TGFΒ-induced transcription in cancer

Sarcomatoid carcinoma of the pancreas (Review)

Sarcomatoid carcinoma of the pancreas (SCP) is a rare and aggressive subtype of undifferentiated pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, with a generally poor prognosis and only sporadic cases reported worldwide. Histologically, the most notable feature of SCP is the presence of abundant of mesenchymatoid spindle tumor cells in the tumor, which lack glandular differentiation. Immunohistochemically, SCP is characterized by the expression of both mesenchymal and epithelial markers. With only a few reported cases, there is limited knowledge about its molecular and clinicopathological characteristics. Therefore, the present study performed a literature search to identify all relevant published studies. The present review provides an overview of the histogenesis, diagnosis, genetic features, prognosis and treatment of SCP, specifically focusing on the molecular alterations. Furthermore, a single-center experience is reported, which adds to the limited evidence available in the literature.

Unlocking the tumor-immune microenvironment in osteosarcoma: insights into the immune landscape and mechanisms

Osteosarcoma has a unique tumor microenvironment (TME), which is characterized as a complex microenvironment comprising of bone cells, immune cells, stromal cells, and heterogeneous vascular structures. These elements are intricately embedded in a mineralized extracellular matrix, setting it apart from other primary TMEs. In a state of normal physiological function, these cell types collaborate in a coordinated manner to maintain the homeostasis of the bone and hematopoietic systems. However, in the pathological condition, i.e., neoplastic malignancies, the tumor-immune microenvironment (TIME) has been shown to promote cancer cells proliferation, migration, apoptosis and drug resistance, as well as immune escape. The intricate and dynamic system of the TIME in osteosarcoma involves crucial roles played by various infiltrating cells, the complement system, and exosomes. This complexity is closely associated with tumor cells evading immune surveillance, experiencing uncontrolled proliferation, and facilitating metastasis. In this review, we elucidate the intricate interplay between diverse cell populations in the osteosarcoma TIME, each contributing uniquely to tumor progression. From chondroblastic and osteoblastic osteosarcoma cells to osteoclasts, stromal cells, and various myeloid and lymphoid cell subsets, the comprehensive single-cell analysis provides a detailed roadmap of the complex osteosarcoma ecosystem. Furthermore, we summarize the mutations, epigenetic mechanisms, and extracellular vesicles that dictate the immunologic landscape and modulate the TIME of osteosarcoma. The perspectives of the clinical implementation of immunotherapy and therapeutic approaches for targeting immune cells are also intensively discussed.

Advancements in TGF-β Targeting Therapies for Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the sixth leading cause of cancer worldwide according to GLOBOCAN estimates from 2022. Current therapy options for recurrent or metastatic disease are limited to conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy and immunotherapy, with few targeted therapy options readily available. Recent single-cell transcriptomic analyses identified TGF-β signaling as an important mediator of functional interplays between cancer-associated fibroblasts and a subset of mesenchymal cancer cells. This signaling was shown to drive invasiveness, treatment resistance, and immune evasion. These data provide renewed interest in the TGF-β pathway as an alternative therapeutic target, prompting a critical review of previous clinical data which suggest a lack of benefit from TGF-β inhibitors. While preclinical data have demonstrated the great anti-tumorigenic potential of TGF-β inhibitors, the underwhelming results of ongoing and completed clinical trials highlight the difficulty actualizing these benefits into clinical practice. This topical review will discuss the relevant preclinical and clinical findings for TGF-β inhibitors in HNSCC and will explore the potential role of patient stratification in the development of this therapeutic strategy.

Renal cancer: signaling pathways and advances in targeted therapies

Renal cancer is a highlyheterogeneous malignancy characterized by rising global incidence and mortalityrates. The complex interplay and dysregulation of multiple signaling pathways,including von Hippel-Lindau (VHL)/hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), Hippo-yes-associated protein (YAP), Wnt/ß-catenin, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)/c-Met, contribute to theinitiation and progression of renal cancer. Although surgical resection is thestandard treatment for localized renal cancer, recurrence and metastasiscontinue to pose significant challenges. Advanced renal cancer is associatedwith a poor prognosis, and current therapies, such as targeted agents andimmunotherapies, have limitations. This review presents a comprehensiveoverview of the molecular mechanisms underlying aberrant signaling pathways inrenal cancer, emphasizing their intricate crosstalk and synergisticinteractions. We discuss recent advancements in targeted therapies, includingtyrosine kinase inhibitors, and immunotherapies, such as checkpoint inhibitors.Moreover, we underscore the importance of multiomics approaches and networkanalysis in elucidating the complex regulatory networks governing renal cancerpathogenesis. By integrating cutting-edge research and clinical insights, this review contributesto the development of innovative diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, whichhave the potential to improve risk stratification, precision medicine, andultimately, patient outcomes in renal cancer.

Enhanced anti-tumor activity mediated by combination chimeric antigen receptor T cells targeting GD2 and GPC2 in high-risk neuroblastoma

BACKGROUND AIMS

Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cells targeting single antigens show limited activity against solid tumors due to poor T cell persistence, low efficiency infiltration, and exhaustion together with heterogeneous tumor-associated antigen (TAA) expression. This is also true in high-risk neuroblastoma (HRNB), a lethal pediatric extracranial malignancy. To overcome these obstacles, a combinational strategy using GD2-specific and GPC2-specific CAR-T cells was developed to improve immunotherapeutic efficacy.

METHODS

We individually developed GD2-specific and GPC2-specific CARs containing a selective domain (sCAR) which was a peptide of 10 amino acids derived from human nuclear autoantigen La/SS-B. These constructs allowed us to generate two different HRNB antigen-specific CAR-T cells with enhanced biological activity through stimulating sCAR-engrafted T cells via a selective domain-specific monoclonal antibody (SmAb). Binding affinity and stimulation of GD2- and GPC2-specific sCARs by SmAb were measured, and transient and persistent anti-tumor cytotoxicity of GD2sCAR-T and GPC2sCAR-T cells were quantified in neuroblastoma cell lines expressing different TAA levels. The anti-tumor pharmaceutical effects and cellular mechanisms mediated by single or combinational sCAR-T cells were evaluated in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

GD2- and GPC2-specific sCARs had antigen-specific binding affinity similar to their parental counterparts and were recognized by SmAb. SmAb-mediated stimulation selectively activated sCAR-T proliferation and increased central memory T cells in the final products. SmAb-stimulated sCAR-T cells had enhanced transient cytolytic activity, and combination therapy extended long-term anti-tumor activity in vitro through TNF-α and IL-15 release. Stimulated sCAR-T cells overcame heterogeneous antigen expression in HRNB, and the multi-TAA-targeting strategy was especially efficacious in vivo, inducing apoptosis through the caspase-3/PARP pathway and inhibiting the release of several tumor-promoting cytokines.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that combined targeting of multiple TAAs is a promising strategy to overcome heterogenous antigen expression in solid tumors and extend CAR-T cell persistence for HRNB immunotherapy.

TGFβR1 inhibition drives hepatocellular carcinoma proliferation through induction of toll-like-receptor signalling

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β and toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been shown to independently modulate the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Since a direct cross-talk between these two signalling pathways in HCC has not been clearly described before, we aimed here to explore the possibility of such interaction. A human HCC tissue array (n = 20 vs. four control samples), human HCC samples (n = 10) and steatohepatitis-driven murine HCC samples (control, NASH and HCC; n = 6/group) were immunostained for TGFβR1, pSMAD2, TRAF6, IRAK1 and PCNA. The results were confirmed by immunoblotting. Effects of constant activation of the SMAD pathway by constitutive expression of ALK5 or knockdown of mediators of TLR signalling, IRAK1 and MyD88, on HCC proliferation, were investigated in the HCC cell line (HUH-7) after treatment with TGFβ1 cytokine or TGFβR1 kinase inhibitor (LY2157299) using PCNA and MTS assay. TGFβR1 expression is decreased in human and murine HCC and associated with downregulated pSMAD2, but increased IRAK1, TRAF6 and PCNA staining. TGFβR1 kinase inhibition abolished the cytostatic effects of TGFβ1 and led to the induction of IRAK1, pIRAK1 and elevated mRNA levels of TLR-9. Overexpression of ALK5 and knockdown of MyD88 or IRAK1 augmented the cytostatic effects of TGFβ1 on HUH-7. In another epithelial HCC cell line, that is, HepG2, TGFβR1 kinase inhibitor similarly elevated cellular proliferation. There is a balance between the canonical SMAD-driven tumour-suppressing arm and the non-canonical tumour-promoting arm of TGFβ signalling. Disruption of this balance, by inhibition of the canonical pathway, induces HCC proliferation through TLR signalling.

