Rhesus haemolytic disease of the newborn: Postnatal management, associated morbidity and long-term outcome

Darbepoetin alfa to reduce transfusion episodes in infants with haemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn who are treated with intrauterine transfusions in the Netherlands: an open-label, single-centre, phase 2, randomised, controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Up to 88% of infants with haemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn who are treated with intrauterine transfusions require erythrocyte transfusions after birth. We aimed to investigate the effect of darbepoetin alfa on the prevention of postnatal anaemia in infants with haemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn.

METHODS

We conducted an open-label, single-centre, phase 2 randomised controlled trial to evaluate the effect of darbepoetin alfa on the number of erythrocyte transfusions in infants with haemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn. All infants who were treated with intrauterine transfusion and born at 35 weeks of gestation or later at the Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands, were eligible for inclusion. Included infants were randomised by computer at birth to treatment with 10 μg/kg darbepoetin alfa subcutaneously once a week for 8 weeks or standard care (1:1 allocation, in varying blocks of four and six, with no stratification). Treating physicians and parents were not masked to treatment allocation, but the research team, data manager, and statistician were masked to treatment allocation during the process of data collection. The primary outcome was the number of erythrocyte transfusion episodes per infant from birth up to 3 months of life in the modified intention-to-treat population. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03104426) and has been completed.

FINDINGS

Between Oct 31, 2017, and April 31, 2022, we recruited 76 infants, of whom 44 (58%) were randomly assigned to a treatment group (20 [45%] were allocated to receive darbepoetin alfa and 24 [55%] were allocated to receive standard care). Follow-up lasted 3 months and one infant dropped out of the trial before commencement of treatment. A significant reduction in erythrocyte transfusion episodes was identified with darbepoetin alfa treatment compared with standard care (median 1·0 [IQR 1·0-2·0] transfusion episodes vs 2·0 [1·3-3·0] transfusion episodes; p=0·0082). No adverse events were reported and no infants died during the study.

INTERPRETATION

Darbepoetin alfa reduced the transfusion episodes after intrauterine transfusion treatment for haemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn. Treatment with darbepoetin alfa or other types of erythropoietin should be considered as part of the postnatal treatment of severe haemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn.

FUNDING

Sanquin Blood Supply.

TRANSLATION

For the Dutch translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Effect of delayed cord clamping on red blood cell alloimmunization: a retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Although delayed cord clamping has well-known benefits for preterm and term neonates, it has been inadequately assessed in alloimmunized neonates.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the benefits and risks of delayed cord clamping in alloimmunized neonates.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a retrospective comparative pre-post cohort study conducted from 2003 to 2018 in a tertiary care center in France. All living singleton neonates whose mothers were followed up for red blood cell alloimmunization during gestation and confirmed at birth (N=224) were included. Neonates were either exposed to immediate (n=125) or delayed cord clamping (n=99). Our main outcome was the time from birth to first exchange transfusions and/or transfusions. Secondary outcomes were hemoglobin level at birth, rate of exchange transfusion, number of postnatal transfusions, maximum bilirubin level, and number of phototherapy hours.

RESULTS

Hemoglobin at birth was significantly higher in case of delayed cord clamping (mean difference, 1.7 g/dL; 95% confidence interval, 0.7-2.8). Among infants treated with exchange transfusion or transfusion, the time to initial treatment was higher in case of delayed cord clamping (median difference, 8 days; rate ratio, 1.51; 95% confidence interval, 1.09-2.10). There were no significant differences in the need for exchange transfusion, the number of transfusions, the maximum total bilirubin level, nor the number of phototherapy hours. In the subgroup analysis of neonates needing intrauterine transfusion during pregnancy (ie, severe alloimmunization), neonates had a lower rate of exchange transfusion in case of delayed cord clamping (odds ratio, 0.36; 95% confidence interval, 0.15-0.82).

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate a benefit of delayed cord clamping in alloimmunization, regardless of pathology severity, without increased risk of jaundice.

Novel device for automating exchange transfusions through umbilical venous route in neonates

Manually performed double-volume exchange transfusion (DVET) is tedious, error-prone, and may incur the risk of embolism. We aimed to develop a device that automates the DVET procedure performed through the umbilical venous route. We evaluated changes in blood passing through the device during DVET. We developed an electro-mechanical device with accessories (tubing and valve assembly) to perform a complete DVET. It comprises two syringes driven by a common pump that moves back and forth to withdraw aliquots of the patient's blood and infuse equal volumes of donor blood. In tandem, it draws donor blood from a blood bank bag and pushes the patient blood drawn from the previous cycle into a waste bag, respectively. One-way duckbill valves and a two-way pinch valve ensure the separation of the donor and patient blood. A sensor detects bubbles and clots. A dashboard displays set and measured parameters. We tested the accuracy of the delivered flow rate and volume, electrical safety, embolus detection, and changes in hematological and biochemical values. The delivered flow and volume were within 5% of the set parameters. All electrical safety parameters were within normal limits. The sensor consistently detected microbubbles and clots. There were no clinically significant differences in laboratory parameters between samples drawn directly from the blood bank bag and drawn from the exit port at 80, 100, 120, and 160 s with a fixed aliquot volume.

CONCLUSIONS

Our prototype of a novel device can safely automate a DVET. Further trials of this device are warranted.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• Double volume exchange transfusion is often performed manually, but this is time-consuming and error-prone. • Previous attempts at automation were not widely adopted because they involved inserting two catheters and did not have mechanisms to prevent embolism.

WHAT IS NEW

• This novel device fully automates double volume exchange transfusions through a single-lumen umbilical venous catheter. • It prevents air and clot embolism and has a screen for input and output parameters and alarms.

Identification and management of fetal anemia due to hemolytic disease

INTRODUCTION

Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN) is a condition caused by maternal alloantibodies against fetal red blood cells (RBCs) that can cause severe morbidity and mortality in the fetus and newborn. Adequate screening programs allow for timely prevention and intervention resulting in significant reduction of the disease over the last decades. Nevertheless, HDFN still occurs and with current treatment having reached an optimum, focus shifts toward noninvasive therapy options.

AREAS COVERED

This review focusses on the timely identification of high risk cases and antenatal management. Furthermore, we elaborate on future perspectives including improvement of screening, identification of high risk cases and promising treatment options.

