A comparison of the quality of the Longissimus lumborum muscle from wild and farm-raised fallow deer (Dama dama L.)

De novo transcriptome assembly database for 100 tissues from each of seven species of domestic herbivore

Domesticated herbivores are an important agricultural resource that play a critical role in global food security, particularly as they can adapt to varied environments, including marginal lands. An understanding of the molecular basis of their biology would contribute to better management and sustainable production. Thus, we conducted transcriptome sequencing of 100 to 105 tissues from two females of each of seven species of herbivore (cattle, sheep, goats, sika deer, horses, donkeys, and rabbits) including two breeds of sheep. The quality of raw and trimmed reads was assessed in terms of base quality, GC content, duplication sequence rate, overrepresented k-mers, and quality score distribution with FastQC. The high-quality filtered RNA-seq raw reads were deposited in a public database which provides approximately 54 billion high-quality paired-end sequencing reads in total, with an average mapping rate of ~93.92%. Transcriptome databases represent valuable resources that can be used to study patterns of gene expression, and pathways that are related to key biological processes, including important economic traits in herbivores.

The 10,000-year biocultural history of fallow deer and its implications for conservation policy

Over the last 10,000 y, humans have manipulated fallow deer populations with varying outcomes. Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) are now endangered. European fallow deer (Dama dama) are globally widespread and are simultaneously considered wild, domestic, endangered, invasive and are even the national animal of Barbuda and Antigua. Despite their close association with people, there is no consensus regarding their natural ranges or the timing and circumstances of their human-mediated translocations and extirpations. Our mitochondrial analyses of modern and archaeological specimens revealed two distinct clades of European fallow deer present in Anatolia and the Balkans. Zooarchaeological evidence suggests these regions were their sole glacial refugia. By combining biomolecular analyses with archaeological and textual evidence, we chart the declining distribution of Persian fallow deer and demonstrate that humans repeatedly translocated European fallow deer, sourced from the most geographically distant populations. Deer taken to Neolithic Chios and Rhodes derived not from nearby Anatolia, but from the Balkans. Though fallow deer were translocated throughout the Mediterranean as part of their association with the Greco-Roman goddesses Artemis and Diana, deer taken to Roman Mallorca were not locally available Dama dama, but Dama mesopotamica. Romans also initially introduced fallow deer to Northern Europe but the species became extinct and was reintroduced in the medieval period, this time from Anatolia. European colonial powers then transported deer populations across the globe. The biocultural histories of fallow deer challenge preconceptions about the divisions between wild and domestic species and provide information that should underpin modern management strategies.

The Effect of the Inclusion of Different Concentrates in Feed Rations on the Contents of Tocopherols, β-Carotene and Retinol in the Livers and Longissimus dorsi Muscles of Farm-Raised Fallow Deer (Dama dama L.)

This study analyzed the chemical composition and contents of β-carotene, tocopherols and retinol in the longissimus dorsi (LD) muscles and livers of fallow deer (Dama dama L.) fed diets based on hay containing different concentrates (hay and oats—HO; hay, oats and protein concentrate—HOP; hay and pellets—HP). The provitamin and lipophilic vitamin contents in the samples of feed and animal tissues were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The contents of retinol were nearly two-fold higher (p < 0.002) in the livers and many-fold higher in the LD muscles of fallow deer fed the HOP and HP diets. β-carotene was not identified in the livers or LD muscles of fallow deer. The concentrations of α-tocopherol and total tocopherols were higher in the livers and LD muscles of the animals that received the HO and HP diets, but the noted differences were not significant. The inclusion of various concentrates in the feed rations had no influence on the proximate chemical compositions of the livers or LD muscles of fallow deer.

