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Wang Q, Li Y, Hu P, Zhang Y, Liu Y, Yang Q, Xu L, Gong Z, Yang J, Sun W, Liu X, Wu Y. Impact of enniatins and beauvericin on lipid metabolism: Insights from a 3D HepaRG spheroid model. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2024; 191:108969. [PMID: 39180774 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2024.108969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2024] [Revised: 08/15/2024] [Accepted: 08/19/2024] [Indexed: 08/26/2024]
Abstract
Emerging mycotoxins enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA) pose potential health risks to humans through dietary exposure. However, research into their mechanisms of toxicity is limited, with a lack of comprehensive toxicological data. This study investigates from a hepatic lipid metabolism perspective, establishing a more precise and reliable 3D HepaRG hepatocyte spheroid model as an alternative for toxicity assessment. Utilizing physiological indices, histopathological analyses, lipidomics, and molecular docking techniques, it comprehensively elucidates the effects of ENNs and BEA on hepatic lipid homeostasis and their molecular toxicological mechanisms. Our findings indicate that ENNs and BEA impact cellular viability and biochemical functions, significantly altering lipid metabolism pathways, particularly those involving glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids. Molecular docking has demonstrated strong binding affinity of ENNs and BEA with key enzymes in lipid metabolism such as Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor α (PPARα) and Cytosolic Phospholipase A2 (cPLA2), revealing the mechanistic basis for their hepatotoxic effects and potential to impair liver function and human health. These insights enhance our understanding of the potential hepatotoxicity of such fungal toxins and lay a foundation for the assessment of their health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiao Wang
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil (The Chinese Ministry of Education), College of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China
| | - Yan Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biological Products & Genetic Engineering, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural, Sinopharm Animal Health Corporation Ltd., Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China; State Key Laboratory of Novel Vaccines for Emerging Infectious Diseases, China National Biotec Group Company Limited, Beijing 100024, China
| | - Peihao Hu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biological Products & Genetic Engineering, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural, Sinopharm Animal Health Corporation Ltd., Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China
| | - Yutao Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil (The Chinese Ministry of Education), College of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China
| | - Yan Liu
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil (The Chinese Ministry of Education), College of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China
| | - Qing Yang
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil (The Chinese Ministry of Education), College of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China
| | - Lin Xu
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil (The Chinese Ministry of Education), College of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China
| | - Zhiyong Gong
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil (The Chinese Ministry of Education), College of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China
| | - Jiangke Yang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China
| | - Wen Sun
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biological Products & Genetic Engineering, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural, Sinopharm Animal Health Corporation Ltd., Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China; State Key Laboratory of Novel Vaccines for Emerging Infectious Diseases, China National Biotec Group Company Limited, Beijing 100024, China.
| | - Xin Liu
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil (The Chinese Ministry of Education), College of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China.
| | - Yongning Wu
- Key Laboratory for Deep Processing of Major Grain and Oil (The Chinese Ministry of Education), College of Food Science and Engineering, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, Hubei, China; NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China
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Su C, Li J, Pan L, Zhang M, Chen Z, Lu M. Immunotoxicity and the mechanisms of aflatoxin B1-induced growth retardation in shrimp and alleviating effects of bile acids. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 459:132266. [PMID: 37595470 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is one of the most toxic mycotoxins prevalent in the environment and food chain, posing severe health risks to humans and animals. Bile acids are natural detergents synthesized from cholesterol and play a key role in the excretion of toxins in vertebrates. Here, pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) served as an animal model to examine the toxicity mechanisms of AFB1 and assess the potential alleviating effects of bile acids against AFB1. Our results revealed that AFB1 exposure significantly inhibited the growth performance and immune response of shrimp, accompanied by AFB1 accumulation and histological damage. Mechanistically, AFB1-induced DNA damage activated DNA repair mechanisms and induced the arrest of cell cycle via the ATR-cyclin B/cdc2 pathway. Additionally, AFB1 directly suppressed the immune response and growth performance of shrimp by inhibiting Toll and IMD pathways and the secretion of digestive enzymes. Notably, dietary bile acids significantly reduced AFB1 accumulation and alleviated AFB1-induced growth retardation and immunotoxicity in shrimp, and CCKAR, ATR, and Relish may be key mediators of the alleviating effects of bile acids. Our study provided new insights into the toxicity mechanisms of AFB1 in invertebrates and highlighted the potential of bile acids to alleviate AFB1 toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Su
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Jinbao Li
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Luqing Pan
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China.