Evaluation of ITGB1 expression as a predictor of the therapeutic effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors in gastric cancer

BACKGROUND

Gastric cancer (CC) is a disease with high incidence and mortality rate. Immunotherapy is an important method for gastric cancer while lack of effective predictor. Integrins play an important role in the development. We aimed to explore the predictive value of β1 integrin (ITGB1) as a predictor of immunnotherapy in gastric cancer.

METHODS

Differential expression analysis was conducted using the Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) 2.0 and GEO databases. GEPIA data were used to evaluate the prognostic value of ITGB1 in gastric cancer (GC). Transcriptomic and clinical data of GC and normal tissues were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas database, and the TIMER database was used to evaluate the association between ITGB1 and immune infiltration. Time-dependent receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was used to determine the prognostic value of ITGB1. To verify ITGB1 expression at the protein level, immunohistochemical staining was conducted. In addition, to analyze the correlation of ITGB1 with PD-1 and PD-L1, we examined levels of PD-1 and PD-L1 by IHC and determined the predictive value of ITGB1 for anti-PD-1 therapy in GC by ROC curve analysis.

RESULTS

Compared with normal tissues, analysis of GEPIA and data at protein levels showed significantly higher expression of ITGB1 in GC. In addition, higher expression of ITGB1 was associated with worse pathological G-staging and tumor T-staging, which suggested that ITGB1 is a risk factor for poor prognosis in GC. The level of ITGB1 expression was positively correlated with CD8 + T cells, neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells. ITGB1 expression was also correlated with PD-L1 expression, and this was further verified at the protein level by immunohistochemical analysis. The area under the ROC curve was 0.808.

CONCLUSION

ITGB1 may be a promising prognostic biomarker and effective predictor for anti-PD-1 therapy in GC.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Retrospectively registered.

Epigenetic Regulation of MAP3K8 in EBV-Associated Gastric Carcinoma

Super-enhancers (SEs) regulate gene expressions, which are critical for cell type-identity and tumorigenesis. Although genome wide H3K27ac profiling have revealed the presence of SE-associated genes in gastric cancer (GC), their roles remain unclear. In this study, ChIP-seq and HiChIP-seq experiments revealed mitogen-activated protein kinase 8 (MAP3K8) to be an SE-associated gene with chromosome interactions in Epstein-Barr virus-associated gastric carcinoma (EBVaGC) cells. CRISPRi mediated repression of the MAP3K8 SEs attenuated MAP3K8 expression and EBVaGC cell proliferation. The results were validated by treating EBVaGC cells with bromodomain and the extra-terminal motif (BET) inhibitor, OTX015. Further, functional analysis of MAP3K8 in EBVaGC revealed that silencing MAP3K8 could inhibit the cell proliferation, colony formation, and migration of EBVaGC cells. RNA-seq and pathway analysis indicated that knocking down MAP3K8 obstructed the notch signaling pathway and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in EBVaGC cells. Further, analysis of the cancer genome atlas (TCGA) and GSE51575 databases exhibited augmented MAP3K8 expression in gastric cancer and it was found to be inversely correlated with the disease-free progression of GC. Moreover, Spearman's correlation revealed that MAP3K8 expression was positively correlated with the expressions of notch pathway and EMT related genes, such as, Notch1, Notch2, C-terminal binding protein 2 (CTBP2), alpha smooth muscle actin isotype 2 (ACTA2), transforming growth factor beta receptor 1 (TGFβR1), and snail family transcriptional repressors 1/2 (SNAI1/SNAI2) in GC. Taken together, we are the first to functionally interrogate the mechanism of SE-mediated regulation of MAP3K8 in EBVaGC cell lines.

Potential Molecular Targeted Therapy for Unresectable Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most prevalent and lethal cancers, representing a serious worldwide health concern. The recurrence incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) following surgery or ablation is as high as 70%. Thus, the clinical applicability of standard surgery and other locoregional therapy to improve the outcomes of advanced HCC is restricted and far from ideal. The registered trials did not identify a treatment that prolonged recurrence-free survival, the primary outcome of the majority of research. Several investigator-initiated trials have demonstrated that various treatments extend patients' recurrence-free or overall survival after curative therapies. In the past decade, targeted therapy has made significant strides in the treatment of advanced HCC. These targeted medicines produce antitumour effects via specific signals, such as anti-angiogenesis or advancement of the cell cycle. As a typical systemic treatment option, it significantly improves the prognosis of this fatal disease. In addition, the combination of targeted therapy with an immune checkpoint inhibitor is redefining the paradigm of advanced HCC treatment. In this review, we focused on the role of approved targeted medicines and potential therapeutic targets in unresectable HCC.

Cancer therapy with immune checkpoint inhibitor and CSF-1 blockade: A mathematical model

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) introduced in recent years have revolutionized the treatment of many metastatic cancers. However, data suggest that treatment has benefits only in a limited percentage of patients, and that this is due to immune suppression of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Anti-tumor inflammatory macrophages (M1), which are attracted to the TME, are converted by tumor secreted cytokines, such as CSF-1, to pro-tumor anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2), or tumor associated macrophages (TAMs), which block the anti-tumor T cells. In the present paper we develop a mathematical model that represents the interactions among the immune cells and cancer in terms of differential equations. The model can be used to assess treatments of combination therapy of anti-PD-1 with anti-CSF-1. Examples are given in comparing the efficacy among different strategies for anti-CSF-1 dosing in a setup of clinical trials.

TGF-beta signal transduction: biology, function and therapy for diseases

The transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) is a crucial cytokine that get increasing concern in recent years to treat human diseases. This signal controls multiple cellular responses during embryonic development and tissue homeostasis through canonical and/or noncanonical signaling pathways. Dysregulated TGF-β signal plays an essential role in contributing to fibrosis via promoting the extracellular matrix deposition, and tumor progression via inducing the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, immunosuppression, and neovascularization at the advanced stage of cancer. Besides, the dysregulation of TGF-beta signal also involves in other human diseases including anemia, inflammatory disease, wound healing and cardiovascular disease et al. Therefore, this signal is proposed to be a promising therapeutic target in these diseases. Recently, multiple strategies targeting TGF-β signals including neutralizing antibodies, ligand traps, small-molecule receptor kinase inhibitors targeting ligand-receptor signaling pathways, antisense oligonucleotides to disrupt the production of TGF-β at the transcriptional level, and vaccine are under evaluation of safety and efficacy for the forementioned diseases in clinical trials. Here, in this review, we firstly summarized the biology and function of TGF-β in physiological and pathological conditions, elaborated TGF-β associated signal transduction. And then, we analyzed the current advances in preclinical studies and clinical strategies targeting TGF-β signal transduction to treat diseases.

Knockdown of RhoQ, a member of Rho GTPase, accelerates TGF-β-induced EMT in human lung adenocarcinoma

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, and the most common subtype of lung cancer is adenocarcinoma. RhoQ is a Rho family GTPase with primary sequence and structural similarities to Cdc42 and RhoJ. RhoQ is involved in neurite outgrowth via membrane trafficking and is essential for insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in mature adipocytes. However, the function of RhoQ in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) remains unclear. In this study, RhoQ siRNAs were introduced into A549 and PC-9 cells. Expression level of EMT-related genes and invasion ability were investigated using Western blot and transwell assay. To examine the relationship between RhoQ expression and prognosis of LUAD, Kaplan–Meier plotter was used. We discovered that suppressing RhoQ expression promoted TGF-β-mediated EMT and invasion in LUAD cell lines. Furthermore, RhoQ knockdown increased Smad3 phosphorylation and Snail expression, indicating that RhoQ was involved in TGF/Smad signaling during the EMT process. Moreover, Kaplan–Meier plotter analysis revealed that low RhoQ levels were associated with poor overall survival in patients with LUAD. In conclusion, these findings shed light on RhoQ's role as a negative regulator of TGF-β-mediated EMT in LUAD.

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Knockdown of RhoQ expression promoted TGF-β-mediated EMT and invasion in human lung adenocarcinoma cells.

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RhoQ knockdown increased Smad3 phosphorylation and Snail expression during the EMT process.

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Low RhoQ levels were associated with poor overall survival in patients with lung adenocarcinoma.

Overview of the multifaceted resistances toward EGFR-TKIs and new chemotherapeutic strategies in non-small cell lung cancer

The role of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has been vastly studied over the last decade. This has led to the rapid development of many generations of EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs). However, patients treated with third-generation TKIs (osimertinib, avitinib and rociletinib) targeting the EGFR T790M mutation have shown emerging resistances and relapses. Therefore, further molecular understanding of NSCLC mutations, bypass signalling, tumour microenvironment and the existence of cancer stem cells to overcome such resistances is warranted. This will pave the way for designing novel and effective chemotherapies to improve patients' overall survival. In this review, we provide an overview of the multifaceted mechanism of resistances towards EGFR-TKIs, as well as the challenges and perspectives that should be addressed in strategising chemotherapeutic treatments to overcome the ever evolving and adaptive nature of NSCLC.