EXPERT OPINION

In high-income countries mortality and morbidity rates due to HDFN have drastically been reduced over the last decades, yet worldwide anti-D mediated HDFN still accounts for 160,000 perinatal deaths and 100,000 patients with disabilities every year. Much of these deaths and disabilities could have been avoided with proper identification and prophylaxis. By implementing sustainable prevention, screening, and disease treatment measures in all countries this will systemically reduce unnecessary perinatal deaths. There is a common responsibility to engage in this cause.

International guidelines regarding the role of IVIG in the management of Rh- and ABO-mediated haemolytic disease of the newborn

Haemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) can be associated with significant morbidity. Prompt treatment with intensive phototherapy (PT) and exchange transfusions (ETs) can dramatically improve outcomes. ET is invasive and associated with risks. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) may be an alternative therapy to prevent use of ET. An international panel of experts was convened to develop evidence-based recommendations regarding the effectiveness and safety of IVIG to reduce the need for ETs, improve neurocognitive outcomes, reduce bilirubin level, reduce the frequency of red blood cell (RBC) transfusions and severity of anaemia, and/or reduce duration of hospitalization for neonates with Rh or ABO-mediated HDN. We used a systematic approach to search and review the literature and then develop recommendations from published data. These recommendations conclude that IVIG should not be routinely used to treat Rh or ABO antibody-mediated HDN. In situations where hyperbilirubinaemia is severe (and ET is imminent), or when ET is not readily available, the role of IVIG is unclear. High-quality studies are urgently needed to assess the optimal use of IVIG in patients with HDN.

Unusual case of immune haemolytic disease causing severe neonatal cholestasis in a newborn

Neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia is a very common entity witnessed in most of the newborns. Rarely are there events where the bilirubin levels reach extreme values mandating invasive therapy. Unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia when solely present is easy to manage and diagnose the common aetiological factors associated with it. The issue arises when we come across a mixed picture of conjugated with unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia and puts us in a dilemma as to what are we treating. Our case highlights a similar picture where we witnessed the highest documented levels of total bilirubin but to our surprise the major component of which was direct bilirubin. This report takes us through the differentials which were ruled out and our management strategies for solving this rare mystery.

Hydrops fetalis with isolated massive ascites in a preterm neonate with rhesus disease

Significant progress in prenatal care has decreased the incidence of rhesus incompatibility, which may result in hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). This case report describes an unusual presentation of HDFN in a preterm infant delivered by caesarean section with isolated massive abdominal fluid collection as the leading clinical sign in addition to severe anemia. The immediate drainage of ascites provided transient clinical stabilization with improved pulmonary function in the delivery suite. After admission to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), HDFN treatment was initiated. This case report shows the importance of adequately trained staff including neonatologists, pediatricians and NICU nurses in the delivery suite to provide neonatal intensive care for HDFN.

Exchange transfusions in severe Rh-mediated alloimmune haemolytic disease of the foetus and newborn: a 20-year overview on the incidence, associated risks and outcome

Background and objectives

Guidelines and indications for exchange transfusion in haemolytic disease of the foetus and newborn (HDFN) have changed drastically in the past decades, causing a decline in exchange transfusion rate. This study aims to evaluate the incidence of exchange transfusions (ETs) in neonates with Rh‐mediated HDFN over the past 20 years at our centre, and report potentially ET‐related complications as well as indicators for bilirubin encephalopathy.

Material and methods

In this observational study, 438 neonates were included with HDFN, born ≥ 35 weeks gestational age at the Leiden University Medical Centre between January 2000 and July 2020. The incidence of ET and procedure‐related complications were assessed in three consecutive time periods determined by changes in guidelines and indications for ET.

Results

The incidence of ET in our centre declined from (104/156) 67% (time period 2000–2005), to (39/181) 22% (2006–2015) and to (10/101) 10% (2015–2020, p < 0·001). The maximum bilirubin levels in neonates after birth increased from 13·6 mg/dL (or 233 μmol/L), to 15·0 mg/dL (257 μmol/L) and to 15·3 mg/dL (263 μmol/L). The incidence of complications associated with the use of ET (including sepsis, haematologic disorders and respiratory failure) remained stable throughout the years, and no neonates died during the study period.

Conclusion

Exchange transfusion incidence declined significantly over the past two decades. Decrease in ET incidence, and concomitant decrease in exposure and expertise, was not associated with an increase in procedure‐related complications.

Conservative Management of Hyperferritinemia in Hemolytic Disease of the Fetus and Newborn: A Case Report and Review of the Literature

We report a newborn with hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN) with rapid resolution of extreme hyperferritinemia without chelation. An infant born at 35+3 weeks with HDFN and a history of 3 intrauterine transfusions developed severe hyperferritinemia (maximum, 8258 mcg/L) without evidence of toxic iron deposition on liver biopsy. Her hyperferritinemia was managed with observation alone, and ferritin levels normalized rapidly. This case supports observation as being the preferred alternative to chelation therapy for significant hyperferritinemia in newborns with HDFN in the absence of demonstrated toxic end-organ iron deposition. We also include a review of the related available literature.

20 Years of Follow-up Alloimmunization and Hemolytic Disease in Newborn: Has Anything Changed in the Field Over the Years?

OBJECTIVE

of the study is to research the epidemiological aspects of maternal alloimmunization against erythrocyte antigens of fetuses (AB0, Rhesus, Lewis, Kell, Duffy and others) and to identify the most common types of hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) in the West Herzegovina region.

STUDY DESIGN

The 20-year retrospective epidemiological study includes all pregnant women who had been immunologically tested and newborn treated for HDN.

RESULTS

The indirect antiglobulin (IAT) detected antibodies against antigens in 545 (1.8%) pregnant women of the 29 663 who were tested at the Department of Transfusion Medicine. During the 20-year-long study 310 (1.0%) newborn with HDN were treated. Our results indicate that 42% (230/545) of the pregnant women had AB0 immunization. The most common form of HDN is AB0 HDN 64% (199/310), whereas RhD HDN was treated in 19% (59/310) of the newborn infants. ETR was performed on 29 (19%) infants, 21 (72.4%) with AB0 HDN, and 7 (26%) with RhD HDN.

CONCLUSION

This 20-year-long study concludes that, even though there has been significant progress in the prevention of immunization and proactive treatment of HDN, precautionary measures are still required as is the need for gynecologists and obstetricians to be active. The reasons for this are the non-existence of preventive measures for non-RhD immunization, the irregular immunological screening of RhD positive women in pregnancy in the region encompassed by the study in the past few years. The above raises new questions and recommends further research and monitoring of immunization and HDN treatment worldwide.