Fatty Acids and Nutraceutical Properties of Lipids in Fallow Deer (Dama dama) Meat Produced in Organic and Conventional Farming Systems

The aim of the study was to assess the fatty acid profile and nutraceutical properties of lipids contained in fallow deer (Dama dama) meat produced in organic and conventional farming systems. Longissimus lumborum (LL) and semimembranosus (SM) muscles from 24 fallow deer carcasses were selected for the study. The fallow deer meat from the organic farming system was characterized by significantly lower intramuscular fat content. The fatty acid profile in the organic meat was characterized by a particularly high proportion (p < 0.0001) of conjugated linoleic acid-CLA (LL-2.29%, SM-2.14%), alpha-linolenic acid-ALA (LL-4.32%, SM-3.87%), and docosahexaenoic acid-DHA (LL-2.83%, SM-2.60%). The organic system had a beneficial effect (p < 0.0001) on the amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including n-3 PUFAs, which resulted in a more favorable n-6 PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acid)/n-3 PUFA ratio. The significantly higher nutritional quality of organic meat lipids was confirmed by such nutraceutical indicators as the thrombogenic index (TI), ∆9-desaturase C16, elongase, and docosahexaenoic acid+eicosapentaenoic acid (DHA+EPA) in the LL and SM and cholesterol index (CI), and the cholesterol-saturated fat index (CSI) indices in the SM. LL was characterized by higher overall quality.

Detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Wild and Farmed Cervids in Poland

Background: The role of cervids in the circulation of A. phagocytophilum has not yet been clearly determined; however, several species of wild and farm cervids may be a natural reservoir of this bacteria. Methods: Spleen and liver tissue samples were taken from 207 wild (red deer, roe deer, fallow deer and moose) and farmed cervids (red deer and fallow deer) from five geographical areas. These were tested for the A. phagocytophilum16S rDNA partial gene by nested PCR. Results: Anaplasma spp. were detected in 91 of 207 examined cervids (prevalence 43.9%). Three different variants of 16S rDNA partial gene were reported, one for the first time. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was more often detected in young specimens than in adults and more often in the spleen than in the liver. Conclusions: Cervids from the four sites across Poland were found to be major natural reservoirs of various strains of A. phagocytophilum. This is the first study to use spleen and liver as biological material to detect A. phagocytophilum in moose in Poland.

Perception of the Health Threats Related to the Consumption of Wild Animal Meat-Is Eating Game Risky?

Consumer interest in game meat has increased in recent years. Consumers appreciate its nutritional value but still have many concerns. Based on data from a quantitative study conducted in the group of 450 purposively selected Polish respondents declaring to consume the game meat, consumers were segmented concerning the perception of health risks associated with its consumption. Three separate clusters were identified using hierarchical cluster analysis: Indifferent (42%), Fearful (30%), and Selective (28%). The clusters differed significantly in the perception of the role of game in their lives and taking actions to mitigate the health risks associated with its consumption. In addition, their socioeconomic profiles were significantly different. The Indifferent segment-significantly more often than the other segments-believes that game has a positive impact on health, and the way to counteract the health risks is to not eat raw meat. The Selective segment attaches great importance to the choice of consumption place as a warranty of access to safe meat. The Fearful segment is willing to pay more for good quality meat and search for information. The results proved that the game consumers are not a homogenous group. Recognizing the differences can indicate a path for the traders to efficiently meet the consumers' expectations and needs.

Fermented meat sausages from game and venison: what are the opportunities and limitations?

An increase in the acceptance, demand and production of game meat and venison has been experienced globally. Game meat and venison fit into consumers' ideology of healthy and environmentally friendly meat when compared to domesticated animals. Opportunities exist to explore the use of these meat sources in developing new products, particularly as game meat and venison in their fresh state are sometimes perceived as being tough. Consumers have shown a trend for trying exciting new products with different organoleptic qualities, and fermented sausages occupy a special niche in the gastro-economic trade. In this review, the production potential of game meat and venison and its prospective use in the development of fermented sausages are discussed. Emphasis is placed on the importance of meat characteristics in textural and sensorial development as well as the safety of fermented sausages. Additionally, consumers' perception of venison and game meat is discussed. Possible areas of research and knowledge gaps are highlighted, particularly the potential use of meat with high pH and microbial load. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Effect of Barley and Lysine Supplementation on the longissimus lumborum Meat Quality of Pasture-Raised Fallow Deer (Dama dama)

The chemical characteristics (proximate composition, amino acids, and fatty acids) and sensory quality of the longissimus lumborum (LL) muscle of 45 farmed male fallow deer were investigated. The animals were divided into three separate groups (n = 15 per treatment): pasture-fed (P), pasture-fed and supplemented with barley (B), and pasture-fed and supplemented with barley and lysine (BL). Differences were observed in LL moisture and the intramuscular fat contents, the latter being almost two-fold greater in the meat of B and BL groups compared to P. The concentrations of histidine, leucine, alanine, glutamic acid and glycine in the raw meat were higher in the BL group compared to the P group. Higher contents of n–3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and consequently lower n–3 ratios, were found in the P group, compared to the BL group. The grilled meat samples from the P group scored higher than the other groups for grassy flavour, and lower for liver flavour.