Targeting CLK4 inhibits the metastasis and progression of breast cancer by inactivating TGF-β pathway

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) represents the most aggressive subtype of breast cancer that is highly resistant to current therapeutic options. According to the public databases Oncomine and KM plotter, the CLK4 expression is correlated with poor patient survival in TNBC, especially in mesenchymal-like TNBC (MES-TNBC) that has strong metastatic potential. Therefore, we investigated the potential involvement of CLK4 in the metastasis and progression of MES-TNBC. In the MES-TNBC cell lines, the CLK4 expression was elevated. Notably, the RNAi-mediated silencing of CLK4 reduced the expression of multiple epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) genes that mediate metastasis. Furthermore, CLK4 silencing reduced both the invasive behaviors of the cultured cells and tumor metastasis in the mouse xenograft model. It is also noteworthy that CLK4 silencing repressed the invasive and cancer stem cell (CSC) properties that are induced by the TGF-β signaling. Importantly, the pharmacological inhibition of CLK4 potently repressed the invasion and proliferation of MES-TNBC cell lines and patient-derived cells, which demonstrates its clinical applicability. Collectively, our results suggest that CLK4 plays a crucial role in invasion and proliferation of MES-TNBC, especially in the processes that are induced by TGF-β. Also, this study characterizes CLK4 as a novel therapeutic target in breast cancer.

Golgi scaffold protein PAQR3 as a candidate suppressor of gastric cardia adenocarcinoma via regulating TGF ‐β/Smad pathway

Objectives

To investigate the function of PAQR3 in gastric cardia adenocarcinoma (GCA) and understand the possible mechanism of PAQR3 in regulating epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT).

Methods

We detected PAQR3 protein in 146 GCA tissues and paired normal adjacent tissues (PNTs) specimens using immunohistochemical analysis, and explored its clinical significance. The expression levels of PAQR3 protein in 20 GCA tissues, their paired PNTs, HGC27, SGC7901, and GES‐1 cells were analyzed by Western blot. Wild‐type PAQR3 was overexpressed in HGC27 cells. The effects of PAQR3 overexpression on the function of HGC27 cells and its underlying mechanisms were then analyzed through a series of cell and molecular biology experiments.

Results

PAQR3 was significantly down‐regulated in GCA tissues when compared with paired PNTs (p < 0.0001). The expression level of PAQR3 in GCA tissues was significantly negatively correlated with Helicobacter pylori infection (p = 0.000), venous invasion (p = 0.000), invasion depth (p = 0.000), lymph node metastasis (p = 0.022), tumor stage (p = 0.000), and patient survival (p = 0.009). Downregulation of PAQR3 was highly correlated with increased EMT signature and activated TGF‐β/Smad pathway in GCA tissues. Overexpression of PAQR3 in HGC27 cells negatively regulates its cellular functions, such as cell proliferation and migration, and suppresses EMT. Mechanistically, overexpression of PAQR3 significantly down‐regulates the protein expression levels of TGF‐1, p‐Smad2, and p‐Smad3 in HGC27 cells.

Conclusion

PAQR3 was significantly down‐regulated in GCA tissues, HGC27, and SGC7901 cells. PAQR3 significantly inhibits the proliferation, migration, and invasion of HGC27 cells. Mechanistically, PAQR3 can inhibit the EMT process in HGC27 cells by regulating TGF‐β/Smad signaling pathway.

Overexpression of dual-specificity phosphatases 4 and 13 attenuates transforming growth factor β1-induced migration and drug resistance in A549 cells in vitro

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ) proteins induce an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) programme that is associated with increased invasive and drug-resistant phenotype of carcinoma cells. In addition to the canonical pathway involving SMAD proteins, the mitogen-activated kinase (MAPK) pathway via extracellular signal-regulated kinases ½ (ERK1/2) is also involved in promoting and maintaining a mesenchymal phenotype by tumor cells following TGFβ signal activation. As dual-specificity phosphatases (DUSPs) regulate ERK1/2 activity by dephosphorylation, we aimed to examine DUSPs' expression upon TGFβ stimulation and whether DUSPs play a role in the EMT and related phenotypes promoted by TGFβ1 in A549 cells. We found that TGFβ1 stimulation led to marked changes in several DUSP proteins, including significant decreases in DUSP4 and DUSP13 expressions. We then showed that the ectopic co-expression of DUSP4/13 suppresses TGFβ1-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation and protein levels of the EMT transcription factors Snail and Slug proteins. We then demonstrated that DUSP4/13 co-expression partially inhibited TGFβ1-promoted migration, invasion, and chemoresistance in A549 cells. Collectively, this report provides data for the involvement of DUSP4/13 in malignant phenotypes regulated by TGFβ1 in A549 cells.

The role of long non-coding RNAs in the pathogenesis of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Head and neck cancers are a heterogeneous collection of malignancies of the upper aerodigestive tract, salivary glands, and thyroid. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the carcinogenesis of head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs) remain poorly understood. Over the past decades, overwhelming evidence has demonstrated the regulatory roles of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in tumorigenesis, including HNSCC. Notably, these lncRNAs have vital roles in gene regulation and affect various aspects of cellular homeostasis, including proliferation, survival, and metastasis. They exert regulating functions by interacting with nucleic acids or proteins and affecting cancer cell signaling. LncRNAs represent a burgeoning field of cancer research, and we are only beginning to understand the importance and complicity of lncRNAs in HNSCC. In this review, we summarize the deregulation and function of lncRNAs in human HNSCC. We also review the working mechanism of lncRNAs in HNSCC pathogenesis and discuss the potential application of lncRNAs as diagnostic/prognostic tools and therapeutic targets in human HNSCC.

Oroxylin A inhibits the migration of hepatocellular carcinoma cells by inducing NAG-1 expression

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the most prevalent liver cancer, is considered one of the most lethal malignancies with a dismal outcome mainly due to frequent intrahepatic and distant metastasis. In the present study, we demonstrated that oroxylin A, a natural product extracted from Scutellaria radix, significantly inhibits transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β1)-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and metastasis in HCC. Oroxylin A blocked the TGF-β1/Smad signaling via upregulating the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-activated gene-1 (NAG-1) expression. Oroxylin A promoted NAG-1 transcription by regulating the acetylation of CCAAT/enhancer binding protein β (C/EBPβ), a transcription factor that binds to the NAG-1 promoter. In terms of the underlying mechanism, oroxylin A may interact with histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) by forming hydrogen bonds with GLY149 residue and induce proteasome-mediated degradation of HDAC1 subsequently impairing HDAC1-mediated deacetylation of C/EBPβ and promoting the expression of NAG-1. Taken together, our findings revealed a previously unknown tumor-suppressive mechanism of oroxylin A. Oroxylin A should be further investigated as a potential clinical candidate for inhibiting HCC metastasis.

TGF-β1 and its signal molecules: are they correlated with the elasticity characteristics of breast lesions?

Background

Shear wave elastography can evaluate tissue stiffness. Previous studies showed that the elasticity characteristics of breast lesions were related to the components of extracellular matrix which was regulated by transforming growth factor beta 1(TGF-β1) directly or indirectly. However, the correlation of the expression level of TGF-β1, its signal molecules and elasticity characteristics of breast lesions have rarely been reported. The purpose of this study was to investigate the correlation between the expression level of TGF-β1, its signal molecules, and the elasticity characteristics of breast lesions.

Methods

135 breast lesions in 130 patients were included. Elasticity parameters, including elasticity modulus, the elasticity ratio, the “stiff rim sign”, were recorded before biopsy and surgical excision. The expression levels of TGF-β1 and its signal molecules, including Smad2/3, Erk1/2, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase 2 (JNK2), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), and protein kinase B (PKB/AKT) were detected by immunohistochemistry. The diagnostic performance of the expression level of those molecules and their correlation with the elasticity characteristics were analyzed.

Results

Elasticity parameters and the expression levels of TGF- β1 and its signal molecules of benign lesions were lower than those of malignant lesions (P<0.0001). The expression levels of TGF- β1 and its signal molecules were correlated with elasticity parameters. The expression levels of TGF- β1 and its signal molecules in lesions with “stiff rim sign” were higher than those without “stiff rim sign” (P<0.05). And the expression levels of Smad2/3, Erk1/2, p38 MAPK, JNK2, PI3K and AKT were correlated with that of TGF- β1. The area under the curve for receiver operator characteristic curve of TGF-β1 and its signal molecules in the differentiation of malignant and benign breast lesions ranged from 0.920–0.960.

