First evaluation of pesticides occurrence in groundwater of Tidone Valley, an area with intensive viticulture

Reusable magnetic mixture of CuFe2O4-Fe2O3 and TiO2 for photocatalytic degradation of pesticides in water

Photocatalysis is a promising treatment method to remove pollutants from water. TiO2-P25 is a commercially available model photocatalyst, which very efficiently degrades organic pollutants under UVA light exposure. However, the collection and the recovery of TiO2-P25 from cleaned water poses significant difficulties, severely limiting its usability. To address this challenge, we have prepared a sintered mixture of TiO2-P25 nanomaterials and magnetic CuFe2O4-Fe2O3 nanocomposites. The mixture material was shown to contain spinel ferrite, hematite and maghemite structures, copper predominantly in Cu2+ and iron predominantly in Fe3+ state. The CuFe2O4-Fe2O3 and TiO2-P25 mixture demonstrated magnetic collectability from processed water and photocatalytic activity, which was evidenced through the successful photodegradation of the herbicide 2,4-D. Our findings suggest that the sintered mixture of CuFe2O4-Fe2O3 and TiO2-P25 holds a promise for improving photocatalytic water treatment, with the potential to overcome current photocatalyst recovery issues.

Green finance reform and application intensity of chemical fertilizer and pesticide: policy evidence from China

The environmental hazards resulting from the excessive application of pesticides and fertilizers have been an inevitable agricultural production issue in various countries around the world. New technologies and policies are constantly trying to improve their application efficiency. This paper utilizes panel data of the provincial level in China from 2009 to 2019 to empirically study the effect of green finance reform policies on the chemical fertilizer application intensity (FAI) and pesticide application intensity (PAI). Standard difference-in-differences (DID), synthetic DID, difference-in-difference-in differences (DDD), and spatial DID models are constructed for specific empirical analysis. The findings can be concluded as follows: (1) A unit of the green finance reform policy reduces FAI by 0.0144 and PAI by 1.7921 by promoting green technology innovation. (2) Government financial extractive capacity hinders the reduction effect of green finance on PAI. (3) Coastal geographical location is conducive to reducing PAI through green finance reform. (4) FAI and PAI show positive spatial autocorrelations, and the influence of green finance reform overflows to surrounding areas. The research results can provide policy references for countries around the world to promote the green development of agriculture and reduce environmental pollution.

A powerful helper of azoxystrobin degradation-the unique mechanism of UGT72E2 promoting environmental degradation of azoxystrobin

In recent years, environmental pollutants such as pesticide residues have become one of the severe public problems that endanger the ecological environment and affect human health. The development of biotechnology to rapidly and efficiently degrade pesticides is essential to reduce their environmental risks. Azoxystrobin (AZ) is representative of the most widely used agricultural fungicide in the world. A large number of studies have shown that AZ has toxic effects on non-target organisms such as fish, algae, earthworms, etc., which may pose a potential threat to the environmental ecosystem. Therefore, it is particularly important to develop new AZ phytoremediation methods. Based on the constructed Arabidopsis UGT72E2 knockout (KO) and overexpression (OE) lines, this study found that overexpression of UGT72E2 in Arabidopsis can enhance resistance to exogenous AZ stress and maintain a relatively stable physiological state while enhancing the metabolic degradation of AZ. Correspondingly, knockout mutants showed the opposite results. The results showed that the AZ glycosylation and malonyl glycosylation products produced by UGT72E2 overexpression lines increased by 10%~20% compared with normal lines, and increased by 7%~47% compared with gene knockout plants, and exhibited lower phytotoxicity. In summary, our findings highlight the critical role of UGT72E2 overexpression in constructing new varieties of phytoremediation and may provide new ideas for reducing the indirect or direct risks of pesticides or other environmental pollutants to non-target organisms and improving biological and environmental resilience.

Global distribution of pesticides in freshwater resources and their remediation approaches

The role of pesticides in enhancing global agricultural production is magnificent. However, their unmanaged use threatens water resources and individual health. A significant pesticide concentration leaches to groundwater or reaches surface waters through runoff. Water contaminated with pesticides may cause acute or chronic toxicity to impacted populations and exert adverse environmental effects. It necessitates the monitoring and removing pesticides from water resources as prime global concerns. This work reviewed the global occurrences of pesticides in potable water and discussed the conventional and advanced technologies for the removal of pesticides. The concentration of pesticides highly varies in freshwater resources across the globe. The highest concentration of α-HCH (6.538 μg/L, at Yucatan, Mexico), lindane (6.08 μg/L at Chilka lake, Odisha, India), 2,4, DDT (0.90 μg/L, at Akkar, Lebanon), chlorpyrifos (9.1 μg/L, at Kota, Rajasthan, India), malathion (5.3 μg/L, at Kota, Rajasthan, India), atrazine (28.0 μg/L, at Venado Tuerto City, Argentina), endosulfan (0.78 μg/L, at Yavtmal, Maharashtra, India), parathion (4.17 μg/L, at Akkar, Lebanon), endrin (3.48 μg/L, at KwaZuln-Natl Province, South Africa) and imidacloprid (1.53 μg/L, at Son-La province, Vietnam) are reported. Pesticides can be significantly removed through physical, chemical, and biological treatment. Mycoremediation technology has the potential for up to 90% pesticide removal from water resources. Complete removal of the pesticides through a single biological treatment approach such as mycoremediation, phytoremediation, bioremediation, and microbial fuel cells is still a challenging task, however, the integration of two or more biological treatment approaches can attain complete removal of pesticides from water resources. Physical methods along with oxidation methods can be employed for complete removal of pesticides from drinking water.