| | - Mengyu Zhang
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Zhifei Chen
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Mingxiang Lu
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
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Zhang L, Shi S, Liu Y, Cui Y, Zhu Y, Bao Y, Chen B, Shi W. Aflatoxin B1 triggers apoptosis in rabbit hepatocytes via mediating oxidative stress and switching on the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 264:115478. [PMID: 37716070 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is considered the most toxic carcinogenic compound, and exposure to AFB1 is highly associated with hepatocellular carcinoma. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different doses of AFB1 on growth performance and the liver of rabbits, as well as explore its underlying mechanisms. A total of eighty 30-day-old meat rabbits were randomly divided into four treatments. The control group was fed a pollution-free diet, while the AFL, AFM, and AFH groups were fed contaminated diets containing 13 μg/kg, 19 μg/kg, and 25 μg/kg of AFB1, respectively. The results showed that AFB1 had detrimental effects on the production performance of rabbits, resulting in decreased weight gain. Additionally, AFB1 exposure was associated with increased activity of Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), as well as decreased levels of total protein (TP) and albumin (ALB) in the serum. AFB1 induced the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) while inhibiting the activity of glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) activity in liver tissues. AFB1 decreased the mRNA transcription and protein expression of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and NAD(P)H dehydrogenase quinone-1 (NQO-1). AFB1 not only decreased the contents of cytochrome P4501A2 (CYP1A2), cytochrome P4502A6 (CYP2A6) and cytochrome P4503A4 (CYP3A4) but also increased the content of AFB1-DNA adducts in the liver. Furthermore, AFB1 enhanced the expression of cytochrome c (cyt-c), caspase-9, caspase-3, and Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax), while inhibiting the expression of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2). Therefore, we demonstrated that AFB1 triggered apoptosis in rabbit hepatocytes via mediating oxidative stress and switching on the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway, and decreased rabbit performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Zhang
- College of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Shaowen Shi
- College of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Ying Liu
- College of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Yuqing Cui
- College of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Yixuan Zhu
- College of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Yongzhan Bao
- College of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China; Hebei Provincial Veterinary Biotechnology Innovation Center, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Baojiang Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
| | - Wanyu Shi
- College of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China; Hebei Provincial Veterinary Biotechnology Innovation Center, Baoding 071001, China.
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Zingales V, Esposito MR, Torriero N, Taroncher M, Cimetta E, Ruiz MJ. The Growing Importance of Three-Dimensional Models and Microphysiological Systems in the Assessment of Mycotoxin Toxicity. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:422. [PMID: 37505691 PMCID: PMC10467068 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Current investigations in the field of toxicology mostly rely on 2D cell cultures and animal models. Although well-accepted, the traditional 2D cell-culture approach has evident drawbacks and is distant from the in vivo microenvironment. To overcome these limitations, increasing efforts have been made in the development of alternative models that can better recapitulate the in vivo architecture of tissues and organs. Even though the use of 3D cultures is gaining popularity, there are still open questions on their robustness and standardization. In this review, we discuss the current spheroid culture and organ-on-a-chip techniques as well as the main conceptual and technical considerations for the correct establishment of such models. For each system, the toxicological functional assays are then discussed, highlighting their major advantages, disadvantages, and limitations. Finally, a focus on the applications of 3D cell culture for mycotoxin toxicity assessments is provided. Given the known difficulties in defining the safety ranges of exposure for regulatory agency policies, we are confident that the application of alternative methods may greatly improve the overall risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Zingales
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Valencia, Spain;
- Department of Industrial Engineering (DII), University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy; (M.R.E.); (N.T.); (E.C.)
- Fondazione Istituto di Ricerca Pediatrica Cittá Della Speranza (IRP)—Lab BIAMET, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padova, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Esposito
- Department of Industrial Engineering (DII), University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy; (M.R.E.); (N.T.); (E.C.)
- Fondazione Istituto di Ricerca Pediatrica Cittá Della Speranza (IRP)—Lab BIAMET, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padova, Italy
| | - Noemi Torriero
- Department of Industrial Engineering (DII), University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy; (M.R.E.); (N.T.); (E.C.)