The rhesus incompatible pregnancy and its consequences for affected fetuses and neonates

Rhesus incompatibility in pregnancy may result in haemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). This review discusses the fetal, neonatal and long-term consequences of HDFN and its management. Untreated, the fetal and neonatal prognosis of HDFN is poor. Provision of intravascular intrauterine transfusion (IUT) in a dedicated referral centre significantly reduces perinatal loss. Early-onset, severe fetal anaemia carries a greater risk of adverse fetal and neonatal outcomes and is less amenable to treatment with IUT. Interventions to prevent and treat severe, early onset disease have been investigated, however evidence from randomised controlled trials is required. Neonatal consequences of Rhesus haemolytic disease include early and late postnatal anaemia, and hyperbilirubinaemia leading to bilirubin-induced neurological dysfunction. Neurodevelopmental impairment and adult cardiovascular disease are long-term complications that have been reported in association with severe fetal anaemia. Strategies to prevent fetal hydrops, and further research into the long-term impacts of fetal anaemia may improve health outcomes for adult survivors of HDFN.

Evaluation of maternal rhesus blood type as a risk factor in adverse pregnancy outcomes in Korea: a nationwide health insurance database study

OBJECTIVES

The current study aimed to investigate whether pregnancy outcomes are affected by maternal rhesus (Rh) status by comparing the primigravida pregnancy outcomes of Rh-negative women with those of Rh-positive women.

METHODS

The study data were collected from the Korea National Health Insurance Claims Database and the National Health Screening Program for Infants and Children. In total, 1,664,882 primigravida women who gave birth between January 1, 2007 and December 31, 2014, were enrolled in this study. As the risk and severity of sensitization response increases with each subsequent pregnancy, only primigravida women were enrolled. The patients were divided into 2 groups according to Rh status, and the pregnancy outcomes were compared.

RESULTS

In total, 1,661,320 women in the Rh-positive group and 3,290 in the Rh-negative group were assessed. With regard to adverse pregnancy outcomes, there was no statistically significant difference between the 2 groups in terms of the prevalence of preeclampsia, postpartum hemorrhage, abruptio placenta, placenta previa, and uterine artery embolization. A univariate analysis revealed that none of the adverse pregnancy outcomes were significantly correlated to Rh status (preeclampsia: odds ratio [OR], 1.00, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.81-1.23; postpartum hemorrhage: OR, 1.10, 95% CI, 0.98-1.24; abruptio placenta: OR, 0.80, 95% CI, 0.46-1.37; and placenta previa: OR, 1.08, 95% CI, 0.78-1.42). The adjusted ORs of postpartum hemorrhage and preterm birth did not significantly differ.

CONCLUSION

Maternal Rh status is not associated with adverse outcomes in primigravida women.

Prevalence of red-blood-cell and non-red-blood-cell-targeted autoantibodies in alloimmunized postpartum women

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Alloantibodies against red-blood-cell (RBC) antigens often coincide with alloantibodies against leucocytes and platelets and sometimes with autoantibodies towards various antigens. Chimerism may be one of the factors responsible for the combination of allo- and autoantibodies. Women with alloantibodies against RBC antigens causing haemolytic disease of the fetus and neonate may need to receive intrauterine transfusions. These transfusions increase not only maternal antibody formation but also fetomaternal bleeding and may enhance fetal chimerism. We determined the prevalence of and risk factors for autoantibodies against some common clinical target antigens, in alloimmunized women after IUT.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We tested for autoantibodies against RBC, anti-thyroid peroxidase, anti-extractable nuclear antigens, anti-cyclic citrullinated proteins and anti-tissue transglutaminase. Women with and without autoantibodies were compared for age; number of RBC alloantibodies, pregnancies and IUTs, and other factors that may play a role in immunization.

RESULTS

Non-RBC-targeted autoantibodies were present in 40 of 258 tested women (15·5%, with 90% anti-TPO specificity), comparable to the prevalence reported in healthy Dutch women of these ages. Surprisingly, compared with women who had a single RBC alloantibody, a significantly higher proportion of women with multiple RBC alloantibodies had autoantibodies (5·3% and 18·4%, respectively; odds ratio 4·06, 95% CI: 1·20-13·7). Other characteristics of women with and without autoantibodies were not different.

CONCLUSION

Multiple RBC alloantibodies after extensive allogeneic exposure during pregnancy and presumed increased fetomaternal chimerism are not associated with (selected) autoantibodies. Lack of allo-RBC multi-responsiveness seems associated with decreased auto(-TPO) antibody formation.

Predicting anti-Kell-mediated hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn: diagnostic accuracy of laboratory management

BACKGROUND

There is controversy on critical cut-off values of laboratory testing to select pregnancies at increased risk for anti-Kell-mediated hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn. Without early detection and treatment, anti-Kell-mediated hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn may result in progressive fetal anemia, fetal hydrops, asphyxia, and perinatal death.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to determine the value of repeated anti-Kell titer determination and biological activity measurement using the antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity test determination in the management of pregnancies at risk for anti-Kell-mediated hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a retrospective cohort study of pregnancies with anti-Kell and a Kell-positive fetus, identified from January 1999 through April 2015. Laboratory test results and clinical outcome were collected from the Dutch nationwide screening program and the national reference center for fetal therapy in The Netherlands, the Leiden University Medical Center. Diagnostic accuracy was measured (receiver operating characteristic curves, sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values) for anti-Kell titers and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity test. The relationship between the titer and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity measurements and the 2 foregoing measurements were computed with a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient.

RESULTS

In a 16-year unselected cohort, representing screening results of 3.2 million pregnancies resulting in live births in The Netherlands, we identified 1026 Kell-immunized pregnancies. In all, 93 pregnant women had anti-Kell and a Kell-positive child, without other red cell alloantibodies. In all, 49 children (53%) needed intrauterine or postnatal transfusion therapy. The first anti-Kell titer showed already a high diagnostic accuracy with an area under the curve of 91%. The optimal cut-off point for the titer was 4 (sensitivity 100%; 95% confidence interval, 91-100), specificity 27% (95% confidence interval, 15-43), and positive predictive value 60% (49-71%). The antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity test was not informative to select high-risk pregnancies. Linear regression showed no significant change during pregnancy, when antibody titer and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity test results were compared with every 2 foregoing measurements (P < .0001).

CONCLUSION

Early determination of the anti-Kell titer is sufficient to select pregnancies at increased risk for hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn with need for transfusion therapy. If the Kell status of the fetus is known to be positive, a titer of ≥4 can be used to target intensive clinical monitoring.