Conclusions

The expression levels of TGF-β1, its signal molecules of breast lesions showed good diagnostic performance and were correlated with the elasticity parameters. The expression levels of signal molecules were correlated with that of TGF- β1, which speculated that TGF- β1 might play an important role in the regulation of breast lesion elasticity parameters and multiple signal molecule expressions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-021-09036-4.

Rab31-dependent regulation of transforming growth factor ß expression in breast cancer cells

BACKGROUND

The small GTP-binding protein Rab31 plays an important role in the modulation of tumor biological-relevant processes, including cell proliferation, adhesion, and invasion. As an underlying mechanism, Rab31 is presumed to act as a molecular switch between a more proliferative and an invasive phenotype. This prompted us to analyze whether Rab31 overexpression in breast cancer cells affects expression of genes involved in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-like processes when compared to Rab31 low-expressing cells.

METHODS

Commercially available profiler PCR arrays were applied to search for differentially expressed genes in Rab31 high- and low-expressing CAMA-1 breast cancer cells. Differential expression of selected candidate genes in response to Rab31 overexpression in CAMA-1 cells was validated by independent qPCR and protein assays.

RESULTS

Gene expression profiling of key genes involved in EMT, or its reciprocal process MET, identified 9 genes being significantly up- or down-regulated in Rab31 overexpressing CAMA-1 cells, with the strongest effects seen for TGFB1, encoding TGF-ß1 (> 25-fold down-regulation in Rab31 overexpressing cells). Subsequent validation analyses by qPCR revealed a strong down-regulation of TGFB1 mRNA levels in response to increased Rab31 expression not only in CAMA-1 cells, but also in another breast cancer cell line, MDA-MB-231. Using ELISA and Western blot analysis, a considerable reduction of both intracellular and secreted TGF-ß1 antigen levels was determined in Rab31 overexpressing cells compared to vector control cells. Furthermore, reduced TGF-ß activity was observed upon Rab31 overexpression in CAMA-1 cells using a sensitive TGF-ß bioassay. Finally, the relationship between Rab31 expression and the TGF-ß axis was analyzed by another profiler PCR array focusing on genes involved in TGF-ß signaling. We found 12 out of 84 mRNAs significantly reduced and 7 mRNAs significantly increased upon Rab31 overexpression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that Rab31 is a potent modulator of the expression of TGF-ß and other components of the TGF-ß signaling pathway in breast cancer cells.

Effect of KLF17 overexpression on epithelial-mesenchymal transition of gastric cancer cells

Objective

To investigate Krüppel-like factor 17 (KLF17) expression in normal and gastric cancer tissues and cell lines.

Methods

Levels of KLF17 mRNA and protein in GES-1 normal gastric mucosal cells, and NCI-N87, SGC-7901, BGC-823 and HGC-27 gastric cancer cells were analysed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and western blot. Differences in KLF17 expression between gastric cancer and adjacent tissues were analysed by qPCR and immunohistochemistry. Invasion/migration effects of KLF17 overexpression in BGC-823 and HGC-27 cells were analysed by wound-healing and Transwell chamber assays. Changes in expression of KLF17 and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related genes (matrix metalloproteinase [MMP]-9, vimentin and E-cadherin) were analysed in BGC-823 and HGC-27 cells before and after transfection using qPCR and western blot. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, Smad family member (Smad)2/3 and phosphorylated-Smad2/3 levels in BGC-823 and HGC-27 cells were assessed by qPCR and western blot.

Results

KLF17 expression was lower in gastric cancer versus adjacent tissues, and in gastric cancer cell lines versus GES-1 normal gastric mucosal cells, and was positively correlated with degree of cancer-cell differentiation. Wound-healing and Transwell assays showed decreased migration and invasion ability of BGC-823 and HGC-27 cells transfected to overexpress KLF17. KLF17 overexpression was associated with decreased MMP-9 and vimentin in BGC-823 and HGC-27 cancer cells, and increased KLF17 and E-cadherin. KLF17 overexpression also resulted in decreased levels of TGF-β1 and p-Smad2/3 in BGC-823 and HGC-27 cancer cells.

Conclusion

KLF17 is poorly expressed in gastric cancer tissues and cell lines. KLF17 overexpression might inhibit EMT via the TGF-β/Smad pathway, thereby reducing gastric cancer cell invasion and migration. Therefore, KLF17 may become a novel target for treating gastric cancer.

Cationic Channel TRPV2 Overexpression Promotes Resistance to Cisplatin-Induced Apoptosis in Gastric Cancer Cells

Gastric cancer (GC) is characterized by poor efficacy and modest clinical impact of current therapies, in which apoptosis evasion is relevant. Intracellular calcium homeostasis dysregulation is associated with apoptosis escaping, and aberrant expression of calcium regulator genes could promote GC drug resistance. Since we previously found a prognostic value for TRPV2 calcium channel expression in GC, we aimed to characterize the role of TRPV2 in cisplatin resistance. Using the TCGA-STAD dataset, we performed a differential gene expression analysis between GC samples in upper and lower tertiles of TRPV2 expression, and then through a gene set analysis, we highlighted the enriched ontology and canonical pathways. We used qRT-PCR to assess TRPV2 expression in three GC cell lines and flow cytometry to evaluate cisplatin-induced cell death rates. Calcium green-1-AM assay was used to estimate differences in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentrations after inhibition of TRPV2. We engineered AGS cell line to overexpress TRPV2 and used confocal microscopy to quantify its overexpression and localization and flow cytometry to evaluate their sensitivity to cisplatin. Consistent with our hypothesis, among enriched gene sets, we found a significant number of those involved in the regulation of apoptosis. Subsequently, we found an inverse correlation between TRPV2 expression and sensitivity to cisplatin in GC cell lines. Moreover, we demonstrated that inhibition of TRPV2 activity by tranilast blocks the efflux of Ca²⁺ ions and, in combination with cisplatin, induced a significant increase of apoptotic cells (p = 0.004). We also demonstrated that TRPV2 exogenous expression confers a drug-resistant phenotype, and that tranilast is able to revert this phenotype, restoring cisplatin sensitivity. Our findings consistently suggested that TRPV2 could be a potential target for overcoming cisplatin resistance by promoting apoptosis. Notably, our data are a prerequisite for the potential reposition of tranilast to the treatment of GC patients and anticipate the in vivo evaluation.

Microbiota triggers STING-type I IFN-dependent monocyte reprogramming of the tumor microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment (TME) influences cancer progression and therapy response. Therefore, understanding what regulates the TME immune compartment is vital. Here we show that microbiota signals program mononuclear phagocytes in the TME toward immunostimulatory monocytes and dendritic cells (DCs). Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed that absence of microbiota skews the TME toward pro-tumorigenic macrophages. Mechanistically, we show that microbiota-derived stimulator of interferon genes (STING) agonists induce type I interferon (IFN-I) production by intratumoral monocytes to regulate macrophage polarization and natural killer (NK) cell-DC crosstalk. Microbiota modulation with a high-fiber diet triggered the intratumoral IFN-I-NK cell-DC axis and improved the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB). We validated our findings in individuals with melanoma treated with ICB and showed that the predicted intratumoral IFN-I and immune compositional differences between responder and non-responder individuals can be transferred by fecal microbiota transplantation. Our study uncovers a mechanistic link between the microbiota and the innate TME that can be harnessed to improve cancer therapies.

FOXD3 suppresses epithelial-mesenchymal transition through direct transcriptional promotion of SMAD7 in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

The transcription factor forkhead box D3 (FOXD3) is an important member of the FOX family, which can maintain the pluripotent properties of cell clusters, neural crest, and trophoblastic progenitor cells in vivo. It has been shown that FOXD3 could affect proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis of various tumors and its deletion and overexpression in organisms will undoubtedly have important influence on the change of cell fate and the occurrence of tumors. However, the underlying functions and molecular mechanisms of FOXD3 in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) have not been fully clarified. According to the present study, the expression levels and functional roles of FOXD3 were investigated, and its prognostic value and molecular mechanisms in tumorigenesis and progression of ESCC were clarified. The expression level of FOXD3 was significantly downregulated in ESCC tissues and cell lines, and correlated with gender, family history of upper gastrointestinal cancer, TNM stage, depth of invasion, lymph node metastasis, and ESCC patients' survival. Moreover, FOXD3 inhibited cells migration and invasion as well as participated in TGF-β1 induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition process. Furthermore, a positive correlation between FOXD3 and SMAD family member 7 (SMAD7) was explored in ESCC. FOXD3 could directly bind to promoter regions of SMAD7 gene, leading to transcriptional promotion of SMAD7 in human esophageal cancer cells. Taken together, FOXD3 may play a tumor suppressor role in ESCC and may be applied as a new therapeutic target and prognostic marker for ESCC.