- Fondazione Istituto di Ricerca Pediatrica Cittá Della Speranza (IRP)—Lab BIAMET, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padova, Italy
| | - Mercedes Taroncher
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Valencia, Spain;
| | - Elisa Cimetta
- Department of Industrial Engineering (DII), University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy; (M.R.E.); (N.T.); (E.C.)
- Fondazione Istituto di Ricerca Pediatrica Cittá Della Speranza (IRP)—Lab BIAMET, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padova, Italy
| | - María-José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Valencia, Spain;
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Li W, Li W, Zhang C, Xu N, Fu C, Wang C, Li D, Wu Q. Study on the mechanism of aflatoxin B1 degradation by Tetragenococcus halophilus. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2023.114662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
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Liu Y, Li J, Kang W, Liu S, Liu J, Shi M, Wang Y, Liu X, Chen X, Huang K. Aflatoxin B1 induces liver injury by disturbing gut microbiota-bile acid-FXR axis in mice. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 176:113751. [PMID: 37030333 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is one of major pollutant in food and feed worldwide. The purpose of this study is to investigate the mechanism of AFB1-induced liver injury. Our results showed that AFB1 caused hepatic bile duct proliferation, oxidative stress, inflammation and liver injury in mice. AFB1 exposure induced gut microbiota dysbiosis and reduced fecal bile salt hydrolase (BSH) activity. AFB1 exposure promoted hepatic bile acid (BA) synthesis and changed intestinal BA metabolism, especially increased intestinal conjugated bile acids levels. AFB1 exposure inhibited intestinal farnesoid X receptor (FXR)/fibroblast growth factor 15 (FGF-15) signaling. Furthermore, the mice received fecal microbiota transplantation from AFB1-treated mice induced liver injury, reduced intestinal FXR signaling and increased hepatic BA synthesis. Finally, the intestine-restricted FXR agonist treatment decreased hepatic BA synthesis, ROS level, inflammation and liver injury in AFB1-treated mice. This study suggests that modifying the gut microbiota, altering intestinal BA metabolism and/or activating intestinal FXR/FGF-15 signaling may be of value for the treatment of AFB1-induced liver disease.
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Huang S, Lin L, Wang S, Ding W, Zhang C, Shaukat A, Xu B, Yue K, Zhang C, Liu F. Total Flavonoids of Rhizoma Drynariae Mitigates Aflatoxin B1-Induced Liver Toxicity in Chickens via Microbiota-Gut-Liver Axis Interaction Mechanisms. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12040819. [PMID: 37107194 PMCID: PMC10134996 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12040819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a common mycotoxin that widely occurs in feed and has severe hepatotoxic effects both in humans and animals. Total flavonoids of Rhizoma Drynaria (TFRD), a traditional Chinese medicinal herb, have multiple biological activities and potential hepatoprotective activity. This study investigated the protective effects and potential mechanisms of TFRD against AFB1-induced liver injury. The results revealed that supplementation with TFRD markedly lessened broiler intestinal permeability by increasing the expression of intestinal tight junction proteins, as well as correcting the changes in gut microbiota and liver damage induced by AFB1. Metabolomics analysis revealed that the alterations in plasma metabolites, especially taurolithocholic acid, were significantly improved by TFRD treatment in AFB1-exposed chickens. In addition, these metabolites were closely associated with [Ruminococcus], ACC, and GPX1, indicating that AFB1 may cause liver injury by inducing bile acid metabolism involving the microbiota–gut–liver axis. We further found that TFRD treatment markedly suppressed oxidative stress and hepatic lipid deposition, increased plasma glutathione (GSH) concentrations, and reversed hepatic ferroptosis gene expression. Collectively, these findings indicate that ferroptosis might contribute to the hepatotoxicity of AFB1-exposed chickens through the microbiota–gut–liver axis interaction mechanisms; furthermore, TFRD was confirmed as an herbal extract that could potentially antagonize mycotoxins detrimental effects.