First emerging pollutants profile in groundwater of the volcanic active island of El Hierro (Canary Islands)

Emerging pollutants (EPs) are substances present in wastewater that have not been studied, previously, leading to ambiguity in regulations for their presence in water resources. Territories that are highly dependent on groundwater resources are at a high risk of suffering the consequences of EP contamination due to their dependence on good quality groundwater for agriculture, drinking, and other uses. A relevant example is El Hierro (Canary Islands), which was declared a biosphere reserve by the UNESCO in 2000 and is almost completely powered by renewable energies. Using high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, the concentrations of 70 EPs were assessed at 19 sampling points on El Hierro. The results indicated that no pesticides were present in groundwater; however, varied concentration levels of ultraviolet (UV) filters, UV stabilizers/blockers and pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) were found, with La Frontera being the most contaminated municipality. With regard to the different installation types, piezometers and wells were the ones showing the highest concentrations for most EPs. Interestingly, the depth of sampling correlated positively with EP concentration, and four different clusters virtually dividing the island into two areas could be identified based on the presence of each EP. More studies should be performed to ascertain why a few of the EPs showed considerably high concentrations at different depths. The results obtained highlight the need to, not only implement remediation measures once EPs have reached the soil and aquifers, but also to avoid their incorporation into the water cycle via homes, animal husbandry, agriculture, industry, and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs).

Resveratrol ameliorates penconazole-induced cardiotoxicity by inhibition of oxidative stress and apoptosis in zebrafish larvae

Penconazole (PEN) is a typical systemic triazole fungicide with cardiac toxic effects. Resveratrol (RES) is a natural polyphenolic phytochemical with antioxidation properties. This study aimed to investigate if RES could protect against PEN-induced cardiotoxicity and to determine the underlying mechanisms. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to 0, 0.5, 1 and 2 mg/L of PEN from 4 to 96 h post fertilization (hpf) and cardiac developmental toxicity was assessed. Our results showed that PEN decreased hatching rate, survival rate, heart rate and body length, with increased malformation rate and spontaneous movement. PEN induced pericardial edema and abnormal cardiac structure in myl7:egfp transgenic zebrafish, as well as downregulation of cardiac development related genes (nkx2.5, tbx2.5, gata4, noto, and vmhc). In addition, PEN elevated oxidative stress via reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and triggered cardiomyocytic apoptosis by upregulation of p53, bcl-2, bax and caspase 3. These adverse outcomes were counteracted by RES, indicating that RES ameliorated PEN-induced cardiotoxicity by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis in zebrafish. Taken together, this study revealed the important role of oxidative stress in PEN-induced cardiotoxicity and identified dietary RES supplementation as a novel strategy to mitigate its toxicity.

Glyphosate, glufosinate ammonium, and AMPA occurrences and sources in groundwater of hilly vineyards

Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine] and glufosinate ammonium [ammonium dl-homoalanin-4-(methyl) phosphinate] are broad-spectrum, nonselective, post-emergence herbicides extensively used in various applications for weed control in both agricultural and non-crop areas. Aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) is the major degradation product of glyphosate found in plants, water, and soil. Due to glyphosate's presumed low mobility, its monitoring in European water was limited. Recently both glyphosate and AMPA have been detected in several groundwater samples in Europe, U.S, Canada, Argentina, and China. Understanding the sources of these substances in water, especially in groundwater used for drinking, becomes a priority. In the present work the occurrences and the main drives of glyphosate, AMPA, and glufosinate ammonium in the groundwater of hilly vineyards located in the North-West of Italy were evaluated. Groundwater monitoring results showed frequent detection and concentrations above EQS_GW for glyphosate and AMPA, while glufosinate ammonium was never detected. More frequent occurrences and higher concentrations were detected in the samples collected from wells located in the farmyards, most of them being used for irrigation and/or preparation of PPPs mixtures. Indeed, AMPA was the only compound detected in one groundwater well used for drinking, at values bellow EQS_Gw/DWQS. Such monitoring results were not expected as the modelling estimations under local pedoclimatic conditions indicated no risk of leaching to groundwater. However, the modelling performance and output may have been influenced by the non-consideration of important specific processes. Integrating monitoring and modelling results with information concerning the agricultural practices adopted and the wells use and location, possible contamination drivers were identified. These include the non-agricultural use of glyphosate in the farmyard, the point source contamination of wells and the possible transport with the subsurface lateral inflow of water from up-hill vineyard. This study strengthens the position of SETAC EMAG-Pest GW group concerning the necessity of spatial and temporal contextualisation of groundwater monitoring for a better understanding of its contamination drivers by PPPs.

Swimming Behavior of Daphnia magna Is Altered by Pesticides of Concern, as Components of Agricultural Surface Water and in Acute Exposures

Pesticides with novel modes of action including neonicotinoids and anthranilic diamides are increasingly detected in global surface waters. Little is known about how these pesticides of concern interact in mixtures at environmentally relevant concentrations, a common exposure scenario in waterways impacted by pesticide pollution. We examined effects of chlorantraniliprole (CHL) and imidacloprid (IMI) on the sensitive invertebrate, Daphnia magna. Exposures were first performed using surface waters known to be contaminated by agricultural runoff. To evaluate the seasonal variation in chemical concentration and composition of surface waters, we tested surface water samples taken at two time points: during an extended dry period and after a first flush storm event. In surface waters, the concentrations of CHL, IMI, and other pesticides of concern increased after first flush, resulting in hypoactivity and dose-dependent photomotor responses. We then examined mortality and behavior following single and binary chemical mixtures of CHL and IMI. We detected inverse photomotor responses and some evidence of synergistic effects in binary mixture exposures. Taken together, this research demonstrates that CHL, IMI, and contaminated surface waters all cause abnormal swimming behavior in D. magna. Invertebrate swimming behavior is a sensitive endpoint for measuring the biological effects of environmental pesticides of concern.

Assessment of risks, implications, and opportunities of waterborne neurotoxic pesticides

Pesticides are a well-known family of chemicals that have contaminated water systems globally. Four common subfamilies of pesticides include organochlorines, organophosphates, pyrethroids, and carbamate insecticides which have been shown to adversely affect the human nervous system. Studies have shown a link between pesticide exposure and decreased viability, proliferation, migration, and differentiation of murine neural stem cells. Besides human exposure directly through water systems, additional factors such as pesticide bioaccumulation, biomagnification and potential synergism due to co-exposure to other environmental contaminants must be considered. A possible avenue to investigate the molecular mechanisms and biomolecules impacted by the various classes of pesticides includes the field of -omics. Discovery of the precise molecular mechanisms behind pesticide-mediated neurodegenerative disorders may facilitate development of targeted therapeutics. Likewise, discovery of pesticide biodegradation pathways may enable novel approaches for water system bioremediation using genetically engineered microorganisms. In this mini-review, we discuss recently established harmful impacts of various categories of pesticides on the nervous system and the application of -omics field for discovery, validation, and mitigation of pesticide neurotoxicity.

