Associations detected between measures of neighborhood environmental conditions and human microbiome diversity

Home-ics: how experiences of the home impact biology and child neurodevelopmental outcomes

Studies on the -omics of child neurodevelopmental outcomes, e.g. genome, epigenome, microbiome, metabolome, and brain connectome aim to enable data-driven precision health to improve these outcomes, or deliver the right intervention, to the right child, at the right time. However, evidence suggests that neurodevelopmental outcomes are shaped by modifiable socioenvironmental factors. Everyday exposures including family and neighbourhood-level socioeconomic status, housing conditions, and interactions with those living in the home, are strongly associated with child health and have been suggested to alter -omics. Our aim was to review and understand the biological pathways by which home factors contribute to child neurodevelopment outcomes. We review studies suggestive of the home factors contributing to neurodevelopmental outcomes that encompass the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the brain, the gut-brain-axis, and the immune system. We thus conceptualize home-ics as the study of how the multi-faceted living environment can impact neurodevelopmental outcomes through biology and highlight the importance of targeting the modifiable aspects of a child's home to optimize outcomes. We encourage clinicians and health care providers to routinely assess home factors in patient encounters, and counsel families on modifiable aspects of the home. We conclude by discussing clinical and policy implications and future research directions of home-ics. IMPACT: Home-ics can be conceptualized as the study of how home factors may shape child neurodevelopmental outcomes through altering biology. Targeting modifiable aspects of a child's home environment (e.g. parenting style, early intervention, enriched environment) may lead to improved neurodevelopmental outcomes. Clinicians should routinely assess home factors and counsel families on modifiable aspects of the home.

The indoors microbiome and human health

Indoor environments serve as habitat for humans and are replete with various reservoirs and niches for microorganisms. Microorganisms enter indoor spaces with their human and non-human hosts, as well as via exchange with outdoor sources, such as ventilation and plumbing. Once inside, many microorganisms do not survive, especially on dry, barren surfaces. Even reduced, this microbial biomass has critical implications for the health of human occupants. As urbanization escalates, exploring the intersection of the indoor environment with the human microbiome and health is increasingly vital. The indoor microbiome, a complex ecosystem of microorganisms influenced by human activities and environmental factors, plays a pivotal role in modulating infectious diseases and fostering healthy immune development. Recent advancements in microbiome research shed light on this unique ecological system, highlighting the need for innovative approaches in creating health-promoting living spaces. In this Review, we explore the microbial ecology of built environments - places where humans spend most of their lives - and its implications for immune, endocrine and neurological health. We further propose strategies to harness the indoor microbiome for better health outcomes.

Greenspace and human microbiota: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Potential effect of greenspace exposure on human microbiota have been explored by a number of observational and interventional studies, but the results remained mixed. We comprehensively synthesized these studies by performing a systematic review following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines.

METHODS

Comprehensive literature searches in three international databases (PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science) and three Chinese databases (China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wanfang, and China Biology Medicine disc) were conducted from inception to November 1, 2023. Observational and interventional studies that evaluated associations between greenspace exposure and human microbiota at different anatomical sites were included. Studies were assessed using the National Toxicology Program's office of Health Assessment and Translation risk of bias tool and certainty of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation framework. Two authors independently performed study selection, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment, and evidence grading. Study results were synthesized descriptively.

RESULTS

Twenty studies, including 11 observational studies and 9 interventional studies, were finally included into the systematic review. The microbiota of the included studies was from gut (n = 13), skin (n = 10), oral cavity (n = 5), nasal cavity (n = 5) and eyes (n = 1). The majority of studies reported the associations of greenspace exposure with increased diversity (e.g., richness and Shannon index) and/or altered overall composition of human gut (n = 12) and skin microbiota (n = 8), with increases in the relative abundance of probiotics (e.g., Ruminococcaceae) and decreases in the relative abundance of pathogens (e.g., Streptococcus and Escherichia/Shigella). Due to limited number of studies, evidence concerning greenspace and oral, nasal, and ocular microbiota were still inconclusive.

CONCLUSION

The current evidence suggests that greenspace exposure may diversify gut and skin microbiota and alter their composition to healthier profiles. These findings would be helpful in uncovering the potential mechanisms underlying greenspace and human health and in promoting a healthier profile of human microbiota.

Beneficial associations between outdoor visible greenness at the workplace and metabolic syndrome in Chinese adults

BACKGROUND

Greenness surrounding residential places has been found to significantly reduce the risk of diseases such as hypertension, obesity, and metabolic syndrome (MetS). However, it is unclear whether visible greenness exposure at the workplace has any impact on the risk of MetS.