Rare single gene disorders: estimating baseline prevalence and outcomes worldwide

As child mortality rates overall are decreasing, non-communicable conditions, such as genetic disorders, constitute an increasing proportion of child mortality, morbidity and disability. To date, policy and public health programmes have focused on common genetic disorders. Rare single gene disorders are an important source of morbidity and premature mortality for affected families. When considered collectively, they account for an important public health burden, which is frequently under-recognised. To document the collective frequency and health burden of rare single gene disorders, it is necessary to aggregate them into large manageable groupings and take account of their family implications, effective interventions and service needs. Here, we present an approach to estimate the burden of these conditions up to 5 years of age in settings without empirical data. This approaches uses population-level demographic data, combined with assumptions based on empirical data from settings with data available, to provide population-level estimates which programmes and policy-makers when planning services can use.

A new biosensor for noninvasive determination of fetal RHD status in maternal blood of RhD negative pregnant women

Prenatal detection of the fetal RHD status can be useful in the management of RhD incompatibility to identify fetuses at risk of hemolytic disease. Hemolytic disease causes morbidity and mortality of the fetus in the neonatal period. The routine use of antenatal and postnatal anti-D prophylaxis has reduced the incidence of hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn. This study describe the detection of fetal RhD antigens in blood of RhD negative pregnant women using a nanopolymer coated electrochemical biosensor for medical diagnosis. Cell free fetal DNA in maternal plasma was also used to genotyping fetal RHD status using multiplex real-time PCR. Twenty-six RhD negative pregnant women in different gestational ages were included in the study. RhD positive fetal antibodies detected with a developed biosensor in maternal blood of RhD negative mothers. The electrochemical measurements were performed on a PalmSens potentiostat, and corundum ceramic based screen printed gold electrode combined with the reference Ag/AgCl electrode, and the auxiliary Au/Pd (98/2%) electrode. Fetal RHD genotyping performed using fluorescence-based multiplex real-time PCR exons 5 and 7 of the RHD gene. The fetal RHD status of 26 RhD negative cases were detected 21 as RhD positive and 5 as RhD negative with electrochemical biosensor. Fetal RHD status confirmed with extracted fetal DNA in maternal plasma using multiplex real-time PCR RHD genotyping and by serological test after delivery. The new method for fetal RhD detection in early pregnancy is useful and can be carry out rapidly in clinical diagnosis. Using automated biosensors are reproducible, quick and results can be generated within a few minutes compared to noninvasive fetal RHD genotyping from maternal plasma with real-time PCR-based techniques. We suggest the biosensor techniques could become an alternative part of fetal RHD genotyping from maternal plasma as a prenatal screening in the management of RhD incompatibility.

Sonographic Demonstration of Intracranial Hemorrhage in a Fetus with Hydrops Fetalis due to Rh Alloimmunization after Intrauterine Intravascular Transfusion: A Case Report and Review of the Literature

Intrauterine transfusion is the most common and successful intrauterine procedure for the treatment of fetal anemia due to red cell alloimmunization. Fetal intracranial hemorrhage is a very rare complication of intrauterine transfusion in patients with Rh(D) alloimmunization and it has been demonstrated only in a few case reports in the literature. Herein, we described a case of grade IV intraventricular hemorrhage that was diagnosed following the first intrauterine transfusion and reviewed the literature about the fetal intracranial hemorrhage that occurred after intrauterine intravascular transfusion procedure.

[Outcome of in utero transfusion in case of fœtomaternal red blood cell incompatibility]

OBJECTIVE

Erythrocyte allo-immunization's rate has decreased but without adapted treatment the prognosis is still poor. The aim of our study was to evaluate the fetal prognosis, the complication's rate and the risk factors of complications of the intrauterine transfusion.

METHODS

Retrospective study about 37 fetus and 86 intrauterine transfusions between 2001 and 2017. Our main criterion in judging was the occurrence of procedure related complications: premature membrane rupture or premature delivery within seven days from the procedure, chorioamnionitis, abnormal fetal heart rate indicating an emergency ceasarean section within the 24hours from the procedure, in utero death or neonatal death related to the procedure.

RESULTS

The survival rate was about 88.9% with a severe complication's rate of 5.8% per intrauterine transfusion and 13.5% per pregnancy. Intrauterine transfusions before 18 weeks of pregnancies was a complication risk factor: 50% of complications before 18 weeks vs. 1.3%, P=0.8×10^-3. On the contrary, hydrops did not seem to be a complication risk factor (16.7% of complication with hydrops vs. 3.9%, P=0.27). The localisation of the needle insertion, intra-abdominal or placental insertion, had no effect on the fetal prognosis.

CONCLUSION

Intrauterine transfusion complications are rare and it enhances the fetal prognosis. However, an early procedure is related to a higher rate of complications.

Severe hemolytic disease of the premature newborn due to RH1 incompatibility: a case report

We report a case of dramatic outcome of severe hemolytic disease in a newborn due to RH1 incompatibility. A newborn with A RH1 blood group was admitted in the Mohammed V Military Teaching Hospital for the problem of hydrops fetalis associated with RH1 incompatibility. The blood group of his mother, aged 31, was AB RH1-negative and that of his 37 year old father was A RH1. The mother had a history of 4 term deliveries, 3 abortions, and 1 living child. There was no prevention by anti-D immunoglobulin postpartum. The mother’s irregular agglutinin test was positive and the pregnancy was poorly monitored. The laboratory tests of the newborn showed a high total serum bilirubin level (30 mg/L) and macrocytic regenerative anemia (Hemoglobin=4 g/dL, mean corpuscular volume = 183 fL, reticulocytes count =176600/m³). The blood smear showed 1256 erythroblasts per 100 leukocytes, Howell–Jolly bodies and many macrocytes. The direct antiglobulin test was positive. He was transfused with red blood cell concentrates and treated with conventional phototherapy. The evolution was unfavourable; he died three days after the death of his mother. The monitoring of these high-risk pregnancies requires specialized centers and a close collaboration between the gynaecologist and the blood transfusion specialist to strengthen the prevention, as well as clinico-biological monitoring in patients with a history of RH1 fetomaternal alloimunization.

Benefits of Delayed Cord Clamping in Red Blood Cell Alloimmunization

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Several studies have shown the benefits of delayed cord clamping (DCC) in preterm and in healthy newborns at short and long term. Our objective was to evaluate the potentials benefits and risks of DCC in red cell alloimmunization.

METHODS

This was a comparative before/after study of all living born neonates followed after fetal anemia requiring in utero transfusion. DCC was defined as cord clamping 30 seconds after birth.