Effect of Sex and Age on Nutritional Content in Wild Axis Deer (Axis axis Erx.) Meat

Simple Summary

Game meat is perceived as more nutritious than meat originating from domestic farm-ranged animal species. However, meat composition is affected by numerous factors, and differences between game species can be found. The aim of this study is to examine the effect of sex and age on the content of macro- and micro-nutrients in meat from axis deer. Sixteen animals were hunt-harvested and assigned to groups according to sex and age. Samples of m. longissumus thoracis were examined to determine proximate chemical, fatty acid, amino acid and mineral composition. Minor differences were found in the analysed traits between sex and age groups. Regardless of sex and age, axis deer meat is characterised as having a high protein and low-fat content, favourable fatty acid composition and ratios. It is a good source of essential amino acids and micro-minerals. As data regarding axis deer meat are limited, the results of this study are a valuable contribution to describing the quality and nutritional composition of meat of different deer species. Axis deer meat can be recommended as a healthier substitute to red meat.

Abstract

The aim of this study is to examine the effect of sex and age on proximate chemical, fatty acid, amino acid and mineral content of axis deer (Axis axis Erx.) meat. Sixteen (n = 16) animals were hunt-harvested and assigned to groups according sex and age (sub-adult and adult). All analyses were made on m. longissimus thoracis sampled between the 9th and 13th ribs. Minor differences in nutritional composition of axis deer meat were found between analysed sex and age groups. Axis deer meat has a high protein (22.8%) and low fat (1.39%) content. Saturated fatty acids accounted for 44.97% and polyunsaturated for 29.66% of the total fatty acids. Ratios of fatty acids were within the recommended values. Glutamic and aspartic acid were the most abundant non-essential, and lysine and leucine the most common essential amino acids. The ratio of essential to non-essential amino acids was <1. Potassium and phosphorous were the dominant macro-minerals, while iron and zinc were the dominant micro-minerals. The results of this study show that regardless of sex or age, axis deer meat can be considered a good source of basic macro- and micro-nutrients, and can be recommended as a substitute for red meat from domestic animals.

Farmed-raised fallow deer (Dama dama L.) carcass characteristics and meat nutritional value

This study analysed carcass features and the chemical composition of semimembranosus (SM) and longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscles from farmed-raised fallow deer (Dama dama L.) bucks (n = 8). Mineral contents and fatty acid composition were also determined in the muscles and the fulfilment of the demand for minerals was calculated for adults. Dressing percentage was 55.2%, whereas the proportions of round, shoulder and loin were 38.4%, 15.5% and 14.4%, respectively. The highest content of meat tissue was found in round, followed by loin. There were no differences in moisture, fat, protein or ash contents between SM and LTL muscles, however differences in mineral contents and fatty acid composition were noted and affected the concentration of nutrients. Meat from farmed-raised fallow deer is a good source of iron and copper in the human diet and may be recommended as a part of a healthy diet.

Comparison studies of the chemical, physical, technological, and microbiological characteristics of the European roe deer, boar, red deer, and beaver hunted wild game meat

The aim of this research was to perform comparison studies of the chemical, physical, technological, and microbiological characteristics, including biogenic amines (BAs) and volatile compounds (VC), of the European roe deer (RDM), boar (BoM), red deer (ReDM), and beaver (BM) hunted wild game meat (HWGM). The outcome of this study showed a significant effect (p < .05) of animal species on protein content, pH, drip loss, shear force, cooking loss, color coordinates, total count of enterobacteria, and most of the VC. ReDM had the highest protein content (23.15%), cooking loss, L* and b* values. The lowest protein and cholesterol content and L* value and the highest pH, shear force, drip loss, and fat content were established in BM having the highest content of unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) (64.12% from total FA). The total UFA content in ReDM and BM was almost twofold higher, compared with saturated FA. Small amounts of main BAs (<7.8 mg/kg) were found in ReDM and BM, while a higher content of putrescine in RDM and BoM was established. The main VCs in HWGM were acetoin, pelargonic, and acetic acid. These findings provide a valuable data about the HWGM quality characteristics and might aid food manufacturers to improve and enhance the processing of the HWGM.

