were detected in the PM2.5 samples. The geographical origin of air masses that passed Cape Town was estimated using the Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory software. Four air masses were identified in the cluster analysis: Atlantic-Ocean-WSW, Atlantic-Ocean-SW, Atlantic-Ocean-SSW and Indian-Ocean. The population of Cape Town may experience various health outcomes from the outdoor exposure to PM2.5 and the chemical composition of PM2.5.

Model for assessing health damage from air pollution in quarrying area - Case study at Tan Uyen quarry, Ho Chi Minh megapolis, Vietnam

Vietnam has a great demand for stone exploitation for the development of the country's infrastructure, reaching 181 million m³ in 2020. Mining activities are always accompanied by environmental pollution, negatively affecting public health. To accurately assess the level of pollution, as well as quantify the effect of air pollution on human health, a number of structures, methods, and models provide tools to assess the benefits of this control for public health and related economic values. However, there has been no research in Vietnam applied specifically to this type of stone exploitation. This study offers a model to evaluate the economic damage caused by dust exposure from activities related to quarrying, overcoming the lack of continuous monitoring data. The area selected for research is Binh Duong province, in the Ho Chi Minh megapolis, Vietnam, which has two construction quarries, Thuong Tan and Tan My, with a current annual production of approximately 4–5 million m³. The calculation results show that the damage to human health is estimated at approximately 9,643 billion dong a year, equivalent to 15.03 million USD. In addition, if the standard criteria are tightened, damage will continue to increase. This study also analyses some of the difficulties and limitations in the modelling process.

Fine Particulate Air Pollution, Public Service, and Under-Five Mortality: A Cross-Country Empirical Study

The impacts of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) air pollution on health outcomes, especially those of children, have attracted worldwide attention. Based on the PM_2.5 concentration data of 94 countries, including the least developed countries estimated by satellite observations in nearly 20 years, this paper investigated the impacts of PM_2.5 pollution on under-five mortality rate (U5MR) and analyzed the role of public service in moderating the PM_2.5-mortality relationship. Results indicated that PM_2.5 pollution had significantly positive influence on U5MR globally. However, the effects of fine particulate pollution on child mortality were heterogeneous in terms of their significance and degrees in countries with different levels of development. A further test based on panel threshold model revealed that public service, measured by public education spending and sanitation service, played a positive moderating role in the PM_2.5-mortality relationship. Specifically, when the ratio of public education expenditure in GDP of a country exceeded the first threshold value 3.39% and the second threshold value 5.47%, the magnitude of the impacts of PM_2.5 pollution on U5MR significantly decreased accordingly. When the percentage of population with access to improved sanitation facilities in a country was over 41.3%, the health damaging effects were reduced by more than half. This paper fills the current gap of PM_2.5 research in least developed countries and provides key policy recommendations.

A study of cardiorespiratory related mortality as a result of exposure to black carbon

INTRODUCTION

Air pollution is a global phenomenon which invariably leads to a serious environmental and health related sequalae. "Black carbon" (BC), a subset of fine particulate matter ≤2.5 μm (PM_2.5), is a fossil fuel emission by-product and has more recently been recognized as a major health hazard. The objective of this study is to statistically analyze the BC concentration and its correlation with cardiorespiratory related mortality and to estimate the benefits of BC reduction on the health of the population in the capital city of Tehran.

METHODS

We analyzed the ambient air BC concentration and its correlation with cardiorespiratory related mortality and conducted health impact assessment of BC in Tehran (Jan 2018-Jan 2019). The data pertaining to BC concentration was obtained from Tehran's four major pollution monitoring stations. The mortality data was obtained from Tehran's cemetery registry. We calculated and analyzed BC concentration statistics including the mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, skewness, and kurtosis. We then assessed the cross-correlation and temporal relationship (0-7 days) between the daily mean concentration of BC for the entire city and cardiorespiratory related mortality. The BenMAP software was utilized to estimate the potential reduction in cardiorespiratory related mortality rates if BC concentration is reduced. Three hypothetical scenarios were employed in the analysis, utilizing the BenMAP software: (I) BC concentration was completely removed from the ambient air; (II) BC concentration was eliminated, and the remaining (non-BC portion of) PM_2.5 concentration was reverted to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s standard level (i.e., 35 μg/m³); and (III) The BC emission during the night (22:00 h-6:00 h, when heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) are allowed to commute in the city) was distributed throughout the whole day. Since the planetary boundary layer during daytime is much higher than that of nighttime, with the same rate of emission, lower concentrations are spread during the whole day.