RESULTS

We included a continuous series of 72 neonates: 36 without DDC (group 1) and 36 with DDC (group 2). Hemoglobin at birth was lower in group 1 (10.2 vs 13.4 g/dL, P = .0003); 7 (25%) neonates in group 1 vs 24 (70.6%) in group 2 had no anemia at birth (P = .004). The rate of transfusion was similar between the 2 groups. Postnatal exchange transfusions were more likely performed in the group without DCC than in the group with DCC (47.2% vs 19.4%, P = .0124). Delay between birth and first transfusion was higher in group 2 (0 [0-13] vs 1 [0-21], P = .0274). The maximum level of bilirubin, the rate of intensive phototherapy, and the total duration of phototherapy were similar in the 2 groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights a significant benefit of DCC in anemia secondary to red blood cell alloimmunization with a resulting decreased postnatal exchange transfusion needs, an improvement in the hemoglobin level at birth and longer delay between birth and first transfusion with no severe hyperbilirubinemia.

Phototherapy in transport for neonates with unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia

AIM

In Victoria, neonates with severe unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia at risk of requiring exchange transfusion are retrieved by the Paediatric Infant Perinatal Emergency Retrieval Service and transferred to a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit where an exchange transfusion can be performed if necessary. Transfer may result in prolonged periods without phototherapy in neonates at risk of developing bilirubin encephalopathy. We aimed to describe our experience of the introduction of phototherapy using a portable phototherapy unit during transport.

METHODS

Neonates with a primary diagnosis of severe unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia were identified from the Paediatric Infant Perinatal Emergency Retrieval clinical database over an 11-year period. Demographic and clinical data including gestation, age at transport, serum bilirubin levels pre- and post-transport, use of phototherapy during transport (PTDT), likely diagnosis, and use of exchange transfusion were included.

RESULTS

A total of 147 neonates were included with 104 neonates receiving PTDT and 43 who did not. Neonates who received PTDT were less likely to require exchange transfusion, 19.2% versus 34.9%, odds ratio 0.44 (95% CI 0.2-0.98), P = 0.05. However, after correction for factors appearing to be related to use of exchange transfusion, the odds ratio increased to 0.58 (95% CI 0.21-1.63), P = 0.3. There was a greater reduction in the pre- to post-transport total serum bilirubin levels (μmol/L) for the group receiving PTDT (mean 46.3, SD 64.6) versus no PTDT (mean 26.1, SD 62.5), but this did not reach significance, P = 0.08.

CONCLUSIONS

Phototherapy during neonatal transport is feasible and safe and may result in a decreased requirement for subsequent exchange transfusion.

Health-Related Quality of Life and Behavioral Functioning after Intrauterine Transfusion for Alloimmune Anemia

OBJECTIVE

To assess health-related quality of life (HRQOL) and behavioral functioning in children and adolescents treated before birth with intrauterine intravascular blood transfusion for alloimmune anemia.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional cohort study conducted at the Dutch referral center for the management of fetal alloimmune anemia. Follow-up data were available for 285 children at a mean age of 10.5 years (range, 3-21.5 years) with a response rate for questionnaires of 97%. Child-, adolescent-, and parent-rated HRQOL was evaluated with The Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research Child/Adult Quality of Life Questionnaire (TACQOL/TAAQOL). Parents reported on behavioral functioning with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Scores were compared with Dutch norm data.

RESULTS

Significantly lower scores were reported by parents of children 6-11 years of age compared with Dutch norms on 3 scales: cognitive functioning, social functioning, and positive emotions (P < .00, P = .02, and P = .04). In children aged 8-11 years only the cognitive functioning scale score was significantly lower compared with Dutch norms (P = .01). The children aged 12-15 years reported higher scores on the negative emotions scale (P = .02). When corrected for multiple testing, only the parent-rated cognitive functioning scale remained significant (P < .001). Regarding the HRQOL scores of adolescents aged ≥16 years, no differences were detected. Overall, behavioral difficulties were reported in 37/246 (15%) children aged 3-16 years, and were associated with maternal educational levels (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Parents reported lower scores on cognitive functioning in their children aged 6-11 years compared with norms. Behavioral difficulties were more prevalent than norms, and were associated with maternal educational level. Outcomes of children after intrauterine intravascular blood transfusion were quite good overall.

Immunoglobulins in Neonates with Rhesus Hemolytic Disease of the Fetus and Newborn: Long-Term Outcome in a Randomized Trial

OBJECTIVE

Prophylactic intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) does neither reduce the need for exchange transfusion nor the rates of other adverse neonatal outcomes in neonates with rhesus hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (rhesus HDFN) according to our randomized controlled trial analysis. Our objective was to assess the long-term neurodevelopmental outcome in the children included in the trial and treated with either IVIg or placebo.

METHODS

All families of the children included in the trial were asked to participate in this follow-up study. The long-term neurodevelopmental outcome in children at least 2 years of age was assessed using standardized tests. The primary outcome was the incidence of neurodevelopmental impairment defined as at least one of the following: cerebral palsy, severe cognitive and/or motor developmental delay (with a test score of less than -2 SD), bilateral deafness or blindness.

RESULTS

Sixty-six of the 80 children (82.5%) who had been recruited to the initial randomized controlled trial participated in the follow-up study. The children were assessed at a median age of 4 years (range 2-7). The median cognitive score was 96 (range 68-118) in the IVIg group and 97 (range 66-118) in the placebo group (p = 0.79). There was no difference in the rate of neurodevelopmental impairment between the IVIg and the placebo group [3% (1/34) vs. 3% (1/32); p = 1.00].

CONCLUSIONS

The long-term neurodevelopmental outcome in children treated with IVIg was not different from that in children treated with placebo. Standardized long-term follow-up studies with large enough case series and sufficient power are needed to replicate these findings.

Haemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn

Haemolytic Disease of the Fetus and Newborn (HDFN) is caused by maternal alloimmunization against red blood cell antigens. In severe cases, HDFN may lead to fetal anaemia with a risk for fetal death and to severe forms of neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia with a risk for kernicterus. Most severe cases are caused by anti-D, despite the introduction of antental and postnatal anti-D immunoglobulin prophylaxis. In general, red blood cell antibody screening programmes are aimed to detect maternal alloimmunization early in pregnancy to facilitate the identification of high-risk cases to timely start antenatal and postnatal treatment. In this review, an overview of the clinical relevance of red cell alloantibodies in relation to occurrence of HDFN and recent views on prevention, screening and treatment options of HDFN are provided.