Quality of main types of hunted red deer meat obtained in Spain compared to farmed venison from New Zealand

Deer venison is increasingly valued as a natural meat. This study examines the three main sources of venison: farmed venison from New Zealand (NZ), the world's leading producer, and wild deer from Spain (SP), the second largest producer, which mainly supplies venison from traditional autumn-winter driven hunts (monteria), involving packs of dogs, and a smaller proportion culled through summer selective stalking. Meat from NZ contained more protein, lower shear force and lower n-6/n-3 ratio (P < 0.01). Spanish meat had a greater content of total, essential and non-essential amino acids (P < 0.01). Meat from deer culled in winter had lower intramuscular fat and saturated fatty acids (FA) but higher polyunsaturated FA (P < 0.01) and pH (P < 0.001) than meat from summer stalked deer. Therefore, venison presents differences by country of origin for composition, FA and texture that are likely to affect its health characteristics. Anomalies observed in meat between the winter driven hunt and non-stressful summer stalking may be attributed to the level of death stress in the case of variables such as pH. However, the effect on fat and mineral composition seems to be seasonal, depending respectively on wild diet or cyclic osteoporosis in males.

Fallow Deer (Dama dama) as a Reservoir of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC)

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia (E.) coli (STEC) are responsible for the outbreaks of serious diseases in humans. Only a few reports on fallow deer as a reservoir of foodborne pathogens have been published to date. The purpose of this study was to determine the occurrence of STEC strains in the fallow deer population in Poland. In all, 94 fallow deer swabs were tested. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to detect the virulence profile of stx1, stx2 and eae or aggR genes, to identify the subtypes of stx1 and stx2 genes and to perform O and H serotyping. STEC and attaching and effacing (AE)-STEC were identified in 13 isolates (13.83%). The most hazardous virulence profile was detected in three strains, namely stx2d serotype O103:HNM, eae/stx1a serotype O26:HNM and eae/stx1a serotype O157:H7. The predominant stx gene was stx2, which was identified in 76.92% of isolates. E. coli O157 was detected in 4/94 (4.26%). Other E. coli serogroups, O26, O103, O111 and O145, were identified in 14/94 fallow deer (14.89%). The present findings suggest that fallow deer are carriers of STEC/AE-STEC that are potentially pathogenic to humans.

Chemical Composition of Wild Fallow Deer (Dama Dama) Meat from South Africa: A Preliminary Evaluation

Although fallow deer are abundant in South Africa, these cervids remain undervalued as a domestic protein source and little information exists on their meat quality. This study aimed to evaluate the proximate and mineral compositions of the meat from wild fallow deer (n = 6 male, n = 6 female) harvested in South Africa, as affected by sex and muscle. Proximate analyses were conducted on six muscles (longissimus thoracis et lumborum [LTL], biceps femoris [BF], semimembranosus [SM], semitendinosus [ST], infraspinatus [IS], supraspinatus [SS]), whereas mineral analyses were conducted on the LTL and BF. The proximate composition of the muscles ranged from 73.3-76.2% moisture, 20.4-23.1% protein, 2.2-3.2% fat, and 1.1-1.5% ash. Proximate composition was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) influenced by muscle, but not by sex. The primary essential macro- and micro-minerals determined in the LTL and BF were potassium, phosphorus, sodium, and magnesium, as well as iron, zinc, and copper, with more variation in concentrations occurring with muscle than with sex. Minerals in the muscles contributing most notably to human recommended dietary requirements were potassium, iron, copper, and zinc. These findings indicate that wild fallow deer meat is a nutritious food source and should enhance utilisation of such products.

The influence of habitat and sex on feral fallow deer meat lipid fraction

BACKGROUND

The study tested the hypothesis that habitat and sex influence the composition of meat lipid fraction. Therefore, this study aims to characterize the effects of habitat and sex on feral fallow deer (Dama dama) tenderloin (psoas major muscle) intramuscular fat composition.