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Duan S, Jia Y, Zhu Z, Wang L, Xu P, Wang Y, Di B, Hu C. Induction of CYP450 by illicit drugs: Studies using an in vitro 3D spheroidal model in comparison to animals. Toxicol Lett 2022; 367:88-95. [PMID: 35914676 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2022.07.815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/08/2022]
Abstract
Information regarding the metabolism of illicit drugs is under urgent need for toxicological assessment. Its development, however, is limited by the currently available animal models. To this end, we proposed three-dimensional (3D) HepaRG spheroids as an in vitro model to study the effects of illicit drugs on hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes and potential drug-drug interactions (DDIs). By comparing the results from animal and cell experiments, we confirmed the significant impact of heroin, morphine, tetrahydrocannabinol, and fentanyl on CYP450 enzymes, and the 3D spheroids results were in good agreement with the animal results for 2B6, 2C19, 2D6. Using 3D HepaRG spheroids, we demonstrated DDIs between heroin as a 2B6 perpetrator and clinical medicine for cancer, depression, and illicit drug withdrawal. Specifically, the clearance rate of 5.4μM bupropion was increased by 214% under DDI with 5µM heroin, highlighting the importance of DDI pre-screening and individualized medication guidance for illicit drug users. This research contributes to the growing body of evidence regarding the metabolic toxicity of illicit drugs and suggests 3D HepaRG spheroids as a high-throughput and cost-efficient platform for DDI analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiqi Duan
- China National Narcotics Control Commission - China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, No. 24 Tongjiaxiang Road, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yan Jia
- China National Narcotics Control Commission - China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, No. 24 Tongjiaxiang Road, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Zhihang Zhu
- China National Narcotics Control Commission - China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, No. 24 Tongjiaxiang Road, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Lancheng Wang
- China National Narcotics Control Commission - China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, No. 24 Tongjiaxiang Road, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Peng Xu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - Youmei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Di
- China National Narcotics Control Commission - China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, No. 24 Tongjiaxiang Road, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Chi Hu
- China National Narcotics Control Commission - China Pharmaceutical University Joint Laboratory on Key Technologies of Narcotics Control, No. 24 Tongjiaxiang Road, Nanjing 210009, China.
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Ma X, Ye Y, Sun J, Ji J, Wang JS, Sun X. Coexposure of Cyclopiazonic Acid with Aflatoxin B1 Involved in Disrupting Amino Acid Metabolism and Redox Homeostasis Causing Synergistic Toxic Effects in Hepatocyte Spheroids. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:5166-5176. [PMID: 35427130 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c01608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), an emerging toxin, has been found in various foods such as corn, peanuts, and figs. Aspergillus flavus can produce CPA, leading to coexposure with highly toxic aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), but the mechanism of their combined action is not clear. In this study, cocultured hepatocyte spheroids were used as the evaluation model, and two concentration settings of isotoxicity and different toxicity ratios were used to investigate the combined toxic effects. Metabolomics was subsequently used to analyze the potential mechanisms underlying the effects of their exposure. AFB1 and CPA might exhibit stronger cytotoxicity, with significant combined effects on mitochondrial morphology, activity, and reactive oxygen levels. The gene expression analysis revealed that the overexpression of AKT genes could mitigate the combined effects of AFB1 and CPA to some extent. Metabolomics analysis indicated that AFB1 and CPA significantly downregulated the metabolism of l-aspartate and antioxidant substances (e.g., penicillamine, myricetin, and ethanolamine). The pathway enrichment analysis also revealed a large impact on amino acid metabolism, likely affecting intracellular redox homeostasis. In addition, the presence of CPA affects intracellular glucose metabolism and lipid metabolism pathways. This study suggested a direction for future research on relevant toxic pathways and provided possible ideas for inhibiting or mitigating toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety for State Market Regulation, Chinese Academy of Inspection & Quarantine, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
| | - Yongli Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety for State Market Regulation, Chinese Academy of Inspection & Quarantine, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
| | - Jiadi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety for State Market Regulation, Chinese Academy of Inspection & Quarantine, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
| | - Jian Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety for State Market Regulation, Chinese Academy of Inspection & Quarantine, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
| | - Jia-Sheng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety for State Market Regulation, Chinese Academy of Inspection & Quarantine, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
- Department of Environmental Health Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Xiulan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety for State Market Regulation, Chinese Academy of Inspection & Quarantine, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P.R. China
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