RESULTS

The trend of BC concentration variation revealed a persistently higher emission of BC during the nighttime, which is consistent with the large-scale operation of HDVs during these hours in the city of Tehran. We observed a direct correlation between BC concentration and cardiorespiratory related mortality. Analysis also showed a 1.4-day lag period from the time of exposure to BC polluted air and respiratory related deaths, and 2 days for cardiovascular related deaths. As a result, the reduction in BC has significant beneficial effects in reducing potentially preventable cardiorespiratory related mortality. The aforementioned three scenarios for age groups of 30 and above yielded the following results: (I) 11,369 (126 per 100,000 population), (II) 15,386 (171 per 100,000 population), and (III) 2552 (28 per 100,000 population) potentially preventable all-cause (including cardiorespiratory) related deaths annually.

CONCLUSIONS

The BC concentration is relatively high in Tehran and HDVs have a major role in emission of this pollutant. A direct correlation between BC concentration and cardiorespiratory related mortality is observed. There are considerable health benefits in reducing BC concentration in this city. Our findings highlight the urgent need to actively curtail emissions of this harmful pollutant. This can be achieved through utilizing control mechanisms such as particulate filters or amending traffic laws.

Health benefits on cardiocerebrovascular disease of reducing exposure to ambient fine particulate matter in Tianjin, China

With the development of the industrialization level in China, high concentrations of fine particulate matter (≤ 2.5 μg/m³ in aerodynamic diameter (PM_2.5)) could have a great impact on the health of the population. Our study is to quantify the health benefits on cardiocerebrovascular disease of reducing exposure to PM_2.5 in Tianjin, China. We obtained the data on cardiovascular disease (CVD), ischemic heart disease (IHD), and cerebrovascular disease (CD) mortalities to quantify the association between CVD, CD, and IHD mortalities and PM_2.5 and calculate health and economic benefits when the annual average concentration of PM_2.5 was reduced to National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) and World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines by using our concentration response (C-R) functions. There were 435.22 (95% CI 253.86 to 616.57) all-cause, 130.22 (95% CI 66.34 to194.09) IHD, and 204.07 (95% CI 111.66 to 296.47) CD deaths attributed to PM_2.5 and the economic benefits obtained by preventing all-cause, IHD, and CD mortalities were equivalent to be 2.79%, 0.83%, and 1.31% of Baodi's GDP in Tianjin in 2017, respectively. PM_2.5 concentration was positive with all-cause, IHD, and CD mortalities in rural, suburban, and urban area of Tianjin, China. Meanwhile, the number of avoidable deaths and economic cost of reducing PM_2.5 concentrations to NAAQS and WHO guidelines was highest in the rural area.

Quantifying the Health Burden Misclassification from the Use of Different PM2.5 Exposure Tier Models: A Case Study of London