Exchange Transfusion for Severe Neonatal Hyperbilirubinemia: 17 Years' Experience from Vojvodina, Serbia

This study aimed to evaluate the frequency of the main risk factors for severe neonatal hyperbilirubinemia, to determine the incidence of exchange transfusion (ET) in the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina (the northern part of Serbia) and to describe the experience with ET performed in premature and term infants during the past 17 years. We performed a retrospective data analysis of 398 newborn infants who underwent a double volume ET from 1997 to 2013. During the 17 year study period, a decreasing incidence of ET, expressed per thousand newborns, was observed. A total of 468 double volume ET were performed: 328 (82.4 %) infants had one treatment and 70 (17.6 %) had repeated treatments. A total of 262,830 mLs of blood were transfused, an average of 660 mLs per child. There were 221 male and 177 female infants, with a sex ratio 1.25:1. The frequencies of risk factors for developing hyperbilirubinemia were as follows: (1) 38 % RhD incompatibility; (2) 38 % ABO incompatibility (26 % group A infant of group O mother, 12 % group B infant of group O mother); (3) 7 % low birth weight/preterm birth; (4) 17 % other factors. Risk factors for neurotoxicity were identified in 56.3 % of infants. No deaths or complications were reported arising from the treatment. ABO and Rh incompatibilities were found to be the main risk factors for severe neonatal hyperbilirubinemia in Vojvodina. Exchange transfusion, used as therapy for severe hyperbilirubinemia, trended downwards over the period of this study.

Hemolytic disease of fetus and newborn due to maternal red blood cell alloantibodies in the Malay population

Background:

Maternal red blood cell (RBC) alloimmunization may lead to production of harmful antibodies that result in hemolytic disease of fetus and newborn (HDFN). There is insufficient data on the prevalence of HDFN due to RBC alloantibodies in the Malay neonatal population.

Aim:

The aim of this study was to determine the incidence of HDFN in the Malay neonatal population due to clinically significant RBC alloantibodies.

Subjects and Methods:

A cross sectional study was conducted in Transfusion Medicine Unit, Hospital Universitiy Sains Malaysia over one year period from January to December 2009. A total of 5163 Malay pregnant women who attended labor room for delivery were collected and analyzed prospectively. The blood samples were subjected to the standard immunohematological procedure for RBC antibody screening and identification using reagents of Diamed-ID Gel microtyping system. All the newborns with RBC alloantibody were investigated for the evidence of HDFN.

Results:

Thirty (0.58%) women were found to have clinically significant RBC alloantibodies. Most of the alloantibodies belonged to Rhesus (Rh) system (56.7%) where anti-E (33.3%) was the most common followed by anti-D (10.0%). Rh antibodies were the main cause of HDFN in fourteen (0.27%) neonates. Anti-D and anti-c were identified to cause moderate to very severe HDFN.

Conclusions:

With the low prevalence of clinically significant RBC alloantibodies and HDFN, routine antenatal antibody screening practice may not be advised as a routine practice at present, preferably reserved for those women of RhD negative or with history of HDFN, significantly of those attributed to anti-c.

Intravenous immunoglobulin in isoimmune haemolytic disease of newborn: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) is used in neonates with isoimmune haemolytic disease to prevent exchange transfusion (ET). However, studies supporting IVIg had methodological issues.

OBJECTIVE

To update the systematic review of efficacy and safety of IVIg in neonates with isoimmune haemolytic disease.

METHODS

MEDLINE, Embase databases and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (Cochrane Library) were searched (from inception to May 2013) for randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials comparing IVIg with placebo/controls in neonates with isoimmune haemolytic disease without any language restriction. Three investigators assessed methodological quality of included trials. Meta-analyses were performed using random effect model and risk ratio (RR)/risk difference (RD) and mean difference with 95% CI calculated.

MAIN RESULTS

Twelve studies were included, ten trials (n=463) of Rh isoimmunisation and five trials (n=350) of ABO isoimmunisation (three studies had both population). Significant variations in risk of bias precluded an overall meta-analysis of Rh isoimmunisation. Studies with high risk of bias showed that IVIg reduced the rate of ET in Rh isoimmunisation (RR 0.23, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.40), whereas studies with low risk of bias that also used prophylactic phototherapy did not show statistically significant difference (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.53 to 1.26). For ABO isoimmunisation, only studies with high risk of bias were available and meta-analysis revealed efficacy of IVIg in reducing ET (RR 0.31, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.55).

CONCLUSIONS

Efficacy of IVIg is not conclusive in Rh haemolytic disease of newborn with studies with low risk of bias indicating no benefit and studies with high risk of bias suggesting benefit. Role of IVIg in ABO disease is not clear as studies that showed a benefit had high risk of bias.

Neonatal exchange transfusions in the 21st century: a single hospital study

AIM

In the 21st century, neonatal exchange transfusions (ETs) are uncommon procedures usually performed in tertiary neonatal units. As junior clinical staff now lack familiarity with the procedure, it is important to maintain awareness of its complications in order to manage clinical risks and counsel parents appropriately. The study aims to analyse the ET rate, its indications and its associated complications, in a single tertiary centre in the 21st century.

METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort study of all infants receiving ET from 1 January 2001 to 31 December 2010 at the Royal Women's Hospital, Melbourne.

RESULTS

Sixty-four ETs were performed in 51 infants, an average of 6.4 ETs per year. Forty-nine (96%) infants were exchanged for hyperbilirubinaemia and two (4%) for anaemia. Thirty-six (71%) infants had Rhesus haemolytic disease of the newborn and six (12%) had ABO incompatibility. Six infants were intubated and mechanically ventilated after ET; these infants were significantly more acidotic during the ET than those who were never on respiratory support (mean pH 7.153 and 7.309 respectively, mean difference -0.156, 95% CI -0.196 to -0.116, t = 7.85, P < 0.001). Overall mortality was 8% (n = 4).

CONCLUSIONS

Our current ET rate is very low compared with historical data. It is difficult to ascribe mortality and morbidity directly to ET as the procedure is now often performed on smaller, sicker or more premature infants whose risks of mortality and morbidity are high regardless of ET. Prospective multi-centre studies are needed to provide adequate data to analyse complications in greater detail.

FcRn-mediated intestinal absorption of IgG anti-IgE/IgE immune complexes in mice

BACKGROUND

The mechanism(s) responsible for the acquisition of maternal antibody isotypes other than IgG are not fully understood.