RESULTS

Fallow deer meat from the Atlantic forest presented higher total cholesterol and total monounsaturated fatty acids contents, while fallow deer meat from Montado presented significantly higher proportion of total branched chain fatty acids, n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and dimethyl acetals. Regarding the sex influence on meat's fatty acid composition, it was observed that female fallow deer displayed higher contents of total saturated fatty acids than their male counterparts.

CONCLUSION

Independently of the habitat the feral fallow deer's meat can be classified as extra lean. However, the high peroxidability index and the low total vitamin E content suggests that it is prone to lipid peroxidation. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

A proteomic-based approach for the search of biomarkers in Iberian wild deer (Cervus elaphus) as indicators of meat quality

The positive perception of deer meat among consumers is growing. Consequently, further efforts are needed to control its meat quality. Specifically, the aim of this study was to search protein biomarkers in connection with tenderness and intramuscular fat (IMF) content of Iberian wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) meat. Twelve venison samples classified as tender, intermediate and tough meat, as well as with different IMF were studied, using quantitative proteomic by SWATH-MS combined with bioinformatic analyses. The study of muscle proteome showed significant differences among these three groups of meat samples, since five differentially abundant proteins (IVD, LAMB1, MYL3, SDHC and SDHA) and six (FABP4, IVD, LAMB1, MYL3, CRYZ and SERPINB6) were strongly correlated with tenderness and IMF, respectively. The proteomic approach provides protein biomarkers linked to venison meat quality and marked changes in proteins related to oxidoreductase complex in skeletal muscle. SIGNIFICANCE: Meat tenderness and IMF are major concerns in game meat. The proteomic approach demonstrated a strong correlation between proteins and these quality traits, despite the complexity of samples (wild animals hunted at different ages). Our results suggest that several proteins can be biomarkers and provide a molecular insight.

Influence of the method of storage on the quality of venison from wild fallow deer (Dama dama)

The quality of two muscles (musculus longissimus lumborum and musculus semimembranosus) was studied in a group of 15 wild fallow deer does hunted in January. The aim of the research was to analyse the influence of the method of storage on the quality of venison. The pH value after chilled storage and after freezer storage ranged from 5.64 to 5.70, indicating high meat quality of meat. The freezer storage caused a decrease in the redness and chroma in the longissimus lumborum muscle (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.001). The frozen and thawed venison characterised with a higher percentage of free water (P = 0.001), drip loss (P = 0.033) and lower plasticity (P = 0.001) compared to the meat stored under chilled conditions. The instrumental measures of tenderness were affected by the storage. The results indicated a lower technological quality of venison after freezer storage compared to meat stored under chilled conditions.

Body composition and venison quality of farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus) hinds reared on grass, papilionaceous or mixed pasture paddocks

Red deer (Cervus elaphus) hinds (n=3×10) of identical initial body weight (BW, ca. 68 kg) were reared on a monocotyledonous grass (G group), on a grass–papilionaceous (GP group) or on pure papilionaceous pasture each of 2 ha (P group) for 219 d. At the end of the experiment carcass tissue composition was assessed by means of computer tomography, slaughter value and meat quality were characterized and tissue – longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL), thigh and liver – samples were taken for fatty acid composition analysis. The primary aim was to assess nutrition-driven differences.

Hinds of group P provided higher final BW (101 kg vs. 90 and 91.9 kg in groups G and GP, respectively) and higher BW gain (32.6 kg during the total period vs. 22.4 and 22.1 kg). The carcass weight exceeded those of the other groups significantly (68.8 kg vs. 59.3 and 63.2 kg), while there was no difference among groups in the perirenal fat weight and red color tone (a*) of the LTL. Groups G and P differed significantly in the LTL weight (highest in P), its dripping loss (lowest in G), lightness (L; highest in P) and yellow color tone (b*).

In the thigh muscle, LTL and liver the highest proportion of fatty acid CLA9c11t was reached on the G pasture, and the same trend was true for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA , C22:6 n3) in the muscles. The n6 / n3 fatty acid ratio was the highest on the P pasture in the liver and both muscles. The liver incorporated the highest proportion of linoleic acid (C18:2 n6) and converted it rather effectively to arachidonic acid (C20:4 n6), coupled with the lowest α-linolenic acid presence.