METHODS

Visible greenness exposure was assessed using a Green View Index (GVI) based on street view images through a convolutional neural network model. We utilized logistic regression to examine the cross-sectional association between GVI and MetS as well as its components among 51,552 adults aged 18-60 in the city of Hangzhou, China, from January 2018 to December 2021. Stratified analyses were conducted by age and sex groups. Furthermore, a scenario analysis was conducted to investigate the risks of having MetS among adults in different GVI scenarios.

RESULTS

The mean age of the participants was 40.1, and 38.5% were women. We found a statistically significant association between GVI and having MetS. Compared to the lowest quartile of GVI, participants in the highest quartile of GVI had a 17% (95% CI: 11-23%) lower odds of having MetS. The protective association was stronger in the males, but we did not observe such differences in different age groups. Furthermore, we found inverse associations between GVI and the odds of hypertension, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, obesity, and high levels of FPG.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher exposure to outdoor visible greenness in the workplace environment might have a protective effect against MetS.

Microbiology of the built environment: harnessing human-associated built environment research to inform the study and design of animal nests and enclosures

SUMMARYOver the past decade, hundreds of studies have characterized the microbial communities found in human-associated built environments (BEs). These have focused primarily on how the design and use of our built spaces have shaped human-microbe interactions and how the differential selection of certain taxa or genetic traits has influenced health outcomes. It is now known that the more removed humans are from the natural environment, the greater the risk for the development of autoimmune and allergic diseases, and that indoor spaces can be harsh, selective environments that can increase the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant and virulent phenotypes in surface-bound communities. However, despite the abundance of research that now points to the importance of BEs in determining human-microbe interactions, only a fraction of non-human animal structures have been comparatively explored. It is here, in the context of human-associated BE research, that we consider the microbial ecology of animal-built natural nests and burrows, as well as artificial enclosures, and point to areas of primary interest for future research.

Green-blue space exposure changes and impact on individual-level well-being and mental health: a population-wide dynamic longitudinal panel study with linked survey data

Background

Cross-sectional evidence suggests that living near green and blue spaces benefits mental health; longitudinal evidence is limited.

Objectives

To quantify the impact of changes in green and blue spaces on common mental health disorders, well-being and health service use.

Design

A retrospective, dynamic longitudinal panel study.

Setting

Wales, UK.

Participants

An e-cohort comprising 99,682,902 observations of 2,801,483 adults (≥ 16 years) registered with a general practice in Wales (2008-2019). A 5312-strong 'National Survey for Wales (NSW) subgroup' was surveyed on well-being and visits to green and blue spaces.

Main outcome measures

Common mental health disorders, general practice records; subjective well-being, Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale.

Data sources

Common mental health disorder and use of general practice services were extracted quarterly from the Welsh Longitudinal General Practice Dataset. Annual ambient greenness exposure, enhanced vegetation index and access to green and blue spaces (2018) from planning and satellite data. Data were linked within the Secure Anonymised Information Linkage Databank.

Methods

Multilevel regression models examined associations between exposure to green and blue spaces and common mental health disorders and use of general practice. For the National Survey for Wales subgroup, generalised linear models examined associations between exposure to green and blue spaces and subjective well-being and common mental health disorders.

Results and conclusions

Our longitudinal analyses found no evidence that changes in green and blue spaces through time impacted on common mental health disorders. However, time-aggregated exposure to green and blue spaces contrasting differences between people were associated with subsequent common mental health disorders. Similarly, our cross-sectional findings add to growing evidence that residential green and blue spaces and visits are associated with well-being benefits: Greater ambient greenness (+ 1 enhanced vegetation index) was associated with lower likelihood of subsequently seeking care for a common mental health disorder [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 0.80, 95% confidence interval, (CI) 0.80 to 0.81] and with well-being with a U-shaped relationship [Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale; enhanced vegetation index beta (adjusted) -10.15, 95% CI -17.13 to -3.17; EVI2 beta (quadratic term; adj.) 12.49, 95% CI 3.02 to 21.97]. Those who used green and blue spaces for leisure reported better well-being, with diminishing extra benefit with increasing time (Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale: time outdoors (hours) beta 0.88, 95% CI 0.53 to 1.24, time outdoors2 beta -0.06, 95% CI -0.11 to -0.01) and had 4% lower odds of seeking help for common mental health disorders (AOR 0.96, 95% CI 0.93 to 0.99). Those in urban areas benefited most from greater access to green and blue spaces (AOR 0.89, 95% CI 0.89 to 0.89). Those in material deprivation benefited most from leisure time outdoors (until approximately four hours per week; Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale: time outdoors × in material deprivation: 1.41, 95% CI 0.39 to 2.43; time outdoors2 × in material deprivation -0.18, 95% CI -0.33 to -0.04) although well-being remained generally lower.