Occurrence of organic pollutants in the River Itchen and River Test-two chalk streams in Southern England, UK

The River Itchen and River Test, two chalk streams in Southern England, are sites of special scientific interest. These ecosystems face a number of environmental pressures from anthropogenic inputs of organic pollutants. Hence, we investigated the occurrence of these chemicals within the two catchments. Spot water samples (1 L) were collected at nineteen sites along the catchment on two occasions (March and June 2019). Samples were extracted (HLB-L sorbent disks) and analysed using high-resolution liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Compounds were identified against commercially available databases. Using this approach, we found 115 pharmaceutical and personal care products, 81 plant protection products and 35 industrial chemicals. This complex mixture of pollutants covered a range of physico-chemical properties and included priority substances in the EU Water Framework Directive or currently on the third Watch List. Both rivers had similar chemical profiles for both months. Herbicides and fungicides were dominant in the spring, whereas insecticides occurred more frequently in the summer. Point discharges from wastewater treatment plants were the main source of pharmaceutical and personal care products. Agricultural activities were the main contributor to the presence of plant protection products. The impact of these organic chemicals on the ecology, particularly on macroinvertebrate biodiversity, is unknown and warrants further investigation. Our suspect screening approach could guide future toxicological investigations to assess the environmental impacts of these diverse chemicals.

Grapevine response to a Dittrichia viscosa extract and a Bacillus velezensis strain

The present study aims to evaluate the response of the three Mediterranean local grapevines 'Garnacha Blanca', 'Garnacha Tinta', and 'Macabeo' to treatments with biocontrol products, namely a botanical extract (Akivi, Dittrichia viscosa extract) and a beneficial microorganism (Bacillus UdG, Bacillus velezensis). A combination of transcriptomics and metabolomics approaches were chosen in order to study grapevine gene expression and to identify gene marker candidates, as well as, to determine differentially concentrated grapevine metabolites in response to biocontrol product treatments. Grapevine plants were cultivated in greenhouse under controlled conditions and submitted to the treatments. Thereafter, leaves were sampled 24h after treatment to carry out the gene expression study by RT-qPCR for the three cultivars and by RNA-sequencing for 'Garnacha Blanca'. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were investigated for both treatments and highly influenced DEGs were selected to be tested in the three cultivars as treatment gene markers. In addition, the extraction of leaf components was performed to quantify metabolites, such as phytohormones, organic acids, and phenols. Considering the upregulated and downregulated genes and the enhanced metabolites concentrations, the treatments had an effect on jasmonic acid, ethylene, and phenylpropanoids defense pathways. In addition, several DEG markers were identified presenting a stable overexpression after the treatments in the three grapevine cultivars. These gene markers could be used to monitor the activity of the products in field treatments. Further research will be necessary to confirm these primary results under field conditions.

Using bibliometrics to analyze the state of art of pesticide use in vineyard agrosystems: a review

The production of wine dates to ancient civilization and has heavily influenced different landscapes around the globe. Nowadays, wine is still an important sector in terms of land use and income source in many countries, more specifically in the European Mediterranean region. However, to control pests and regulate wine growth, the extensive use of pesticides is common. The effects and persistence of agrochemicals in the environment is well known and defined in scientific literature as well as the environmental and human health risks of these compounds. The purpose of this review was to do a state of art of worldwide production of academic literature using bibliometric principles and analysis to identify thematic areas of this type of agriculture, and its challenges in a changing world. For this review, the focus is on current practices to see what may evolve for more sustainable viticulture. It was found that the three main producers of wine, i.e., Spain, France, and Italy, are also three top producers of scientific literature on this topic. The use of bibliometric methodologies defined the main thematic areas on this subject as follows: soil-plant transfer of agrochemicals, heavy metal accumulation in vineyard soils, management practices in viticulture, water pollution transport, effects of viticulture on the living part of soil, sustainable alternatives to pesticides. We found that Spain, France, and Italy work the most on developing sustainable alternatives for agricultural practices; however, sustainable alternatives and practices were also the least developed thematic in general.

Review: Presence, distribution and current pesticides used in Spanish agricultural practices

To guarantee an adequate food supply for the world's growing population, intensive agriculture is necessary to ensure efficient food production. The use of pesticides helps maintain maximum productivity in intensive agriculture by minimizing crop losses due to pests. However, pesticide contamination of surface waters constitutes a major problem as they are resistant to degradation and soluble enough to be transported in water. In recent years, all groups of pesticides defined by the World Health Organization have increased their use and, therefore, their prevalence in the different environmental compartments that can have harmful effects. Despite this effort, there is no rigorous monitoring program that quantifies and controls the toxic effects of each pesticide. However, multiple scientific studies have been published by specialized research groups in which this information is disseminated. Therefore, any attempt to systematize this information is relevant. This review offers a current overview of the presence and distribution of the most widely-used pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides) by crop type and an evaluation of the relationships between their uses and environmental implications in Spain. The data demonstrated that there are correlations between the presence of specific pesticides used in the main crops and their presence in the environmental compartments. We have found preliminary data pointing to existing associations between specific pesticides used in the main crops and their presence in environmental compartments within different geographical areas of Spain; this should be the subject of further investigation.