In conclusion, concerning muscle mass production, group P proved to be the most advantageous pasture; meanwhile LTL meat quality factors (dripping loss, DHA proportion, pH, color) were more favorable on the G pasture.

Carcass and meat quality characteristics from Iberian wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) hunted at different ages

BACKGROUND

Deer-meat consumption is increasing in several countries based on claims that it is a healthy red meat. This study assessed the effect of slaughter age (low - 26 months and younger; medium - from 27 months to younger than 42 months; and high - 42 months and older) on carcass characteristics and meat physicochemical properties of 150 Iberian wild red deer.

RESULTS

Whole carcass yields of neck, backbone and flank increased (P < 0.001) with age, while yields of shoulder, tenderloin and leg decreased (P < 0.05) with age. The pH measured at 48 h post mortem at 9th rib level was not affected by age, while pH measured at 72 h post mortem at the longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle decreased (P < 0.05) with age. Meat chemical composition was not affected by slaughter age, except for intramuscular fat (IMF), which increased (P < 0.05) with slaughter age. Finally, cooking loss and shear force were higher (P < 0.05) in meat from older deer.

CONCLUSION

Most characteristics of meat from wild red deer depend on age at slaughter. The greater IMF of meat from older animals may render it more palatable. However, meat shear force also increased with age. Additional studies testing palatability seem to be necessary to evaluate the effects of slaughter age on the sensorial quality of meat from Iberian wild red deer. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of age on nutritional properties of Iberian wild red deer meat

BACKGROUND

This study assessed the effect of age (L, less than 27 months old; M, from 27 to 42 months old; H, 43 months and older) on the fatty acid profile, cholesterol content, amino acid composition and mineral content of 150 Iberian wild red deer meat samples.

RESULTS

Intramuscular fat content increased (P < 0.05) with age (0.05 vs 0.12 vs 0.34% for L, M and H groups respectively), while cholesterol content decreased (P < 0.05) as the slaughter age increased (52.78 vs 48.72 vs 45.34 mg per 100 g meat for L, M and H groups respectively). The slaughter age showed differences among groups for saturated fatty acids, with the highest content in older animals (30.41 vs 34.55 vs 38.21% for L, M and H groups respectively), whereas younger deer displayed the highest polyunsaturated fatty acid levels (50.05 vs 45.24 vs 37.55% for L, M and H groups respectively). The n-6/n-3 ratio was more favorable (P < 0.05) for young and medium ages compared with that for older animals. In contrast, amino acid profile and mineral content were only slightly affected by age.

CONCLUSION

As a general conclusion, wild red deer meat could be considered a good alternative to red meats for human consumption. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Effect of Barley and Lysine Supplementation of Pasture-Based Diet on Growth, Carcass Composition and Physical Quality Attributes of Meat from Farmed Fallow Deer (Dama dama)

Fallow deer (Dama dama) are important meat producing species providing venison and other products to an international market. The present study investigated the effects of different feed rations on the growth, carcass characteristics and physical attributes of the longissimus lumborum (LL) and semitendinosus (SET) muscles of 45 farm-raised male fallow deer. The animals were divided into three separate groups: 15 pasture-fed (P), 15 pasture-fed and supplemented with barley (B), and 15 pasture-fed and supplemented with barley and lysine (BL). The animals were slaughtered at an average age of 17 months at three time points: after 155, 169 and 183 days on feed. The addition of barley to the feed ration significantly increased weight gain and had positive effects on slaughter and carcass weights, dressing-out proportion, carcass composition, the weight of LL muscle, and increased the redness, yellowness and chroma values of LL muscle. The supplementation with lysine reduced the amounts of carcass and internal fats without compromising other economically important traits.