Limitations

Longitudinal analyses were restricted by high baseline levels and limited temporal variation in ambient greenness in Wales. Changes in access to green and blue spaces could not be captured annually due to technical issues with national-level planning datasets.

Future work

Further analyses could investigate mental health impacts in population subgroups potentially most sensitive to local changes in access to specific types of green and blue spaces. Deriving green and blue spaces changes from planning data is needed to overcome temporal uncertainties.

Funding

This project was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Public Health Research programme (Project number 16/07/07) and will be published in full in Public Health Research; Vol. 11, No. 10. Sarah Rodgers is part-funded by the NIHR Applied Research Collaboration North West Coast.

Association between Residential Greenness and Human Microbiota: Evidence from Multiple Countries

BACKGROUND

Greenness, referring to a measurement of the density of vegetated land (e.g., gardens, parks, grasslands), has been linked with many human health outcomes. However, the evidence on greenness exposure and human microbiota remains limited, inconclusive, drawn from specific regions, and based on only modest sample size.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to study the association between greenness exposure and human microbial diversity and composition in a large sample across 34 countries and regions.

METHODS

We explored associations between residential greenness and human microbial alpha-diversity, composition, and genus abundance using data from 34 countries. Greenness exposure was assessed using the normalized difference vegetation index and the enhanced vegetation index mean values in the month before sampling. We used linear regression models to estimate the association between greenness and microbial alpha-diversity and tested the effect modification of age, sex, climate zone, and pet ownership of participants. Differences in microbial composition were tested by permutational multivariate analysis of variance based on Bray-Curtis distance and differential taxa were detected using the DESeq2 R package between two greenness exposure groups split by median values of greenness.

RESULTS

We found that higher greenness was significantly associated with greater richness levels in the palm and gut microbiota but decreased evenness in the gut microbiota. Pet ownership and climate zone modified some associations between greenness and alpha-diversity. Palm and gut microbial composition at the genus level also varied by greenness. Higher abundances of the genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, and lower abundances of the genera Anaerotruncus and Streptococcus, were observed in people with higher greenness levels.

DISCUSSION

These findings suggest that residential greenness was associated with microbial richness and composition in the human skin and gut samples, collected across different geographic contexts. Future studies may validate the observed associations and determine whether they correspond to improvements in human health. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12186.

The Gut Microbiome and Residential Surrounding Greenness: a Systematic Review of Epidemiological Evidence

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

A healthy indigenous intestinal microbiome is essential for human health. Well-established gut microbiome determinants only explain 16% of the inter-individual variation in gut microbiome composition. Recent studies have focused on green space as a potential determinant of the intestinal microbiome. We systematically summarize all evidence concerning the association between green space and intestinal bacterial diversity, evenness, and richness indices, specific bacterial taxa, and potential underlying mechanisms.

RECENT FINDINGS

Seven epidemiological studies were included in this review. The majority of the included studies (n = 4) reported a positive association between green space and intestinal bacterial diversity, evenness, and richness, while two reported the opposite. There was little overlap between the publications regarding the association between green space and the relative abundance of specific bacterial taxa. Only a decrease in the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes, Bacteroides, and Anaerostipes and an increase in Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae were reported in multiple studies, predominantly suggesting that green space is positively associated with the intestinal microbiome composition, and subsequently with human health. Lastly, the only examined mechanism was a reduction in perceived psychosocial stress. Mechanisms indicated in blue and white represent tested or hypothesized mechanisms, respectively. The graphical abstract was created with illustrations from BioRender, Noun Project, and Pngtree.