Global groundwater vulnerability for Pharmaceutical and Personal care products (PPCPs): The scenario of second decade of 21st century

The global production of PPCPs have increased by multiple folds promoting excessive exposure of its metabolites to humans via different aquatic systems. The higher residence time of toxic precursors of these metabolites pose direct human health risk. Among the different aquatic systems, the contamination of groundwater by PPCPs is the most concerning threat. This threat is especially critical considering the lesser oxidizing potential of the groundwater as compared to freshwater/river water. A major challenge also arises due to excessive dependency of the world's population on groundwater, which is exponentially increasing with time. This makes the identification and characterization of spatial contamination hotspots highly probabilistic as compared to other freshwater systems. The situation is more vulnerable in developing countries where there is a reported inadequacy of wastewater treatment facilities, thereby forcing the groundwater to behave as the only available sequestrating sink for all these contaminants. With increased consumption of antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals compounds, these wastes have proven capability in terms of enhancing the resistance among the biotic community of the soil systems, which ultimately can become catastrophic and carcinogenic in near future. Recent studies are supporting the aforementioned concern where compounds like diclofenac (analgesic) have attained a concentration of 1.3 mgL^-1 in the aquifer systems of Delhi, India. The situation is far worse for developed nations where prolonged and indiscriminate usage of antidepressants and antibiotics have life threating consequences. It has been confirmed that certain compounds like ofloxacin (antibiotics) and bis-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate are present in some of the most sensitive wells/springs of the United States and Mexico. The current trend of the situation has been demonstrated by integrating a comparative approach of the published literatures in last three years. This review provides first-hand information report for formulating a directive policy framework for tackling PPCPs issues in the groundwater system.

Developmental, toxicological effects and recovery patterns in Xenopus laevis after exposure to penconazole-based fungicide during the metamorphosis process

Fungicides are a group of chemicals causing pollution of freshwater ecosystems due to their widespread use in agriculture. However, their endocrine disrupting effects are less studied than herbicides and insecticides. The aim of this study was to evaluate the developmental and toxicological effects and recovery patterns of penconazole-based fungicide (PBF) during Xenopus laevis metamorphosis. For this purpose, firstly, the 96 h median lethal (LC₅₀) and effective (EC₅₀) concentrations and minimum concentration to inhibit growth (MCIG) values of PBF were estimated for X. laevis as 4.97, 3.55 and 2.31 mg/L respectively, using Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus (FETAX) on Nieuwkoop-Faber (NF) stage 8 embryos. FETAX results showed PBF formulation was slightly teratogenic with a 1.4 teratogenic index; most recorded malformations were gut, abdominal edema, and tail curvature. The Subacute Amphibian Metamorphosis Assay (AMA) was modified based on acute FETAX results, and used to evaluate toxic effects and recovery patterns of relatively low PBF concentrations on metamorphosis using morphological and biochemical markers. NF Stage 51 tadpoles were exposed to two separate groups of each concentration for seven days in the AMA. Secondly, tadpoles of one group of each concentration continued to be exposed to PBF for the next 7 and 14 days while the other group was kept in a pesticide-free environment (depuration/recovery). Various morphological and biochemical markers were measured homogenate samples of tadpoles from exposure and recovery groups. Continuous exposure to relatively low PBF concentrations caused oxidative stress, toxic, and endocrine disrupting effects in the AMA, leading us to conclude that it has negative effects on frog health and development during the recovery period when PBF exposure is terminated. The glutathione S-transferase, glutathione reductase, catalase, carboxylesterase, and acetylcholinesterase activities were higher than the control group transferred to pesticide-free media for 14 days after the 7 days exposure and indicate persistent PBF impact.

Using the Pesticide Toxicity Index to show the potential ecosystem benefits of on-farm biobeds

The influent and effluent of two single-cell biobeds (Province of Alberta, Canada) and two dual cell-biobeds (Province of Saskatchewan, Canada) were monitored during a number of growing seasons. A total of 59 unique pesticide active ingredients were detected, with all biobed influent samples (n = 54) and 93% of effluent samples (n = 54) containing pesticide mixtures. About one-half of the effluent samples in both single-cell (56%) and dual-cell (45%) biobeds contained active ingredients that have Groundwater Ubiquity Score (GUS) values >2.8 and so were more likely to move through the biomatrix materials into effluent. The Pesticide Toxicity Index (PTI) calculated for aquatic indicator species (i.e., vascular and nonvascular plants, invertebrates, and fish) was always larger for influent samples (e.g., median PTI >500 for invertebrates in dual-cell biobed) than effluent samples (i.e., median PTI <1). As such, this study demonstrates the potential ecosystem benefits of the broad adoption of on-farm biobeds in the Canadian Prairies for recycling tank rinsate as a strategy to accelerate a green economy. Although biobeds were highly effective in reducing the concentrations for pesticides with a wide range of soil organic carbon coefficient and half-life values, the biobed effectiveness was relatively poor for the herbicides clopyralid, diclofop, fluroxypyr, and imazethapyr. Clopyralid (3.02), fluroxypyr (3.70), and imazethapyr (3.90) all have relatively high GUS values (>2.8) and are thus more likely to be detected in effluent than active ingredients with smaller GUS values. This suggests that further improvements in biosystem design need to be made for optimizing the recycling of these pesticides.

Use of cover crops in vineyards to prevent groundwater pollution by copper and organic fungicides. Soil column studies

Several fungicides, such as copper and organic products (synthetic or natural), are currently being used in vineyards to control downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) resulting in soil, surface water, and groundwater pollution. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of using cover crops as an agricultural practice in vineyards to protect soil and groundwater pollution. For that purpose, we performed different soil column studies to quantify soil leaching of selected fungicides (copper, dimethomorph, oxathiapiprolin, zoxamide, acibenzolar-s-methyl, and laminarin) following a rainfall event after a conventional fungicide vineyard application. Two types of vineyard soils (loam and sandy-loam soil textures) and three ground covers (bare ground, monoculture cover, and polyculture cover) were assessed. These studies were completed with hydroponic assays to check the effectiveness of cover roots in the fungicide degradation. Mass balance results show that whereas 3 fungicides (Cu, zoxamide, and dimethomorph) were leached through sandy soil columns, only copper was leached from loam soil columns. The effect of cover crops was only significant for Cu and zoxamide when fungicides were applied 24 h before the rain event, reducing the fungicide leaching by 30%. Hydroponic studies showed that cover roots enhanced the kinetic rates of almost all tested fungicides by 5-467%, suggesting that they are relevant to improving the degradation of fungicides in the soil column. These results are relevant to drawing up recommendations on the use of cover crops to protect soil and groundwater pollution by fungicides.