OBJECTIVE

To define the ability of the neonatal Fc receptor for IgG uptake (FcRn) to mediate intestinal absorption of IgG(1) anti-IgE/IgE immune complexes.

METHODS

C57BL/6 allergic ovalbumin (OVA)-immune foster mothers were generated to nurse naïve FcRn(+/-) or FcRn(-/-) progeny. At the time of weaning, serum levels of OVA-specific antibodies and IgG(1) anti-IgE/IgE immune complexes were determined in allergic foster mothers and FcRn(+/+), FcRn(+/-), or FcRn(-/-) breastfed offspring. In separate experiments, FcRn(+/-) or FcRn(-/-) neonatal mice were gavage fed TNP-specific IgE as IgG(1) anti-IgE/IgE immune complexes, IgG(1) isotype control and IgE, or IgE alone. Mice were killed 2 h after feeding to determine serum levels and biological activity of absorbed TNP-specific IgE.

RESULTS

As expected, the absorption of maternal OVA-specific IgG(1) in FcRn(-/-) offspring was at levels 10(3) -10(4) less than observed in FcRn(+/+) or FcRn(+/-) offspring. Surprisingly, FcRn expression also influenced the absorption of maternal IgE. OVA-specific IgE was detected in FcRn(+/+) and FcRn(+/-) offspring, but not in FcRn(-/-) offspring. IgG(1) anti-IgE/IgE immune complexes were detected in allergic foster mothers and correlated strongly with levels in FcRn(+/+) and FcRn(+/-) offspring (ρ = 0.88, P < 0.0001). Furthermore, FcRn expression was required for neonatal mice to absorb TNP-specific IgE when fed as IgG(1) anti-IgE/IgE immune complexes. When immune complexes were generated with IgG(1) anti-IgE directed against the Cε4 domain, the absorbed IgE was able to function in antigen-dependent basophil degranulation.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

These data demonstrate a novel mechanism by which FcRn may facilitate absorption of maternal antibodies other than IgG. These findings are clinically relevant because FcRn mediates the transplacental passage of maternal IgG to the fetus. This raises the possibility that FcRn could mediate the transplacental passage of maternal IgE as IgG anti-IgE/IgE immune complexes.

Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn caused by anti-E

Objective:

Maternal allo-antibody production is stimulated when fetal red blood cells are positive for an antigen absent on the mother's red cells. The maternal IgG antibodies produced will pass through the placenta and attack fetal red cells carrying the corresponding antigen. Allo-immune hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn caused by anti-E rarely occurs.

Case summary:

We report two cases of anti-E hemolytic diseases in neonates. One of the neonates had severe hemolysis presenting with severe anemia, thrombocytopenia, and conjugated hyperbilirubinemia, while the other had moderate anemia and unconjugated hyperbilrubinemia. Although both the neonates were treated by phototherapy and intravenous immunoglobulin, one of them received double volume exchange transfusion.

Conclusion:

There appeared to be an increase in the occurrence of hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn caused by Rh antibodies other than anti-D. In this case report, both patients presented with anemia and hyperbilirubinemia but were successfully treated, with a favorable outcome.

Neonatal morbidity after exchange transfusion for red cell alloimmune hemolytic disease

BACKGROUND

Exchange transfusion (ET) is a high-risk procedure. The type and rate of complications in neonatal red cell alloimmune hemolytic disease exclusively are not clear.

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to study the type and rate of complications associated with ET in a large series of neonates with hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN) due to red cell alloimmunization.

METHODS

All neonates with HDFN due to red cell alloimmunization admitted to our center between January 2001 and June 2011 were eligible for this study. We recorded the number and rate of complications during admission in the group of neonates treated with ET (ET group) and not treated with ET (no-ET group). Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to measure the independent risk of complications of ET treatment.

RESULTS

A total of 347 infants with red cell alloimmune hemolytic disease were included; 39% (134/347) were treated with at least one ET (ET group), and 61% (213/347) did not require ET (no-ET group). Comparison between the ET group and no-ET group showed that ET treatment was independently associated with proven sepsis [8 vs. 1%, respectively; odds ratio (OR) 8.3, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7-40.3; p = 0.009], leukocytopenia (88 vs. 23%, respectively; OR 36.0, 95% CI 17.5-73.8; p < 0.001), severe thrombocytopenia (platelet count <50 × 10(9)/l; 63 vs. 8%, respectively; OR 31.4, 95% CI 14.0-70.4; p < 0.001), hypocalcemia (22 vs. 1%, respectively; OR 27.4, 95% CI 5.9-126.8; p < 0.001) and hypernatremia (8 vs. 0%, respectively; p < 0.001). There were no neonatal deaths in the ET group.

CONCLUSION

ET in neonates with HDFN is associated with an increased risk of sepsis, leukocytopenia, thrombocytopenia, hypocalcemia and hypernatremia.

Refractory cholestasis presenting as cholangiolitis in an Rh (E)-incompatible neonate

Cholestasis in neonates is infrequently associated with Rh isoimmunization, and usually resolves within a month. The suggested pathophysiology is inspissated bile and hepatocellular damage. We report a rare case of refractory cholestasis presenting with cholangiolitis in a newborn with anti-E isoimmunisation. The cholangiolitis was disclosed by immunohistochemical investigation of conjugated hyperbilirubinaemia and by liver biopsy, which showed a number of CD8(+) lymphocytes within the portal tract damaging the interlobular bile duct. Bilirubin levels dramatically decreased after 14-day corticosteroid therapy (prednisolone, 2 mg/kg/day) implying that the cause of cholestasis could be immune-mediated cholangiolitis.

Hemolytic disease of the newborn- anti c antibody induced hemolysis

Hemolytic disease in the newborn, as a cause of early jaundice, is not uncommon. This is mostly due to Rh (D), ABO incompatibility and rarely due to other minor blood group incompatibility. The authors report two cases of Rh anti c isoimmunization presenting as significant early neonatal jaundice within the 20 h of life. Both the babies were treated with intensive phototherapy. One baby underwent exchange transfusion and the other required packed cell transfusion for anemia.

Long-term neurodevelopmental outcome after intrauterine transfusion for hemolytic disease of the fetus/newborn: the LOTUS study

OBJECTIVE

To determine the incidence and risk factors for neurodevelopmental impairment (NDI) in children with hemolytic disease of the fetus/newborn treated with intrauterine transfusion (IUT).

STUDY DESIGN

Neurodevelopmental outcome in children at least 2 years of age was assessed using standardized tests, including the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, according to the children's age. Primary outcome was the incidence of neurodevelopmental impairment defined as at least one of the following: cerebral palsy, severe developmental delay, bilateral deafness, and/or blindness.