Greenspace and children's lung function in China: A cross-sectional study between 2013 and 2015

This study aims to investigate how surrounding greenspace density and proximity were associated with children's lung function. Between 2013 and 2015, spirometry and a parental survey were performed with children from four primary schools in two Chinese cities. Forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV₁, L), forced vital capacity (FVC, L), peak expiratory flow rate (PEF, L/s), and forced expiratory flow at 25 % (FEF₂₅, L/s) and 75 % (FEF₇₅, L/s) of FVC were measured. Outdoor surrounding greenspace index incorporated residential, school and commuting greenness and was weighted using assumed daytime hours spent at home and school. Residential proximity to greenspace index was defined as walking distance to nearest park. A total of 913 children (48.7 % female) were included. Overall, an interquartile range (IQR) increase in outdoor surrounding greenspace was associated with decreased FVC (0.06 L, 95%CI 0.01-0.11), but increased FEV₁/FVC (2.03, 1.13-3.04), PEF (0.26 L/s, 0.13-0.39), and FEF₂₅ (0.30 L/s, 0.17-0.42). Residential proximity to greenspace was associated with increased FEV₁ (0.05 L, 0.02-0.08) and FVC (0.04 L, 0.01-0.07) per IQR decrease in distance. Protective effect was significant for children whose parents were less educated and those living in higher road density areas, though interactions were not significant. Structural equation modeling showed that higher level of surrounding greenspace was associated with lower ambient air pollution and in turn with better lung function. Greenspace density and proximity could influence children's lung function differently.

Soil microbiomes and one health

The concept of one health highlights that human health is not isolated but connected to the health of animals, plants and environments. In this Review, we demonstrate that soils are a cornerstone of one health and serve as a source and reservoir of pathogens, beneficial microorganisms and the overall microbial diversity in a wide range of organisms and ecosystems. We list more than 40 soil microbiome functions that either directly or indirectly contribute to soil, plant, animal and human health. We identify microorganisms that are shared between different one health compartments and show that soil, plant and human microbiomes are perhaps more interconnected than previously thought. Our Review further evaluates soil microbial contributions to one health in the light of dysbiosis and global change and demonstrates that microbial diversity is generally positively associated with one health. Finally, we present future challenges in one health research and formulate recommendations for practice and evaluation.

Greenspace and health outcomes in children and adolescents: A systematic review

An increasing body of evidence has linked greenspace and various health outcomes in children and adolescents, but the conclusions were inconsistent. For this review, we comprehensively summarized the measurement methods of greenspace, resultant health outcomes, and potential mechanisms from epidemiological studies in children and adolescents (aged ≤19 years). We searched for studies published and indexed in MEDLINE and EMBASE (via Ovid) up to April 11, 2022. There were a total of 9,291 studies identified with 140 articles from 28 countries finally assessed and included in this systematic review. Over 70% of the studies were conducted in highly urbanised countries/regions, but very limited research has been done in low-and middle-income countries and none in Africa. Measures of greenspace varied. Various health outcomes were reported, including protective effects of greenspace exposure on aspects of obesity/overweight, myopia, lung health, circulatory health, cognitive function, and general health in children and adolescents. The associations between greenspace exposure and other health outcomes were inconsistent, especially for respiratory health studies. We pooled odds ratios (OR) using random-effects meta-analysis for health outcomes of asthma (OR = 0.94, 95%CI: 0.84 to 1.06), allergic rhinitis (OR = 0.95; 95% CI: 0.73 to 1.25), and obesity/overweight (OR = 0.91, 95%CI: 0.84 to 0.98) with per 0.1 unit increase in normalized difference in vegetation index (NDVI). These associations have important implications for the assessment and management of urban environment and health in children and adolescents.

Urban centre green metrics in Great Britain: A geospatial and socioecological study

Green infrastructure plays a vital role in urban ecosystems. This includes sustaining biodiversity and human health. Despite a large number of studies investigating greenspace disparities in suburban areas, no known studies have compared the green attributes (e.g., trees, greenness, and greenspaces) of urban centres. Consequently, there may be uncharacterised socioecological disparities between the cores of urban areas (e.g., city centres). This is important because people spend considerable time in urban centres due to employment, retail and leisure opportunities. Therefore, the availability of--and disparities in--green infrastructure in urban centres can affect many lives and potentially underscore a socio-ecological justice issue. To facilitate comparisons between urban centres in Great Britain, we analysed open data of urban centre boundaries with a central business district and population of ≥100,000 (n = 68). Given the various elements that contribute to 'greenness', we combine a range of different measurements (trees, greenness, and accessible greenspaces) into a single indicator. We applied the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) to estimate the mean greenness of urban centres and the wider urban area (using a 1 km buffer) and determined the proportion of publicly accessible greenspace within each urban centre with Ordnance Survey Open Greenspace data. Finally, we applied a land cover classification algorithm using i-Tree Canopy to estimate tree coverage. This is the first study to define and rank urban centres based on multiple green attributes. The results suggest important differences in the proportion of green attributes between urban centres. For instance, Exeter scored the highest with a mean NDVI of 0.15, a tree coverage of 11.67%, and an OS Greenspace coverage of 0.05%, and Glasgow the lowest with a mean NDVI of 0.02, a tree cover of 1.95% and an OS Greenspace coverage of 0.00%. We also demonstrated that population size negatively associated with greenness and tree coverage, but not greenspaces, and that green attributes negatively associated with deprivation. This is important because it suggests that health-promoting and biodiversity-supporting resources diminish as population and deprivation increase. Disparities in green infrastructure across the country, along with the population and deprivation-associated trends, are important in terms of socioecological and equity justice. This study provides a baseline and stimulus to help local authorities and urban planners create and monitor equitable greening interventions in urban/city centres.