Current status of pesticide effects on environment, human health and it's eco-friendly management as bioremediation: A comprehensive review

Pesticides are either natural or chemically synthesized compounds that are used to control a variety of pests. These chemical compounds are used in a variety of sectors like food, forestry, agriculture and aquaculture. Pesticides shows their toxicity into the living systems. The World Health Organization (WHO) categorizes them based on their detrimental effects, emphasizing the relevance of public health. The usage can be minimized to a least level by using them sparingly with a complete grasp of their categorization, which is beneficial to both human health and the environment. In this review, we have discussed pesticides with respect to their global scenarios, such as worldwide distribution and environmental impacts. Major literature focused on potential uses of pesticides, classification according to their properties and toxicity and their adverse effect on natural system (soil and aquatic), water, plants (growth, metabolism, genotypic and phenotypic changes and impact on plants defense system), human health (genetic alteration, cancer, allergies, and asthma), and preserve food products. We have also described eco-friendly management strategies for pesticides as a green solution, including bacterial degradation, myco-remediation, phytoremediation, and microalgae-based bioremediation. The microbes, using catabolic enzymes for degradation of pesticides and clean-up from the environment. This review shows the importance of finding potent microbes, novel genes, and biotechnological applications for pesticide waste management to create a sustainable environment.

Unraveling the occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern in groundwater from urban setting: A combined multidisciplinary approach and self-organizing maps

In recent decades, changes in human behavior and new technologies have introduced thousands of new compounds into the environment called "contaminants of emerging concern" (CEC). These compounds have been detected in different environmental compartments such as soil, surface water, air, and groundwater. The presence of these contaminants in groundwater may pose risks to human health when used as potable water. In some urban areas in Brazil, groundwater is normally consumed without previous treatment. This study aimed to use statistical analysis by self-organizing maps (SOM) to evaluate the trends of CEC in urban groundwater systems. A total of 23 CEC compounds including pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and hormones were determined in groundwater samples using solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The CEC most frequently detected were atrazine and degradation products, fipronil, simazine, tebuconazole, hexazinone, and caffeine in concentrations up to 300 ng L^-1. All studied compounds were detected in groundwater at least in one sample. Patterns in the data through SOM have shown a strong positive correlation between atrazine, hexazinone, simazine, tebuthiuron, 2-hydroxyatrazine, and 17β-estradiol. The hormones estrone and testosterone also show a positive correlation due to their similar chemical properties. On the other hand, caffeine was detected in 90% of the samples, likely due to a population habit of taking daily a hot drink made of yerba mate associated with low rates of treated domestic sewage in the study area.

Particularities of Fungicides and Factors Affecting Their Fate and Removal Efficacy: A Review

Systemic fungicide use has increased over the last decades, despite the susceptibility of resistance development and the side effects to human health and the environment. Although herbicides and insecticides are detected more frequently in environmental samples, there are many fungicides that have the ability to enter water bodies due to their physicochemical properties and their increasing use. Key factors affecting fungicide fate in the environment have been discussed, including the non-target effects of fungicides. For instance, fungicides are associated with the steep decline in bumblebee populations. Secondary actions of certain fungicides on plants have also been reported recently. In addition, the use of alternative eco-friendly disease management approaches has been described. Constructed Wetlands (CWs) comprise an environmentally friendly, low cost, and efficient fungicide remediation technique. Fungicide removal within CWs is dependent on plant uptake and metabolism, absorption in porous media and soil, hydrolysis, photodegradation, and biodegradation. Factors related to the efficacy of CWs on the removal of fungicides, such as the type of CW, plant species, and the physicochemical parameters of fungicides, are also discussed in this paper. There are low-environmental-risk fungicides, phytohormones and other compounds, which could improve the removal performance of CW vegetation. In addition, specific parameters such as the multiple modes of action of fungicides, side effects on substrate microbial communities and endophytes, and plant physiological response were also studied. Prospects and challenges for future research are suggested under the prism of reducing the risk related to fungicides and enhancing CW performance.

Leaching and degradation of S-Metolachlor in undisturbed soil cores amended with organic wastes

Organic waste (OW) reuse in agriculture is a common practice fostered by benefits in terms of waste recycling and crop production. However, OW amendments potentially affect the fate of pesticide spread on fields to protect the crops from pests and weeds. The influence of OW on the sorption, degradation, and leaching of pesticides is generally studied for each mechanism separately under artificial laboratory conditions. Our study aims at evaluating the balance of these mechanisms under more realistic conditions to clarify the influence of three common OW amendments on the fate, in soil, of the widely used herbicide S-Metolachlor. We performed leaching experiments in large undisturbed soil cores amended with raw sewage sludge, composted sludge, and digested pig slurry (digestate), respectively. We monitored S-Metolachlor and its two main metabolites MET-OA and MET-ESA in the leachates during a succession of 10 rainfall events over 126 days. We also quantified the remaining S-Metolachlor and metabolites in the soil at the end of the experiments. S-Metolachlor leaching didn't exceed 0.1% of the applied dose with or without OW amendment. Despite a soil organic carbon increase of 3 to 32%, OW amendments did not significantly affect the amount of S-Metolachlor that leached through the soil (0.01 to 0.1%) nor its transformation rate (6.0 to 8.6%). However, it affected the degradation pathways with an increase of MET-OA relative to MET-ESA formed after OW amendment (28 to 54%) compared to the controls (8%). Concentration of S-Metolachlor and metabolites in the leachates of all treatments greatly exceeded the regulatory limit for groundwater intended for human consumption in Europe. These high concentrations were probably the consequence of preferential macropore flow. Colloids had comparable levels in the leachates after S-Metolachlor application. Dissolved organic carbon was also comparable in the controls, digestate, and sludge treatments but was 65% higher in the compost-amended cores. These results, along with a great variability among replicates inherent to experiments performed under realistic conditions, partly explain the limited impact of OW on the transport of S-Metolachlor.

Dual effects of entomopathogenic fungi on control of the pest Lobesia botrana and the pathogenic fungus Eutypella microtheca on grapevine

Background

Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) are the natural enemies of insect pests. Nevertheless, research on the use of EPF for simultaneous prevention of pest and disease agents on the same crop is limited. In this study, we explored the potential dual effects of three strains of the EPF Metarhizium anisopliae on the control of detrimental agents of Vitis vinifera L., including different developmental stages (larvae, pupae, and adult) of the insect pest Lobesia botrana and the phytopathogenic fungus Eutypella microtheca.