RhoGTPase Signalling in Cancer Progression and Dissemination

Rho GTPases are a family of small G proteins that regulate a wide array of cellular processes related to their key roles controlling the cytoskeleton. On the other hand, cancer is a multi-step disease caused by the accumulation of genetic mutations and epigenetic alterations, from the initial stages of cancer development when cells in normal tissues undergo transformation, to the acquisition of invasive and metastatic traits, responsible for a large number of cancer related deaths. In this review, we discuss the role of Rho GTPase signalling in cancer in every step of disease progression. Rho GTPases contribute to tumour initiation and progression, by regulating proliferation and apoptosis, but also metabolism, senescence and cell stemness. Rho GTPases play a major role in cell migration, and in the metastatic process. They are also involved in interactions with the tumour microenvironment and regulate inflammation, contributing to cancer progression. After years of intensive research, we highlight the importance of relevant models in the Rho GTPase field, and we reflect on the therapeutic opportunities arising for cancer patients.

A computational approach on studying the regulation of TGF-β1-stimulated Runx2 expression by MicroRNAs in human breast cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β1) acts as a most effective growth inhibitor for normal epithelial cells. Loss of this anti-proliferative factor in breast tissues favors invasion and development of osteolytic metastases, aided by a master transcription factor, runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2). Several reports identified Runx2 regulation with the help of non-coding RNAs such as microRNAs (miRNAs) under physiological and pathological conditions.

METHODS

Using bioinformatics tools such as miRDB, STarMir, Venny, TarBase, a unique list of miRNAs that putatively target the 3' UTR Runx2 was identified. Further, the expression patterns of those miRNAs at the precursor and mature levels were studied by RT-qPCR analyses. Following this, computational analyses using software like TransmiR and bc-GenExMiner v4.6 were done to speculate the miRNA's other target genes that indirectly regulate Runx2 activity in breast cancer.

RESULTS

There were 13 miRNAs that putatively target Runx2 identified using bioinformatics tools. Among these miRNAs, miR-5703 expression was significantly downregulated at both precursor and mature levels upon TGF-β1-treatment in human breast cancer cells. Computational analyses speculated an indirect targeting of Runx2 by miR-5703 by influencing multiple Runx2 regulatory signaling pathways including Jak/Stat, MAPK, Wnt/β-Catenin, Notch, BMP, and PKA pathways. Furthermore, a correlation of the expression profiles of the speculated genes and Runx2 with miR-5703 was depicted in triple-negative breast cancer patients.

CONCLUSION

Identification of miR-5703 and its network for Runx2 regulation directly or indirectly in breast cancer cells could significantly advance our understanding of breast cancer-mediated bone metastasis. In addition, it would potentially pave the way for miRNAs to be used as biomarkers and therapeutic agents in cancer research.

Repression of RhoJ expression promotes TGF-β-mediated EMT in human non-small-cell lung cancer A549cells

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for most cancer-related deaths because of its strong metastatic ability. It is important to understand NSCLC's molecular mechanisms of metastasis. RhoJ, a protein that belongs to the Rho family of small GTPases, regulates endothelial motility, angiogenesis, and adipogenesis. Recently, bioinformatics analysis showed that NSCLC patients with lower RhoJ expression had a worse survival outcome than those with high RhoJ expression. However, little is known about RhoJ's role in NSCLC. In the present study, we demonstrated that RhoJ knockdown accelerated TGF-βmediated epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), an important cancer metastasis process, in A549 and PC-9 cells. Furthermore, using Matrigel-coated transwell chambers, we showed that RhoJ knockdown enhanced the invasion capacity of A549 cells that had undergone EMT. Also, reduced RhoJ expression increased Smad3 phosphorylation and Snail expression during the EMT process. Our results provide the first evidence of a potential novel role for RhoJ in the inhibition of EMT via modulation of the TGF-β-Smad signaling pathway, and shed new light on the mechanisms underlying EMT in NSCLC.

TGF-β inhibition can overcome cancer primary resistance to PD-1 blockade: A mathematical model

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have demonstrated, over the recent years, impressive clinical response in cancer patients, but some patients do not respond at all to checkpoint blockade, exhibiting primary resistance. Primary resistance to PD-1 blockade is reported to occur under conditions of immunosuppressive tumor environment, a condition caused by myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and by T cells exclusion, due to increased level of T regulatory cells (Tregs). Since TGF-β activates Tregs, TGF-β inhibitor may overcome primary resistance to anti-PD-1. Indeed, recent mice experiments show that combining anti-PD-1 with anti-TGF-β yields significant therapeutic improvements compared to anti-TGF-β alone. The present paper introduces two cancer-specific parameters and, correspondingly, develops a mathematical model which explains how primary resistance to PD-1 blockade occurs, in terms of the two cancer-specific parameters, and how, in combination with anti-TGF-β, anti-PD-1 provides significant benefits. The model is represented by a system of partial differential equations and the simulations are in agreement with the recent mice experiments. In some cancer patients, treatment with anti-PD-1 results in rapid progression of the disease, known as hyperprogression disease (HPD). The mathematical model can also explain how this situation arises, and it predicts that HPD may be reversed by combining anti-TGF-β to anti-PD-1. The model is used to demonstrate how the two cancer-specific parameters may serve as biomarkers in predicting the efficacy of combination therapy with PD-1 and TGF-β inhibitors.

MYLK4 promotes tumor progression through the activation of epidermal growth factor receptor signaling in osteosarcoma

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common primary bone cancer in adolescents and lung metastasis is the leading cause of death in patients with OS. However, the molecular mechanisms that promote OS growth and metastasis remain unknown.

METHODS

We investigated the expression of myosin light chain kinase family members between metastasis and non-metastasis patients in the TARGET database and ensured that only myosin light chain kinase family member 4 (MYLK4) had higher expression in metastatic osteosarcoma patients. Then we confirmed the results by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and Western blotting (WB) of OS tissues. The effect of MYLK4 on the metastasis and proliferation of OS cells was investigated by wound healing, Transwell and colony-formation assays. Mass spectrum analysis was used to ensure the new binding protein of MYLK4. Tissue microarrays analysis was used to show the correlation between MYLK4 and pEGFR (Y1068). A series of in vivo experiments were conducted to reveal the mechanisms by which MYLK4 modulated the metastasis and proliferation of OS.

RESULTS

Myosin Light Chain Kinase Family Member 4 (MYLK4) was significantly upregulated in metastatic human OS tissues. Growth and metastasis of OS could be accelerated by MYLK4 overexpression, whereas silencing MYLK4 expression resulted in decreased cell growth and metastasis. Mechanistically, mass spectrum analysis showed that MYLK4 interacted with the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in osteosarcoma cells and promoted growth and metastasis via the EGFR signaling pathway. Tissue microarrays analysis also showed that MYLK4 expression had a positive correlation with the expression of pEGFR (Y1068). Moreover, the EGFR inhibitor gefitinib could partially reverse the effect of cell proliferation and metastasis caused by MYLK4 overexpression. Importantly, the combination of MYLK4 and EGFR inhibitors had synergistic effects on growth and metastasis of OS in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that MYLK4 promotes OS growth and metastasis by activating the EGFR signaling pathway and can be a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of OS patients.

Regulation of anti-tumorigenic pathways by the combinatory treatment of calcitriol and TGF-β in PC-3 and DU145 cells

Calcitriol and transforming growth factors beta (TGF-β) are involved in several biological pathways such as cell proliferation, differentiation, migration and invasion. Their cellular effects could be similar or opposite depending on the genetic target, cell type and context. Despite the reported association of calcitriol deficiency and disruption of the TGF-β pathway in prostate cancer and the well-known independent effects of calcitriol and TGF-βs on cancer cells, there is limited information regarding the cellular effects of calcitriol and TGF-β in combination. In this study, we in vitro analyze the combinatory effects of calcitriol and TGF-β on cell growth and apoptosis using PC-3 and DU145 human prostate cancer cell lines. Using high-throughput microarray profiling of PC-3 cells upon independent and combinatory treatments, we identified distinct transcriptional landscapes of each intervention, with a higher effect established by the combinatorial treatment, following by TGF-β1 and later by calcitriol. A set of genes and enriched pathways converge among the treatments, mainly between the combinatory scheme and TGF-β1, but the majority were treatment-specific. Of note, CYP24A1, IGFBP3, CDKN1A, NOX4 and UBE2D3 were significantly up-regulated upon the combinatorial treatment whereas CCNA1, members of the CT45A and APOBEC3 family were down-regulated. By public RNA signatures, we were able to confirm the regulation by the co-treatment over cell proliferation and cell cycle. We finally investigated the possible clinical impact of genes modulated by the combinatorial treatment using benchmark prostate cancer data. This comprehensive analysis reveals that the combinatory treatment impairs cell growth without affecting apoptosis and their combinatory actions might synergize and improved their individual effects to reprogram prostate cancer signaling.