Biodiversity Effects on Human Mental Health via Microbiota Alterations

The biodiversity hypothesis postulates that the natural environment positively affects human physical and mental health. We evaluate the latest evidence and propose new tools to examine the halobiont environment. We chose to target our review at neuropsychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, autism, dementia, multiple sclerosis, etc. because a green prescription (exposure to green spaces) was shown to benefit patients with neuropsychiatric disorders. Specifically, our review consists of three mini reviews on the associations exploring: (1) ecological biodiversity and human microbiota; (2) human microbiota and neuropsychiatric disorders; (3) ecological biodiversity and neuropsychiatric disorders. We conclude that the environment could directly transfer microbes to humans and that human studies support the gut microbiota as part of the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders. Overall, the results from the three mini reviews consistently support the biodiversity hypothesis. These findings demonstrated the plausibility of biodiversity exerting mental health effects through biophysiological mechanisms instead of psychological mechanisms alone. The idea can be further tested with novel biodiversity measurements and research on the effects of a green prescription.

Association between residential greenness and gut microbiota in Chinese adults

BACKGROUND

A growing body of studies have reported the health benefits of greenness. However, less is known about the potential beneficial effects of residential greenness on gut microbiota, which is essential to human health. In this study, we aim to examine the association between residential greenness and gut microbiota in a population-based cohort study.

METHODS

We included 1758 participants based on the China Multi-Ethnic Cohort (CMEC) study and collected their stool samples for 16S sequencing to derive gut microbiota data. Residential greenness was estimated using the satellite-based data on enhanced vegetation index (EVI) and the normalized differential vegetation index (NDVI) in circular buffers of 250 m, 500 m, and 1000 m. The relationships between residential greenness levels and the composition of gut microbiota, measured by standardized α-diversity and taxonomic composition, were assessed using linear regression and Spearman correlation weighted by generalized propensity scores.

RESULTS

Higher greenness levels were significantly positively associated with standardized α-diversity. Per interquartile range (IQR) increase of EVI and NDVI in the circular buffer of 250 m were associated with the increments of 0.995(95% confidence interval (CI): 0.212-1.778) and 0.653(95% CI: 0.160-1.146) in the standardized Shannon index. For the taxonomic composition of gut microbiota, higher greenness levels were significantly correlated with 29 types of microbial taxonomic composition. NDVI in the circular buffer of 250 m was associated with increased Firmicutes (r = 0.102, adjusted p value = 0.004), which was the dominant composition in the gut microbiota.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased amounts of residential greenness may support healthy gut microbiota by benignly altering their composition. These findings suggested that green spaces should be designed to support diverse gut microbiota and ultimately optimize health benefits.

A comparative mapping of plant species diversity using ensemble learning algorithms combined with high accuracy surface modeling

Plant species diversity (PSD) has always been an essential component of biodiversity and plays an important role in ecosystem functions and services. However, it is still a huge challenge to simulate the spatial distribution of PSD due to the difficulties of data acquisition and unsatisfactory performance of predicting algorithms over large areas. A surge in the number of remote sensing imagery, along with the great success of machine learning, opens new opportunities for the mapping of PSD. Therefore, different machine learning algorithms combined with high-accuracy surface modeling (HASM) were firstly proposed to predict the PSD in the Xinghai, northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China. Spectral reflectance and vegetation indices, generated from Landsat 8 images, and environmental variables were taken as the potential explanatory factors of machine learning models including least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (Lasso), ridge regression (Ridge), eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), and Random Forest (RF). The prediction generated from these machine learning methods and in situ observation data were integrated by using HASM for the high-accuracy mapping of PSD including three species diversity indices. The results showed that PSD was closely associated with vegetation indices, followed by spectral reflectance and environmental factors. XGBoost combined with HASM (HASM-XGBoost) showed the best performance with the lowest MAE and RMSE. Our results suggested that the fusion of heterogeneous data and the ensemble of heterogeneous models may revolutionize our ability to predict the PSD over large areas, especially in some places limited by sparse field samples.