Methods

Laboratory pathogenicity trials were performed to examine the effects of the three M. anisopliae strains on the mortality rate of L. botrana. In addition, field trials were conducted to assess the biocontrol potential of one selected M. anisopliae strain on the larval stage of L. botrana. Moreover, inhibitory effects of the three EPF strains on E. microtheca growth were examined in vitro.

Results

All the M. anisopliae strains were highly effective, killing all stages of L. botrana as well as inhibiting the growth of E. microtheca. The in vitro mortality of larvae treated with the strains was over 75%, whereas that of treated pupae and adults was over 85%. The three EPF strains showed similar efficacy against larvae and adult stages; nevertheless, pupal mortality was observed to be strain dependent. Mortality of L. botrana larvae ranged from 64 to 91% at field conditions. Inhibition of E. microtheca growth reached 50% in comparison to the control.

Conclusions

Our study showed that M. anisopliae strains were highly effective in ensuring control of two different detrimental agents of V. vinifera L., providing new evidence to support the dual effects of entomopathogenic fungi.

Combined Developmental Toxicity of the Pesticides Difenoconazole and Dimethomorph on Embryonic Zebrafish

Difenoconazole (DIF) and dimethomorph (DIM) are widely used pesticides frequently detected together in environmental samples, so the deleterious effects of combined exposure warrant detailed examination. In this study, the individual and combined effects of DIM and DIF on conventional developmental parameters (hatching rate, deformity rate, lethality) and gene expression were measured in embryonic zebrafish. Both DIF and DIM interfered with normal zebrafish embryo development, and the most sensitive toxicity index for both was 96 h post-fertilization (hpf) deformity rate (BMDL₁₀ values of 0.30 and 1.10 mg/L, respectively). The combination of DIF and DIM had mainly synergistic deleterious effects on 96 hpf deformity and mortality rates. Transcriptome analysis showed that these compounds markedly downregulated expression of mcm family genes, cdk1, and cdc20, thereby potentially disrupting DNA replication and cell cycle progression. Enhanced surveillance for this pesticide combination is recommended as simultaneous environmental exposure may be substantially more harmful than exposure to either compound alone.

Collection of human and environmental data on pesticide use in Europe and Argentina: Field study protocol for the SPRINT project

Current farm systems rely on the use of Plant Protection Products (PPP) to secure high productivity and control threats to the quality of the crops. However, PPP use may have considerable impacts on human health and the environment. A study protocol is presented aiming to determine the occurrence and levels of PPP residues in plants (crops), animals (livestock), humans and other non-target species (ecosystem representatives) for exposure modelling and impact assessment. To achieve this, we designed a cross-sectional study to compare conventional and organic farm systems across Europe. Environmental and biological samples were/are being/will be collected during the 2021 growing season, at 10 case study sites in Europe covering a range of climate zones and crops. An additional study site in Argentina will inform the impact of PPP use on growing soybean which is an important European protein-source in animal feed. We will study the impact of PPP mixtures using an integrated risk assessment methodology. The fate of PPP in environmental media (soil, water and air) and in the homes of farmers will be monitored. This will be complemented by biomonitoring to estimate PPP uptake by humans and farm animals (cow, goat, sheep and chicken), and by collection of samples from non-target species (earthworms, fish, aquatic and terrestrial macroinvertebrates, bats, and farm cats). We will use data on PPP residues in environmental and biological matrices to estimate exposures by modelling. These exposure estimates together with health and toxicity data will be used to predict the impact of PPP use on environment, plant, animal and human health. The outcome of this study will then be integrated with socio-economic information leading to an overall assessment used to identify transition pathways towards more sustainable plant protection and inform decision makers, practitioners and other stakeholders regarding farming practices and land use policy.

Assessment of pesticide residues in waters and soils of a vineyard region and its temporal evolution

Sustainable agriculture practices and integrated pest management for avoiding environmental pollution are necessary to maintain a high yield in vineyard areas. Pesticide residues in groundwater in a vineyard area of La Rioja (Spain) have been evaluated in previous years, and they could now have varied after farmers have adopted the different measures recommended. Accordingly, this research's objectives were (i) to evaluate the occurrence and seasonal distribution (spring, summer, and autumn samplings) of pesticides (36) plus their degradation products (DP) (11) in water and soil samples (23 + 15) in La Rioja (Northern Spain), and (ii) to compare the current water quality (2019) with that determined previously (2011). A multi-residue method based on solid phase extraction (for water samples) or solid liquid extraction (for soil samples) and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) was used to determine and quantify pesticides. The results reveal the presence in waters of 30 compounds from those selected (15 fungicides + 2 DP, 7 insecticides + 1 DP, and 3 herbicides +2 DP), with 14 of them at concentrations > 0.1 μg L^-1 (water quality threshold for human consumption). The highest number of compounds was detected in summer (waters) and spring (soils). The pesticides most frequently detected in water samples were the fungicides metalaxyl, tebuconazole, and boscalid, with the last one being the compound found in the highest number of soil samples. The comparison of water pollution in 2011 and 2019 indicates a significant decrease in the total concentration of herbicides, fungicides and insecticides in 95-100%, 76-90%, and 42-85% of samples in the three campaigns, respectively. The results indicate that an optimized and sustainable use of pesticides in intensive and high-yield agricultural areas could reduce environmental pollution.

Occupational hazards, health costs, and pesticide handling practices among vegetable growers in Pakistan

Disregarding protective measures when handling pesticides in agricultural production imposes increased health risks and health costs on farmers as well as degrades the natural ecosystem. In Pakistan, where agriculture is the prime occupation in rural communities, there is overwhelming evidence of indiscriminate use of hazardous pesticides by farmers without taking adequate precautions. Using cross-sectional data, we examined personal protection and health costs to vegetable growers due to pesticide exposure and determinants of farmers' pesticide handling practices. The theory of averting behavior was used, and the possible factors affecting farmers' adoption of safety equipment and of disposal methods for pesticide containers were estimated using a logit model. Health effects (P < 0.05) and farmers' protection and health costs (P < 0.01) are found as important determinants of farmers' adoption of safety equipment and of disposal methods for pesticide containers. The mean protection and health cost of pesticide exposure per farmer per vegetable season in 2019 was US $3.60. Analytical outcomes indicate that safe and recommended pesticide handling practices are needed to be introduced through adequate integrated pest management (IPM) training programs and by improving farmers' formal education. Thus, creating awareness through IPM training programs among vegetable growers and enhancing formal education to encourage the adoption of precautionary measures and safe disposal methods for pesticide containers may reduce health risks and health costs. Findings imply that adoption of adequate pesticide handling practices would further help reduce occupational hazards and promote sustainable agriculture in Pakistan.