RESULTS

A total of 291 children were evaluated at a median age of 8.2 years (range, 2-17 years). Cerebral palsy was detected in 6 (2.1%) children, severe developmental delay in 9 (3.1%) children, and bilateral deafness in 3 (1.0%) children. The overall incidence of neurodevelopmental impairment was 4.8% (14/291). In a multivariate regression analysis including only preoperative risk factors, severe hydrops was independently associated with neurodevelopmental impairment (odds ratio, 11.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.7-92.7).

CONCLUSION

Incidence of neurodevelopmental impairment in children treated with intrauterine transfusion for fetal alloimmune anemia is low (4.8%). Prevention of fetal hydrops, the strongest preoperative predictor for impaired neurodevelopment, by timely detection, referral and treatment may improve long-term outcome.

Cholestasis in neonates with red cell alloimmune hemolytic disease: incidence, risk factors and outcome

BACKGROUND

Etiology of cholestatic liver disease in neonates with hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) has been associated with iron overload due to intrauterine red cell transfusions (IUTs). Data on the incidence and severity of cholestasis in neonates with HDN are scarce, and little is known about pathogenesis, risk factors, neonatal management and outcome.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate incidence, risk factors, management and outcome of cholestasis in neonates with red cell alloimmune hemolytic disease.

METHODS

All (near-) term neonates with HDN due to red cell alloimmunization admitted to our center between January 2000 and July 2010 were included in this observational study. Liver function tests (including conjugated bilirubin) were routinely performed in the neonatal period. We recorded the presence of cholestasis, investigated several potential risk factors and evaluated the management and outcome in affected neonates.

RESULTS

A total of 313 infants with red cell alloimmune hemolytic disease treated with or without IUTs were included. The incidence of cholestasis was 13% (41/313). Two risk factors were independently associated with cholestasis: treatment with at least one IUT (OR 5.81, 95% CI 1.70-19.80, p = 0.005) and rhesus D type of alloimmunization (OR 4.66, 95% CI 1.05-20.57, p = 0.042). Additional diagnostic tests to investigate possible causes of cholestasis were all negative. In 5 infants (12%), supportive medical and nutritional therapy was started, and one neonate required iron chelation therapy.

CONCLUSION

Cholestasis occurs in 13% of neonates with HDN due to red cell alloimmunization, and it is independently associated with IUT treatment and rhesus D type of alloimmunization.

Hematological morbidity and management in neonates with hemolytic disease due to red cell alloimmunization

Treatment of severe anemia with intrauterine red cell transfusions in fetuses with red cell alloimmunization has led to a dramatic increase in perinatal survival. Due to this increased survival focus is nowadays shifting towards improving postnatal treatment options. Phototherapy, exchange transfusions and intravenous immunoglobulin are used to treat hyperbilirubinemia and prevent kernicterus. Postnatal treatment of anemia consists of top-up transfusions, supplements to support erythropoiesis such as folic acid and iron, and occasionally erythropoietin treatment. In addition to anemia, other hematological complications such as thrombocytopenia, coagulation disturbances, leucopenia and iron overload have been reported. This review focuses on the hematological morbidity in neonates with red cell alloimmunization and summarizes the current evidence on management options.

Intravenous immunoglobulin in neonates with rhesus hemolytic disease: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Despite limited data, international guidelines recommend the use of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) in neonates with rhesus hemolytic disease.

OBJECTIVE

We tested whether prophylactic use of IVIg reduces the need for exchange transfusions in neonates with rhesus hemolytic disease.

DESIGN AND SETTING

We performed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in neonates with rhesus hemolytic disease. After stratification for treatment with intrauterine transfusion, neonates were randomly assigned for IVIg (0.75 g/kg) or placebo (5% glucose). The primary outcome was the rate of exchange transfusions. Secondary outcomes were duration of phototherapy, maximum bilirubin levels, and the need of top-up red-cell transfusions.

RESULTS

Eighty infants were included in the study, 53 of whom (66%) were treated with intrauterine transfusion(s). There was no difference in the rate of exchange transfusions between the IVIg and placebo groups (7 of 41 [17%] vs 6 of 39 [15%]; P = .99) and in the number of exchange transfusions per patient (median [range]: 0 [0-2] vs 0 [0-2]; P = .90) or in duration of phototherapy (4.7 [1.8] vs 5.1 [2.1] days; P = .34), maximum bilirubin levels (14.8 [4.7] vs 14.1 [4.9] mg/dL; P = .52), and proportion of neonates who required top-up red-cell transfusions (34 of 41 [83%] vs 34 of 39 [87%]; P = .76).

CONCLUSIONS

Prophylactic IVIg does not reduce the need for exchange transfusion or the rates of other adverse neonatal outcomes. Our findings do not support the use of IVIg in neonates with rhesus hemolytic disease.

Early intravenous immunoglobin (two-dose regimen) in the management of severe Rh hemolytic disease of newborn--a prospective randomized controlled trial

Phototherapy is the standard treatment in moderately severe hemolytic disease of newborn (HDN), whereas exchange transfusion (ET) is the second line in progressive cases. Intravenous immunoglobin (IVIG) has been suggested to decrease the need for ET. We aimed at assessing the efficacy of early two-dose regimens of IVIG to avoid unnecessary ET in severe Rh HDN. The study included 90 full-term neonates with Rh incompatibility unmodified by antenatal treatment and not eligible for early ET and which were randomly assigned into one of three groups: group (I), treated by conventional method; groups IIa and IIb received IVIG once at 12 h postnatal age if PT was indicated, in a dose of 0.5 and 1 g/kg, respectively. Analysis revealed 11 neonates (22%) in the conventional group and 2 (5%) in the intervention group who administered low-dose IVIG at 12 h, while none in group IIb required exchange transfusion (p = 0.03). Mean bilirubin levels were significantly lower during the first 96 h in the intervention group compared to the conventional group (p < 0.0001). Shorter duration of phototherapy (52.8 ± 12.39 h) and hospital stay (3.25 ± 0.71 days) in the IVIG group compared to conventional group (84 ± 12.12 h and 4.72 ± 0.78 days, p < 0.0001, respectively) were observed. We conclude that IVIG administration at 12 h was effective in the treatment of severe Rh HDN; the low-dose IVIG (0.5 g/kg) was as effective as high dose (1 g/kg) in reducing the duration of phototherapy and hospital stay, but less effective in avoiding exchange transfusion.