Tgf-β1 transcriptionally promotes 90K expression: possible implications for cancer progression

The 90K protein, also known as Mac-2 BP or LGALS3BP, can activate the immune response in part by increasing major histocompatibility (MHC) class I levels. In studies on a non-immune cell model, the rat FRTL-5 cell line, we observed that transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, like γ-interferon (IFN), increased 90K levels, despite its immunosuppressive functions and the ability to decrease MHC class I. To explain this paradoxical result, we investigated the mechanisms involved in the TGF-β1 regulation of 90K expression with the aim to demonstrate that TGF-β1 utilizes different molecular pathways to regulate the two genes. We found that TGF-β1 was able to increase the binding of Upstream Stimulatory Factors, USF1 and USF2, to an E-box element, CANNTG, at -1926 to -1921 bp, upstream of the interferon response element (IRE) in the 90K promoter. Thyrotropin (TSH) suppressed constitutive and γ-IFN-induced 90K expression by decreasing USF binding to the E-box. TGF-β1 was able to overcome TSH suppression at the transcriptional level by increasing USF binding to the E-box. We suggest that the ability of TGF-β1 to increase 90K did not result in an increase in MHC class I because of a separate suppressive action of TGF-β1 directly on the MHC class I gene. We propose that the increased levels of 90K may play a role, rather than in immune response, in the context of the TGF-β1-induced changing of the cellular microenvironment that predisposes to cell motility and cancer progression. Consistently, analyzing the publicly available cancer patient data sets cBioPortal, we found that 90K expression directly correlated with TGF-β1 and USFs and that high levels of 90K were significantly associated with increased mortality in patients affected by different types of cancer.

Short overview on the relevance of microRNA-reactive oxygen species (ROS) interactions and lipid peroxidation for modulation of oxidative stress-mediated signalling pathways in cancer treatment

OBJECTIVES

Modulation of oxidative stress-mediated signalling pathways is constantly getting more attention as a valuable therapeutic strategy in cancer treatment. Although complexity of redox signalling pathways might represent a major hurdle, the development of advanced -omics technologies allow thorough studies on cancer-specific biology, which is essential to elucidate the impact of these signalling pathways in cancer cells. The scope of our review is to provide updated information about recent developments in cancer treatment.

KEY FINDINGS

In recent years identifying oxidative stress-mediated signalling pathways is a major goal of cancer research assuming it may provide novel therapeutic approaches through the development of agents that may have better tissue penetration and therefore affect specific redox signalling pathways. In this review, we discuss some recent studies focussed on the modulation of oxidative stress-related signalling pathways as a novel anti-cancer treatment, with a particular emphasis on the induction of lipid peroxidation.

CONCLUSIONS

Characterization and modulation of oxidative stress-mediated signalling pathways and lipid peroxidation products will continue to foster novel interest and further investigations, which may pave the way for more effective, selective, and personalized integrative biomedicine treatment strategies.

Synthesis and evaluation of the epithelial-to- mesenchymal inhibitory activity of indazole-derived imidazoles as dual ALK5/p38α MAP inhibitors

Drugs of targeting both activin receptor-like kinase 5 (ALK5) and p38α have therapeutic advantages, making them attractive treatment options for tumors. Two series of 4-(1H-indazol-5-yl)-5-(6-methylpyridin-2-yl)-1H-imidazoles 13a-g and 4-(1-methyl-1H-indazol-5-yl)-5-(6-methylpyridin-2-yl)-1H-imidazoles 20a-g were synthesized and evaluated for ALK5 and p38α mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitory activity. The most potent compound, 13c (J-1090), inhibited ALK5- and p38α-mediated phosphorylation with half-maximal inhibitor concentrations of 0.004 μM and 0.004 μM, respectively, in the enzymatic assay. In this study, the effectiveness of 13c in transforming growth factor (TGF-β)-exposed U87MG cells was investigated using western blotting, immunofluorescence assays, cell migration assay, invasion assay, and RT-PCR analysis. 13c inhibited the protein expression of Slug and the protein and RNA expression of the mesenchymal-related proteins N-cadherin and vimentin. Furthermore, 13c markedly suppressed TGF-β-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), migration, and invasion in U87MG cells. These results suggest that 13c is a novel inhibitor of ALK5 with potential utility in the treatment of human glioma.

WNT11-FZD7-DAAM1 signalling supports tumour initiating abilities and melanoma amoeboid invasion

Melanoma is a highly aggressive tumour that can metastasize very early in disease progression. Notably, melanoma can disseminate using amoeboid invasive strategies. We show here that high Myosin II activity, high levels of ki-67 and high tumour-initiating abilities are characteristic of invasive amoeboid melanoma cells. Mechanistically, we find that WNT11-FZD7-DAAM1 activates Rho-ROCK1/2-Myosin II and plays a crucial role in regulating tumour-initiating potential, local invasion and distant metastasis formation. Importantly, amoeboid melanoma cells express both proliferative and invasive gene signatures. As such, invasive fronts of human and mouse melanomas are enriched in amoeboid cells that are also ki-67 positive. This pattern is further enhanced in metastatic lesions. We propose eradication of amoeboid melanoma cells after surgical removal as a therapeutic strategy.

A Proliferation-Inducing Ligand Regulation in Polymorphonuclear Neutrophils by Panax ginseng

A proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL) is a member of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily that was first identified as a factor favoring tumorigenesis. APRIL is important fitness and survival factors for B cells and plasma cells in the periphery. Considering this, as well as the quantitative predominance of neutrophils among the peripheral blood leukocytes, we carried out the first study assessing the influence of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling pathway on APRIL expression in these cells. Furthermore, as the Rb1 ginsenoside is known to exhibit multiple pharmacological activities, we verified if the saponin is capable of modulating the process. The present study shows that TGF-β increased the expression of APRIL and the level of phospho-p38, phospho-Akt(T308), and phospho-Akt(S473) in the cytoplasmic fraction, as well as the expression of Fra1, c-Fos, and c-Jun in the nuclear fraction, of neutrophils. However, exposure of these cells to Rb1 reduced the expression and level of the investigated proteins. No changes were found in the expression of APRIL and the level of p-p38 in the cytoplasmic fraction of neutrophils following the application of Rb1 alone, as well as in the neutrophils incubated first with Rb1 and then with TGF-β, whereas a higher level of phosphorylation was observed for Akt and PI3 kinases in the cells. Moreover, a higher expression of all the studied transcription factors was observed in the nuclear fraction of neutrophils. Based on the observed changes, it may be assumed that the expression of APRIL molecule in TGF-β-induced neutrophils and its regulation by Rb1 are associated with PI3K/AKT signaling pathways and transcription factors Fra-1, Fra-2, c-Jun, and c-Fos. Rb1 appears to be a favorable factor that may be potentially used in the modulation of tumor-promoting APRIL expression.

Histamine H4 receptor agonists induce epithelial-mesenchymal transition events and enhance mammosphere formation via Src and TGF-β signaling in breast cancer cells

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) contributes to cell invasion and metastasis during the progression of epithelial cancers. Though preclinical evidence suggests a role for histamine H4 receptor (H4R) in breast cancer growth, its function in the EMT is less known. In this study we proposed to investigate the effects of H4R ligands on EMT and mammosphere formation as a surrogate assay for cancer stem cells in breast cancer cells with different invasive phenotype. We also investigated the participation of Src and TGF-β signaling in these events. Breast cancer cells were treated with the H4R agonists Clobenpropit, VUF8430 and JNJ28610244 and the H4R antagonist JNJ7777120. Immunodetection studies showed cytoplasmic E-cadherin, cytoplasmic and nuclear beta-catenin, nuclear Slug and an increase in vimentin and α-smooth muscle actin expression. There was also an enhancement in cell migration and invasion assessed by transwell units. All these effects were prevented by JNJ7777120. Moreover, H4R agonists induced an increase in phospho-Src levels detected by Western blot. Results revealed the involvement of phospho-Src in EMT events. Upon treatment with H4R agonists there was an increase in phospho-ERK1/2 and TGF-β1 levels by Western blot, in Smad2/3 positive nuclei by indirect immunofluorescence, and in tumor spheres formation by the mammosphere assay. Notably, the selective TGF-β1 kinase/activin receptor-like kinase inhibitor A83-01 blocked these effects. Moreover, cells derived from mammospheres exhibited higher Slug expression and enhanced migratory behavior. Collectively, findings support the interaction between H4R and TGF-β receptor signaling in the enhancement of EMT features and mammosphere formation and point out intracellular TGF-β1 as a potential mediator of these events.