Investigating Evolution and Balance of Grape Sugars and Organic Acids in Some New Pathogen-Resistant White Grapevine Varieties

Breeding technologies exploiting marker-assisted selection have accelerated the selection of new cross-bred pathogen-resistant grapevine varieties. Several genotypes have been patented and admitted to cultivation; however, while their tolerance to fungal diseases has been the object of several in vitro and field studies, their productive and fruit composition traits during ripening are still poorly explored, especially in warm sites. In this study, five white pathogen-resistant varieties (PRV) listed as UD 80–100, Soreli, UD 30–080, Sauvignon Rytos, Sauvignon Kretos were tested over two consecutive seasons in a site with a seasonal heat accumulation of about 2000 growing degree days (GDDs), and their performances were compared to two Vitis vinifera L. traditional varieties, Ortrugo and Sauvignon Blanc. Berries were weekly sampled from pre-veraison until harvest to determine total soluble solids (TSS) and titratable acidity (TA) dynamics. All tested PRV exhibited an earlier onset of veraison and a faster sugar accumulation, as compared to Ortrugo and Sauvignon Blanc, especially in 2019. At harvest, Sauvignon Blanc was the cultivar showing the highest titratable acidity (8.8 g/L). Ortrugo and PRV showed very low TA (about 4.7 g/L), with the exception of Sauvignon Rytos (6.5 g/L). However, data disclose that Sauvignon Rytos higher acidity at harvest relies on higher tartrate (+1.1 to +2.2 g/L, as compared to other PRV), whereas in Sauvignon Blanc, high TA at harvest is due to either tartaric (+1 g/L, compared to PRV) and malic (+2.5 g/L, compared to PRV) acid retention. Overall, Sauvignon Rytos is the most suited PRV to be grown in a warm climate, where retaining adequate acidity at harvest is crucial to produce high-quality white wines. Nevertheless, canopy and ripening management strategies must be significantly adjusted, as compared to the standard practice employed for the parental Sauvignon Blanc.

Effects of penconazole enantiomers exposure on hormonal disruption in zebrafish Danio rerio (Hamilton, 1822)

PEN is a widely used triazole fungicide, usually used to control grape white rot. In the process of agricultural use, PEN will be scattered to the soil and water environment, which brings certain environmental safety risks. In this study, we used a 200-μg/L solution of Rac-PEN, (+)-PEN, and (-)-PEN to perform a 28-day exposure test on zebrafish. The results showed that long-term low-dose PEN exposure did not significantly change the growth factor K and the number of spawning of zebrafish. However, the content of four important hormones vitellogenin, 17β-estradiol, testosterone, and 11-ketotestosterone in zebrafish has changed significantly. Furthermore, we measured the expression of hypothalamus-pituitary-gonads-liver (HPGL) axis-related genes, and the results showed that the expressions of related genes in the brain, gonads, and liver all changed significantly. Combining the above results, we can conclude that PEN has obvious endocrine disrupting effect on zebrafish, and has gender-specific endocrine effects. Meanwhile, Rac-PEN and (+)-PEN had stronger effects on the endocrine system of zebrafish than (-)-PEN.

Insights into the Use of Phytoremediation Processes for the Removal of Organic Micropollutants from Water and Wastewater; A Review

Greater awareness of micropollutants present in water and wastewater motivates the search for effective methods of their neutralization. Although their concentration in waters is measured in micro- and nanograms per liter, even at those levels, they may cause serious health consequences for different organisms, including harmful effects on the functioning of the endocrine system of vertebrates. Traditional methods of wastewater treatment, especially biological methods used in municipal wastewater treatment plants, are not sufficiently effective in removing these compounds, which results in their presence in natural waters. The growing interest in phytoremediation using constructed wetlands as a method of wastewater treatment or polishing indicates a need for the evaluation of this process in the context of micropollutant removal. Therefore, the present work presents a systematic review of the effectiveness in the removal of micropollutants from polluted waters by processes based on plant used. The article also analyzes issues related to the impact of micropollutants on the physiological processes of plants as well as changes in general indicators of pollution caused by contact of wastewater with plants. Additionally, it is also the first review of the literature that focuses strictly on the removal of micropollutants through the use of constructed wetlands.

Influence of nitrogen-based fertilization on nitrates occurrence in groundwater of hilly vineyards

Nitrogen losses from intensive agricultural production may end up as high nitrate (NO₃^-) concentrations in groundwater, with a long-term impact on groundwater quality. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of fertilization practices used for grape cultivation on groundwater quality of Tidone Valley, northwest of Italy, following an integrated socio-hydrogeological approach that consists on (i) the involvement of 175 farmers in the description of agricultural and fertilization practices, using a survey of ad hoc questionnaires, (ii) the evaluation of NO₃^- occurrence in groundwater and (iii) the identification of NO₃^- sources through isotopic and hydrochemical analysis. In this area, as for certain particular Apennines shallow aquifers, groundwater is of reduced interest due to its limited storage capacity and there are insufficient wells currently monitored by the local Environmental Agency (ARPAE) to evaluate the impact of agricultural fertilization on existing local aquifers. Farmers' questionnaires results highlighted an extensive use of inorganic nitrogen fertilization and a tendency of farmers to follow their own experience for fertilization. Chemical analyses revealed high variability of major and trace elements concentrations isotope data. NO₃^- concentrations were significantly higher in deeper wells with respects to shallow wells. Isotopic results indicated that groundwater NO₃^- origin is inorganic, in agreement with the land use and the declared viticultural practices. Comparing groundwater NO₃^- occurrence from the studied area with values of entire Emilia-Romagna Region, only 7.7% of groundwater samples showed values above the EQS. (50 mg NO₃^-/L) between Nov 2017 and Sept 2018, while in the entire region 11.5% of groundwater samples showed values above the EQS in the same period. Considering that the vineyards surface in the studied area represents almost 75% of the entire regional vineyard surface, the obtained results suggest a low to moderate impact of viticulture on NO₃^-concentration of regional groundwater.