Rare genera differentiate urban green space soil bacterial communities in three cities across the world

Vegetation complexity is potentially important for urban green space designs aimed at fostering microbial biodiversity to benefit human health. Exposure to urban microbial biodiversity may influence human health outcomes via immune training and regulation. In this context, improving human exposure to microbiota via biodiversity-centric urban green space designs is an underused opportunity. There is currently little knowledge on the association between vegetation complexity (i.e. diversity and structure) and soil microbiota of urban green spaces. Here, we investigated the association between vegetation complexity and soil bacteria in urban green spaces in Bournemouth, UK; Haikou, China; and the City of Playford, Australia by sequencing the 16S rRNA V4 gene region of soil samples and assessing bacterial diversity. We characterized these green spaces as having ‘low’ or ‘high’ vegetation complexity and explored whether these two broad categories contained similar bacterial community compositions and diversity around the world. Within cities, we observed significantly different alpha and beta diversities between vegetation complexities; however, these results varied between cities. Rare genera (<1% relative abundance individually, on average 35% relative abundance when pooled) were most likely to be significantly different in sequence abundance between vegetation complexities and therefore explained much of the differences in microbial communities observed. Overall, general associations exist between soil bacterial communities and vegetation complexity, although these are not consistent between cities. Therefore, more in-depth work is required to be done locally to derive practical actions to assist the conservation and restoration of microbial communities in urban areas.

Associations between surrounding residential greenness and intelligence quotient in 6-year-old children

BACKGROUND

Residential greenness has been reported to be positively associated with health benefits for children, including improved cognitive function. We investigated the association between the intelligence quotient (IQ) of 6-year-old children in Seoul, South Korea and surrounding greenness currently and during the mothers' pregnancy. We also analyzed whether these effects differed by the type of greenness, such as natural or built greenness.

METHODS

This study considered 189 mother-child dyads from the Environment and Development of Children Cohort study, who lived in Seoul during the prenatal period and when the child was 6 years old. We defined surrounding greenness using Landsat image data from Korean Arirang satellite images with buffers within 100 m - 2000 m of the radius of each participant's residential address. We separately analyzed two types of greenness, namely natural and built greenness. The children's IQ (total, verbal, and performance IQ) was measured using the Korean Educational Developmental Institute's Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children.

RESULTS

Prenatal exposure to built greenness in 500 m and 1000 m buffers was associated with children's total IQ in a full model [difference in IQ (95% CI): 3.46(0.68, 6.24) and 3.42 (0.53, 6.31) per interquartile increase in proportion of greenness]. However, postnatal exposure to built greenness in all buffers was associated in children's total IQ. We found a stronger association between children's total IQ and built greenness rather than natural greenness.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that 6-year-old children tended to score higher on total IQ if they lived in greener neighborhoods. The results provide further evidence of the health benefits of greenness and provide support for urban planning and public health to build healthy urban cities for children and pregnant women.

Outdoor Atmospheric Microbial Diversity Is Associated With Urban Landscape Structure and Differs From Indoor-Transit Systems as Revealed by Mobile Monitoring and Three-Dimensional Spatial Analysis

Microbes are abundant inhabitants of the near-surface atmosphere in urban areas. The distribution of microbial communities may benefit or hinder human wellbeing and ecosystem function. Surveys of airborne microbial diversity are uncommon in both natural and built environments and those that investigate diversity are stationary in the city, thus missing continuous exposure to microbes that covary with three-dimensional urban structure. Individuals in cities are generally mobile and would be exposed to diverse urban structures outdoors and within indoor-transit systems in a day. We used mobile monitoring of microbial diversity and geographic information system spatial analysis, across Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA in outdoor and indoor-transit (subways and train cars) environments. This study identifies to the role of the three-dimensional urban landscape in structuring atmospheric microbiomes and employs mobile monitoring over ~1,920 kilometers to measure continuous biodiversity. We found more diverse communities outdoors that significantly differ from indoor-transit air in microbial community structure, function, likely source environment, and potentially pathogenic fraction of the community. Variation in the structure of the urban landscape was associated with diversity and function of the near-surface atmospheric microbiome in outdoor samples.