Oxymatrine Inhibits Twist-Mediated Renal Tubulointerstitial Fibrosis by Upregulating Id2 Expression

The final pathway for the development of diabetic nephropathy (DN) into chronic renal failure in DN is glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis. Renal tubular lesions can occur in the early stage of DN renal injury. Cumulative evidence shows that oxymatrine (OMT) has a variety of biological and pharmacological properties. In recent years, more attention has been paid on the preventive and therapeutic influence of OMT on organ fibrosis. In this experiment, db/db mice were intraperitoneally injected with OMT 120 mg/kg for 8 weeks, and NRK-52E cultured with 30 mmol/L glucose and 0.1 mg/mL OMT for 48-hour. We investigated the relationship between Id2 and Twist in NRK-52E cells and the effect of OMT on the expression of E-cadherin, α-SMA, Fibronectin, and Collagen-IV by Western blot, Real-time PCR, Immunofluorescence, cell transfection, Co-Immunoprecipitation, and Luciferase assays. OMT increased the expression of Id2 but decreased that of Twist under high glucose condition in vitro and in vivo. The promoted recovery of Id2 facilitated its binding to Twist and affected E-cadherin activity inhibiting EMT and the excessive proliferation and abnormal deposition of ECM. In brief, OMT promotes Id2 to reverse EMT and exert anti-fibrotic effect in diabetic renal tubular epithelial cells by binding Id2 to Twist and affecting its transcriptional activation of downstream target genes. Or findings provide a new experimental basis for delaying the progress and for treatment of diabetic renal fibrosis.

The Mediator CDK8-Cyclin C complex modulates Dpp signaling in Drosophila by stimulating Mad-dependent transcription

Dysregulation of CDK8 (Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 8) and its regulatory partner CycC (Cyclin C), two subunits of the conserved Mediator (MED) complex, have been linked to diverse human diseases such as cancer. Thus, it is essential to understand the regulatory network modulating the CDK8-CycC complex in both normal development and tumorigenesis. To identify upstream regulators or downstream effectors of CDK8, we performed a dominant modifier genetic screen in Drosophila based on the defects in vein patterning caused by specific depletion or overexpression of CDK8 or CycC in developing wing imaginal discs. We identified 26 genomic loci whose haploinsufficiency can modify these CDK8- or CycC-specific phenotypes. Further analysis of two overlapping deficiency lines and mutant alleles led us to identify genetic interactions between the CDK8-CycC pair and the components of the Decapentaplegic (Dpp, the Drosophila homolog of TGFβ, or Transforming Growth Factor-β) signaling pathway. We observed that CDK8-CycC positively regulates transcription activated by Mad (Mothers against dpp), the primary transcription factor downstream of the Dpp/TGFβ signaling pathway. CDK8 can directly interact with Mad in vitro through the linker region between the DNA-binding MH1 (Mad homology 1) domain and the carboxy terminal MH2 (Mad homology 2) transactivation domain. Besides CDK8 and CycC, further analyses of other subunits of the MED complex have revealed six additional subunits that are required for Mad-dependent transcription in the wing discs: Med12, Med13, Med15, Med23, Med24, and Med31. Furthermore, our analyses confirmed the positive roles of CDK9 and Yorkie in regulating Mad-dependent gene expression in vivo. These results suggest that CDK8 and CycC, together with a few other subunits of the MED complex, may coordinate with other transcription cofactors in regulating Mad-dependent transcription during wing development in Drosophila.

C/EBPɑ is crucial determinant of epithelial maintenance by preventing epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition

Extracellular signals such as TGF-β can induce epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in cancers of epithelial origin, promoting molecular and phenotypical changes resulting in pro-metastatic characteristics. We identified C/EBPα as one of the most TGF-β-mediated downregulated transcription factors in human mammary epithelial cells. C/EBPα expression prevents TGF-β-driven EMT by inhibiting expression of known EMT factors. Depletion of C/EBPα is sufficient to induce mesenchymal-like morphology and molecular features, while cells that had undergone TGF-β-induced EMT reverted to an epithelial-like state upon C/EBPα re-expression. In vivo, mice injected with C/EBPα-expressing breast tumor organoids display a dramatic reduction of metastatic lesions. Collectively, our results show that C/EBPα is required for maintaining epithelial homeostasis by repressing the expression of key mesenchymal markers, thereby preventing EMT-mediated tumorigenesis. These data suggest that C/EBPα is a master epithelial "gatekeeper" whose expression is required to prevent unwarranted mesenchymal transition, supporting an important role for EMT in mediating breast cancer metastasis.

YKL-39 as a Potential New Target for Anti-Angiogenic Therapy in Cancer

YKL-39 belongs to the evolutionarily conserved family of Glyco_18-containing proteins composed of chitinases and chitinase-like proteins. Chitinase-like proteins (CLPs) are secreted lectins that lack hydrolytic activity due to the amino acid substitutions in their catalytic domain and combine the functions of cytokines and growth factors. One of the major cellular sources that produce CLPs in various pathologies, including cancer, are macrophages. Monocytes recruited to the tumor site and programmed by tumor cells differentiate into tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), which are the primary source of pro-angiogenic factors. Tumor angiogenesis is a crucial process for supplying rapidly growing tumors with essential nutrients and oxygen. We recently determined that YKL-39 is produced by tumor-associated macrophages in breast cancer. YKL-39 acts as a strong chemotactic factor for monocytes and stimulates angiogenesis. Chemotherapy is a common strategy to reduce tumor size and aggressiveness before surgical intervention, but chemoresistance, resulting in the relapse of tumors, is a common clinical problem that is critical for survival in cancer patients. Accumulating evidence indicates that TAMs are essential regulators of chemoresistance. We have recently found that elevated levels of YKL-39 expression are indicative of the efficiency of the metastatic process in patients who undergo neoadjuvant chemotherapy. We suggest YKL-39 as a new target for anti-angiogenic therapy that can be combined with neoadjuvant chemotherapy to reduce chemoresistance and inhibit metastasis in breast cancer patients.

Myosin II Reactivation and Cytoskeletal Remodeling as a Hallmark and a Vulnerability in Melanoma Therapy Resistance

Despite substantial clinical benefit of targeted and immune checkpoint blockade-based therapies in melanoma, resistance inevitably develops. We show cytoskeletal remodeling and changes in expression and activity of ROCK-myosin II pathway during acquisition of resistance to MAPK inhibitors. MAPK regulates myosin II activity, but after initial therapy response, drug-resistant clones restore myosin II activity to increase survival. High ROCK-myosin II activity correlates with aggressiveness, identifying targeted therapy- and immunotherapy-resistant melanomas. Survival of resistant cells is myosin II dependent, regardless of the therapy. ROCK-myosin II ablation specifically kills resistant cells via intrinsic lethal reactive oxygen species and unresolved DNA damage and limits extrinsic myeloid and lymphoid immunosuppression. Efficacy of targeted therapies and immunotherapies can be improved by combination with ROCK inhibitors.

Correlation of TNF-α and TGF-β polymorphisms with protein levels in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma and colorectal cancer

Aim of the study

To determine the correlation of protein serum levels of two cytokines and their polymorphisms, which have an influence on their expression.

Material and methods

The study group consisted of 65 patients (33 men, 31 women) who met the criteria for inclusion and exclusion of pancreatic cancer, and 41 patients (25 men, 16 women) with colorectal cancer. The control group consisted of 100 healthy volunteers (63 men, 37 women). Detection of polymorphisms was performed using TaqMan probes, and concentration of proteins by ELISA method.

Results

The mean TNF-α concentration in patients with colorectal cancer was significantly higher compared to the control group, p< 0.0001. A statistically significant difference was noted when comparing both study groups, p = 0.0009. The analyses show that the occurrence of the polymorphic genotype -308AA of the TNF-α gene was not correlated with the increased concentration of the examined protein in patients with both pancreatic and colorectal cancer. It was also noted that the concentration of TGF-β protein was significantly higher in patients with colorectal cancer than in patients with pancreatic cancer. These results also proved to be statistically significant, p = 0.0353.