Exposure to PM_2.5 has been associated with increased mortality in urban areas. Hence, reducing the uncertainty in human exposure assessments is essential for more accurate health burden estimates. Here, we quantified the misclassification that occurred when using different exposure approaches to predict the mortality burden of a population using London as a case study. We developed a framework for quantifying the misclassification of the total mortality burden attributable to exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) in four major microenvironments (MEs) (dwellings, aboveground transportation, London Underground (LU) and outdoors) in the Greater London Area (GLA), in 2017. We demonstrated that differences exist between five different exposure Tier-models with incrementally increasing complexity, moving from static to more dynamic approaches. BenMap-CE, the open source software developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, was used as a tool to achieve spatial distribution of the ambient concentration by interpolating the monitoring data to the unmonitored areas and ultimately estimating the change in mortality on a fine resolution. Indoor exposure to PM_2.5 is the largest contributor to total population exposure concentration, accounting for 83% of total predicted population exposure, followed by the London Underground, which contributes approximately 15%, despite the average time spent there by Londoners being only 0.4%. After incorporating housing stock and time-activity data, moving from static to most dynamic metric, Inner London showed the highest reduction in exposure concentration (i.e., approximately 37%) and as a result the largest change in mortality (i.e., health burden/mortality misclassification) was observed in central GLA. Overall, our findings showed that using outdoor concentration as a surrogate for total population exposure but ignoring different exposure concentration that occur indoors and time spent in transit, led to a misclassification of 1174–1541 mean predicted mortalities in GLA. We generally confirm that increasing the complexity and incorporating important microenvironments, such as the highly polluted LU, could significantly reduce the misclassification of health burden assessments.

PM2.5-Related Health Economic Benefits Evaluation Based on Air Improvement Action Plan in Wuhan City, Middle China

On the basis of PM_2.5 data of the national air quality monitoring sites, local population data, and baseline all-cause mortality rate, PM_2.5-related health economic benefits of the Air Improvement Action Plan implemented in Wuhan in 2013–2017 were investigated using health-impact and valuation functions. Annual avoided premature deaths driven by the average concentration of PM_2.5 decrease were evaluated, and the economic benefits were computed by using the value of statistical life (VSL) method. Results showed that the number of avoided premature deaths in Wuhan are 21,384 (95% confidence interval (CI): 15,004 to 27,255) during 2013–2017, due to the implementation of the Air Improvement Action Plan. According to the VSL method, the obtained economic benefits of Huangpi, Wuchang, Hongshan, Xinzhou, Jiang’an, Hanyang, Jiangxia, Qiaokou, Jianghan, Qingshan, Caidian, Dongxihu, and Hannan District were 8.55, 8.19, 8.04, 7.39, 5.78, 4.84, 4.37, 4.04, 3.90, 3.30, 2.87, 2.42, and 0.66 billion RMB (1 RMB = 0.1417 USD On 14 October 2019), respectively. These economic benefits added up to 64.35 billion RMB (95% CI: 45.15 to 82.02 billion RMB), accounting for 4.80% (95% CI: 3.37% to 6.12%) of the total GDP of Wuhan in 2017. Therefore, in the process of formulating a regional air quality improvement scheme, apart from establishing hierarchical emission-reduction standards and policies, policy makers should give integrated consideration to the relationship between regional economic development, environmental protection and residents’ health benefits. Furthermore, for improving air quality, air quality compensation mechanisms can be established on the basis of the status quo and trends of air quality, population distribution, and economic development factors.

A Joint Control Model Based on Emission Rights Futures Trading for Regional Air Pollution That Accounts for the Impacts on Employment

To reduce air pollutant control costs and solve the problem of decreased employment caused by air pollution control, we established a double-objective optimization Joint Control Model (JCM) based on emission rights futures trading. The JCM calculates the spot price of emission rights, classifies regions in the trading market for emission rights into buyers and sellers, and calculates the optimal cooperative pollution abatement quantity. Compared with a non-cooperative control mode, the JCM generated benefits of US$2485.19 × 106. We then used a Game Quadratic Programming (GQP) method to distribute the benefits, and applied the JCM to a case study of the abatement of sulfur dioxide in China’s Shanxi, Henan, and Shaanxi provinces. We found that: (i) Compared with a JCM that does not account for employment, employment under the JCM increased by 3.20 × 103 people, and the pollution control cost decreased by US$11.20 × 106 under the JCM that considered employment. The effect of the latter model is better than that of the former. (ii) Employment under the JCM increased by 18.80 × 104 people compared with that under a territorial control mode, reducing the cost by US$99.73 × 106. The JCM is helpful for all participating regions to balance environmental and livelihood issues in the process of air pollution control to achieve sustainable development.