The effect of high ultimate pH on the quality of three muscles from farm-raised fallow deer (Dama dama)

Muscles (m. supraspinatus, SP; m. longissimus thoracis et lumborum, LTL; m. semimembranosus, SM) of 16 farm-raised fallow deer were analysed to study the effect of normal and high pH on the quality of venison. While 60% of analysed SP muscles were characterised with an ultimate pH (pHu) of ≥6.0, the pHu of LTL and SM was of a normal level (pH ≤ 6.0) for most of the analysed fallow deer. The SP with a normal and high pH had the highest pHu among the analysed muscles (P = 0.009). High pHu resulted in redder meat (P = 0.004). LTL and SM with a high pHu were characterised with the lowest value of H° (P = 0.006). The drip loss and the percentage of total water were higher for SP than for the other analysed muscles (P = 0.001 and P &lt; 0.0001). The free water and the free-water share in total water were most affected by the pHu (P = 0.001) among the analysed traits related to water-holding capacity of meat, and were lower for venison with a high pHu than for that with a normal pHu. The high-pHu venison was related to a lower cooking loss (P = 0.002) and a slightly higher meat plasticity (P = 0.027) than was the meat with a normal pHu. The proximal chemical composition of the fallow deer muscles was not influenced by the pHu (P = 0.817–0.983) nor by the carcass weight (P = 0.121–0.964). From the present results, it can be concluded that high-pH and normal-pH venison have different qualities. This also means different culinary and technological characteristics depending on the pHu value. The incidence of high pHu was the highest in the SP.

Influence of selected factors on meat quality from farm-raised and wild fallow deer (Dama dama): a review

Fallow deer meat (venison) is a new product acquired from farm-raised and wild animals. Nowadays, people are more concerned about their health, and therefore, they search for high quality, “healthy” products. Farming of fallow deer is ecological and friendly to the environment. Animals are kept in pasture conditions which resemble their natural environment. Venison is considered healthy meat, low in fat and cholesterol, and high in protein. The aim of this review was to gather and discuss the available literature on factors influencing the quality of venison such as sex, age, slaughter method and housing system, feeding, hanging method, animal condition, muscle type, and ageing of meat, considering both farm-raised and wild fallow deer.

Age-related changes in the carcass composition and meat quality of fallow deer (DAMA DAMA L.)

The present study investigated the possible differences in carcass composition as well as texture, structure and percentage of different muscle types of the most valuable muscles (BF - biceps femoris, SM - semimembranosus, and L - longissimus) from fallow deer (Dama dama L.) bucks shot in the forest farm in north-western Poland at four different ages: 18, 30, 42 and 54 months. It was found that carcasses of young fallow deer (18-30 months), compared to older animals, were characterised by a higher dressing proportion, a higher percentage of the most valuable commercial cuts (the saddle, haunch and shoulder), high meat yield with the lowest percentage of bones and a lower percentage of skin and head. Their muscles, compared with older animals, were characterised by a lower percentage of red fibres, lower muscle fibre area, thinner perimysium and endomysium, lower amount of intramuscular fat and as a consequence lower hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, as well as a higher pH and lower thermal drip.

Meat quality of farmed red deer fed a balanced diet: effects of supplementation with copper bolus on different muscles

Supplementation with copper (Cu) improves deer antler characteristics, but it could modify meat quality and increase its Cu content to levels potentially harmful for humans. Here, we studied the effects of Cu bolus supplementation by means on quality and composition of sternocephalicus (ST) and rectus abdominis (RA) muscles (n=13 for each one) from yearling male red deer fed with a balanced diet. Each intraruminal bolus, containing 3.4 g of Cu, was administered orally in the treatment group to compare with the control group. Meat traits studied were pH at 24 h postmortem (pH24), colour, chemical composition, cholesterol content, fatty acid (FA) composition, amino acid (AA) profile and mineral content. In addition, the effect of Cu supplementation on mineral composition of liver and serum (at 0 and 90 days of treatment) was analysed. No interactions between Cu supplementation and muscle were observed for any trait. Supplementation with Cu increased the protein content of meat (P&lt;0.01). However, Cu content of meat, liver and serum was not modified by supplementation. In fact, Cu content of meat (1.20 and 1.34 mg/kg for Cu supplemented and control deer, respectively) was much lower in both groups than 5 mg/kg of fresh weight allowed legally for food of animal origin. However, bolus of Cu tended to increase the meat content of zinc and significantly increased (P&lt;0.05) the hepatic contents of sodium and lead. Muscles studied had different composition and characteristics. The RA muscle had significantly higher protein content (P&lt;0.001), monounsaturated FA content (P&lt;0.05) and essential/non-essential AA ratio (P&lt;0.01) but lower pH24 (P&lt;0.01) and polyunsaturated FA content (P=0.001) than the ST muscle. In addition, RA muscle had 14.4% less cholesterol (P=0.001) than ST muscle. Also, mineral profile differed between muscles with higher content of iron, significantly higher (P&lt;0.001) content of zinc and lower content of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus (P&lt;0.05) for ST muscle compared with RA. Therefore, supplementation with Cu modified deer meat characteristics, but it did not increase its concentration to toxic levels, making it a safe practice from this perspective. Despite the lower content of polyunsaturated FA, quality was better for RA than for ST muscle based on its higher content of protein with more essential/non-essential AA ratio and lower pH24 and cholesterol content.