Effect of Organic Residues on Pesticide Behavior in Soils: A Review of Laboratory Research

The management of large volumes of organic residues generated in different livestock, urban, agricultural and industrial activities is a topic of environmental and social interest. The high organic matter content of these residues means that their application as soil organic amendments in agriculture is considered one of the more sustainable options, as it could solve the problem of the accumulation of uncontrolled wastes while improving soil quality and avoiding its irreversible degradation. However, the behavior of pesticides applied to increase crop yields could be modified in the presence of these amendments in the soil. This review article addresses how the adsorption–desorption, dissipation and leaching of pesticides in soils is affected by different organic residues usually applied as organic amendments. Based on the results reported from laboratory studies, the influence on these processes has been evaluated of multiple factors related to organic residues (e.g., origin, nature, composition, rates, and incubation time of the amended soils), pesticides (e.g., with different use, structure, characteristics, and application method), and soils with different physicochemical properties. Future perspectives on this topic are also included for highlighting the need to extend these laboratory studies to field and modelling scale to better assess and predict pesticide fate in amended soil scenarios.

Development and implementation of a qualitative framework for the sustainable management of wine companies

A growing number of companies around the world have already adopted sustainable practices as the majority of consumers are increasingly concerned with environmental and health issues. Despite this, lack of knowledge in sustainability can represent a limit to a sustainable conversion of Italian wine companies. This paper focuses on the development and suitability assessment of TERRITORY, a qualitative framework that assists sustainable management of winery farms with respect to biodiversity, neighbouring land use, agrochemical use, soil management, water management, landscape, site selection, heritage-cultural and aesthetic aspects, product quality and safety, human resource management, health of employees, community and consumers, economic repercussion of structures and territories, resource depletion, procurement practices and traceability. 47 wine companies have adopted the framework and its suitability has been tested and validated in a ten years trial. The present work reports the results of TERRITORY framework adoption in a winemaking cooperative, a grape and wine producer and a bottling firm, that respectively performed 76%, 92%, 62% (where 100% is maximum implementation of sustainable practices), with lower adherence in water, landscape and human resources management. The framework has driven wine companies towards improvements implementation: most relevant deal with a more effective communication to local community and consumers about health and safety, protection of biodiversity (towards a deeper knowledge of its territorial features), territorial values enforcement and improved communication. From the results it emerges that the framework guides the structural transformation of wine farms towards sustainable production and management by assisting the wine producers in identifying emerging opportunities in wine sector, such as fostering network with local communities, defining better soil, and water management through a multi-actor approach. Furthermore, it has been adopted in addressing the selection of quantitative indicators to adopt and monitoring campaigns.

Multi-actor approach and engagement strategy to promote the adoption of best management practices and a sustainable use of pesticides for groundwater quality improvement in hilly vineyards

The adoption of pesticide mitigation measures and innovation at farm level, are seen as a drivers to reach the sustainable water policy objectives. With the aim to prevent the pesticide pressure of hilly vineyards on groundwater contamination, a stepwise approach in Tidone Valley was applied using different consultation mechanisms and involvement strategies throughout the overall process. Face to face meetings, direct surveys, participatory monitoring and planning of several activities aiming to inform, educate, improve skills, change of individual behaviour or raise awareness, or even initiatives to build institutional trust or support for new investment in innovation are some examples. These activities allowed us to involve key actors of water use and governance (such as farmers, advisors, representatives of drinking water management, farmer's associations, Winemaking cooperatives, local Health Authority), and to have a deeper knowledge of the context agricultural practices, of farmer's knowledge and skills concerning factors influencing water contamination and also to promote the most suitable Best Management Practices aimed at limiting the pesticide occurrence in groundwater. Indeed, the surveys results highlighted that the majority of the farms are small (64% of vineyards <10 ha), that most of the farmers (62%) are not aware of the current legislation on water, even if 64% of them declare to participate regularly to training courses for the prevention of water contamination and that there is a low to moderate level of adoption of Best Practices able to prevent contamination by pesticides. At the end of the overall process, it can be stated that the multi-actor approach and engagement strategy adopted were successful in improving attitudes to more sustainable practices. This is supported also by the monitoring data that show in 2019 a decrease by 44% of pesticides occurrences and a fall by 68% of values above EQS_gw if compared with the period 2017-2018.

Evaluation of groundwater contamination sources by plant protection products in hilly vineyards of Northern Italy

In Europe, 25% of groundwater has poor chemical status. One of the main stressors is agriculture, with nitrates and plant protection products (PPPs) causing failure in 18% and 6.5%, respectively, of groundwater bodies (by area). EU legislation for the placement of the PPPs on the market is one of the most stringent in the world. However, recent monitoring studies in hilly vineyards of Tidone Valley, north-west of Italy, show presence of PPPs used for grapevine cultivation in 15 out of 26 groundwater wells monitored, at values above the Environment Quality Standard (EQS) for groundwater (0.1 μg/L). However, no information about the contamination sources are available. Therefore, the objective of the present work is to evaluate the groundwater contamination sources by PPPs, in a small catchment with intensive viticulture, by collecting and integrating monitoring data, sub-surface water movement data and territorial characteristics. The results show that in wells used for PPP's mixture preparation and sprayer washing located at the top of hilly vineyards, with low slope and no water movement in the surrounding soil, the contamination is most likely from point sources. On the contrary, for wells located in a fenced area at the bottom of the hill, far away from vineyards and being used for drinking water production, the contamination is most likely from diffuse sources. Our results were used to raise awareness on groundwater contamination from PPPs among farmers in the study area; moreover a waterproof platform for sprayers washing, equipped with wastewater recovery and disposal system, able to avoid point-source contamination, was implemented in a local demonstration farm. Several demonstration activities were then organised with the farmers of the entire Valley in order to show its functionality and promote its diffuse use.