Conclusions

The only statistically significant effects were the correlations between patients belonging to a specific group (pancreatic cancer/colorectal cancer/control) and average protein levels. There was no effect of sex or genotype on the occurrence of elevated levels of TNF-α and TGF-β protein control, despite their variability in particular types of cancer.

Biology and pathogenesis of human osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma (OS) is a bone tumor of mesenchymal origin, most frequently occurring during the rapid growth phase of long bones, and usually located in the epiphyseal growth plates of the femur or the tibia. Its most common feature is genome disorganization, aneuploidy with chromosomal alterations, deregulation of tumor suppressor genes and of the cell cycle, and an absence of DNA repair. This suggests the involvement of surveillance failures, DNA repair or apoptosis control during osteogenesis, allowing the survival of cells which have undergone alterations during differentiation. Epigenetic events, including DNA methylation, histone modifications, nucleosome remodeling and expression of non-coding RNAs have been identified as possible risk factors for the tumor. It has been reported that p53 target genes or those genes that have their activity modulated by p53, in addition to other tumor suppressor genes, are silenced in OS-derived cell lines by hypermethylation of their promoters. In osteogenesis, osteoblasts are formed from pluripotent mesenchymal cells, with potential for self-renewal, proliferation and differentiation into various cell types. This involves complex signaling pathways and multiple factors. Any disturbance in this process can cause deregulation of the differentiation and proliferation of these cells, leading to the malignant phenotype. Therefore, the origin of OS seems to be multifactorial, involving the deregulation of differentiation of mesenchymal cells and tumor suppressor genes, activation of oncogenes, epigenetic events and the production of cytokines.

TGF-β and microRNA Interplay in Genitourinary Cancers

Genitourinary cancers (GCs) include a large group of different types of tumors localizing to the kidney, bladder, prostate, testis, and penis. Despite highly divergent molecular patterns, most GCs share commonly disturbed signaling pathways that involve the activity of TGF-β (transforming growth factor beta). TGF-β is a pleiotropic cytokine that regulates key cancer-related molecular and cellular processes, including proliferation, migration, invasion, apoptosis, and chemoresistance. The understanding of the mechanisms of TGF-β actions in cancer is hindered by the "TGF-β paradox" in which early stages of cancerogenic process are suppressed by TGF-β while advanced stages are stimulated by its activity. A growing body of evidence suggests that these paradoxical TGF-β actions could result from the interplay with microRNAs: Short, non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression by binding to target transcripts and inducing mRNA degradation or inhibition of translation. Here, we discuss the current knowledge of TGF-β signaling in GCs. Importantly, TGF-β signaling and microRNA-mediated regulation of gene expression often act in complicated feedback circuits that involve other crucial regulators of cancer progression (e.g., androgen receptor). Furthermore, recently published in vitro and in vivo studies clearly indicate that the interplay between microRNAs and the TGF-β signaling pathway offers new potential treatment options for GC patients.

The expression and role of TRPV2 in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Background: Transient receptor potential vanilloid 2 (TRPV2) was recently shown to be involved in migrant potentials. The present study aimed to investigate its role in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). Methods: Knockdown experiments were conducted using TRPV2 siRNA in human ESCC cell lines, and anti-tumor effects were analyzed. The gene expression profiles of cells were analyzed using a microarray method. An immunohistochemical staining was performed on 62 primary tumor samples. Results: TRPV2 overexpression was observed in TE15 and KYSE170 cells. TRPV2 depletion suppressed proliferation, cell cycle progression, and invasion/migration ability, and induced apoptosis. A pathway analysis of microarray data showed that TRPV2 depletion down-regulated WNT/β-catenin signaling-related genes and basal cell carcinoma signaling-related genes. The suppression of tumor functions, such as proliferation, invasion, and angiogenesis, was predicted in the ontology analysis. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed a correlation between strong TRPV2 expression and a poor prognosis in ESCC patients. Conclusion: The present results suggest that TRPV2 regulates cancer progression by affecting WNT/β-catenin or basal cell carcinoma signaling, and that TRPV2 strong expression is associated with a worse prognosis in ESCC patients. These results provide an insight into the role of TRPV2 as a novel therapeutic target or biomarker for ESCC.

Pharmacogenomics, biomarker network, and allele frequencies in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer death worldwide. Over the last decades, several studies have shown that tumor-related genomic alterations predict tumor prognosis, drug response, and toxicity. These observations have led to the development of several therapies based on individual genomic profiles. As part of these approaches, pharmacogenomics analyses genomic alterations which may predict an efficient therapeutic response. Studying these mutations as biomarkers for predicting drug response is of a great interest to improve precision medicine. We conduct a comprehensive review of the main pharmacogenomics biomarkers and genomic alterations affecting enzyme activity, transporter capacity, channels, and receptors; and therefore the new advances in CRC precision medicine to select the best therapeutic strategy in populations worldwide, with a focus on Latin America.

Knockdown of RhoE Expression Enhances TGF-β-Induced EMT (epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition) in Cervical Cancer HeLa Cells

Cervical cancer with early metastasis of the primary tumor is associated with poor prognosis and poor therapeutic outcomes. Since epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) plays a role in acquisition of the ability to invade the pelvic lymph nodes and surrounding tissue, it is important to clarify the molecular mechanism underlying EMT in cervical cancer. RhoE, also known as Rnd3, is a member of the Rnd subfamily of Rho GTPases. While previous reports have suggested that RhoE may act as either a positive or a negative regulator of cancer metastasis and EMT, the role of RhoE during EMT in cervical cancer cells remains unclear. The present study revealed that RhoE expression was upregulated during transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)-mediated EMT in human cervical cancer HeLa cells. Furthermore, reduced RhoE expression enhanced TGF-β-mediated EMT and migration of HeLa cells. In addition, we demonstrated that RhoE knockdown elevated RhoA activity and a ROCK inhibitor partially suppressed the acceleration of TGF-β-mediated EMT by RhoE knockdown. These results indicate that RhoE suppresses TGF-β-mediated EMT, partially via RhoA/ROCK signaling in cervical cancer HeLa cells.

TGFβ1- miR-140-5p axis mediated up-regulation of Flap Endonuclease 1 promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition in hepatocellular carcinoma

Flap Endonuclease 1 (FEN1) is a known oncogene in an array of cancers, but its role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains obscure. In this study, we report that FEN1 expression was elevated in the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database which was verified in HCC tissue and hepatoma cell lines. Pearson correlation analysis indicated that FEN1 was involved in HCC metastasis. We demonstrated that FEN1 silencing inhibits HCC cell epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), invasion and migration in vitro and significantly suppressed tumor growth and metastasis in vivo. Conversely, FEN1 overexpression in HCC cells enhanced these metastatic processes. We further confirmed that FEN1 was a direct target of miR-140-5p, which was down-regulated in HCC tissues, and negatively correlated with FEN1 expression. Moreover, low miR-140-5p levels and high FEN1 expression predicted a poor clinical outcome. The effects of FEN1 overexpression could be partially abolished by miR-140-5p. miR-140-5p down-regulation and FEN1 overexpression were observed in a TGFβ1 induced EMT model. TGFβ1 mediated EMT could be blocked by miR-140-5p overexpression or FEN1 silencing. Taken together, our findings suggest that FEN1 is regulated by the TGFβ1- miR-140-5p axis and promotes EMT in HCC.

miR-330 suppresses EMT and induces apoptosis by downregulating HMGA2 in human colorectal cancer

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important molecular regulatorsof cellular signaling and behavior. They alter gene expression by targeting messenger RNAs, including those encoding transcriptional regulators, such as HMGA2. While HMGA2 is oncogenic in various tumors, miRNAs may be oncogenic or tumor suppressive. Here, we investigate the expression of HMGA2 and the miRNA miR-330 in a patient with colorectal cancer (CRC) samples and their effects on oncogenic cellular phenotypes. We found that HMGA2 expression is increased and miR-330 expression is decreased in CRCs and each predicts poor long-term patient survival. Stably increased miR-330 expression in human colorectal cancer cells (HCT116) and SW480 CRC cell lines downregulate the oncogenic expression of HMGA2, a predicted miR-330 target. Additionally, this promotes apoptosis and decreases cell migration and viability. Consistently, it also decreases protein-level expression of markers for epithelial-to-mesenchymal-transition (Snail-1, E-cadherin, and Vascular endothelial growth factor receptors) and transforming growth factor β signaling (SMAD3), as well as phospho- Protein kinase B (AKT) and phospho-STAT3 levels. We conclude that miR-330 acts as a tumor suppressor miRNA in CRC by suppressing HMGA2 expression and reducing cell survival, proliferation, and migration. Thus, we identify miR-330 as a promising candidate for miRNA replacement therapy for patients with CRC.