Carcass and meat characteristics from farm-raised and wild fallow deer (Dama dama) and red deer (Cervus elaphus): A review

Deer species are utilised for food, hunting and other products throughout the world. Consumers are typically exposed to venison derived predominantly from both farm-raised or wild fallow (Dama dama) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). The production of venison under farm conditions, compared to the meat of deer hunted in the wild, allows for a regular supply of a consistently good meat. It is lean, tasty, and rich in proteins and minerals, with a low content of fat and cholesterol. Overall, the worldwide demand for meat is still growing, and both the potential of farming deer species and their use as meat producers have led to an increased interest in venison. The current knowledge about various factors (e.g. nutrition, age, sex, condition, season) affecting venison and game meat has significantly increased during past decades but information regarding the interaction between production system or pre- and post-slaughter handling and ultimate deer meat quality are still very limited.

Quality of meat from three muscles of farmed fallow deer (Dama dama)

The quality of three muscles (supraspinatus, longissimus, semimembranosus) were studied in a group of 12 farmed fallow deer bucks (Dama dama) aged 28 months. The aim was to compare the selected quality traits of these muscles and to assess the extent to which these traits change after 14 days of being stored in vacuum packaging. Both the pH and the temperature were significantly affected by the muscle (P < 0.0001) and the time of storage (P < 0.0001). The supraspinatus muscle had the highest initial and final pH (pH0.5 h = 6.95; pH15d = 5.93), while m. semimembranosus showed the greatest drop in temperature (by 37.5°C) 24 h postmortem. The colour parameters differed among muscles. Only lightness (L*) was not influenced by the duration of storage (P = 0.081). The 14-day storage in a vacuum bag caused a decrease in the drip loss (P = 0.002), free water (%; P = 0.001), free water (cm2; P < 0.0001) and a cooking loss (P = 0.050). The duration of time in storage caused an increase in the dry-matter (P = 0.049) and crude-protein (P = 0.044) contents and a decrease of the water to protein ratio (W : CP; P = 0.014). There was a significant effect of muscle on the dry-matter (P < 0.0001) and crude-protein (P < 0.001) contents and W : CP (P < 0.0001). The highest contents of dry matter (P ≤ 0.01) and crude protein (P ≤ 0.01) were found in m. longissimus. The highest W : CP was observed in m. supraspinatus (W : CP24 h = 4.02; W/CP15d = 3.92). The results indicated a different technological quality of the analysed muscles, and, thus, a need to further explore the background of these differences in the early postmortem period and after meat maturation.

Game meat authentication through rare earth elements fingerprinting

Accurate labelling of meat (e.g. wild versus farmed, geographical and genetic origin, organic versus conventional, processing treatment) is important to inform the consumers about the products they buy. Meat and meat products declared as game have higher commercial value making them target to fraudulent labelling practices and replacement with non-game meat. We have developed and validated a new method for authentication of wild rabbit meat using elemental metabolomics approach. Elemental analysis was performed using rapid ultra-trace multi-element measurement by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Elemental signatures showed excellent ability to discriminate the wild rabbit from non-wild rabbit meat. Our results demonstrate the usefulness of metabolic markers -rare earth signatures, as well as other trace element signatures for game meat authentication.

Effect of acid whey and freeze-dried cranberries on lipid oxidation and fatty acid composition of nitrite-/nitrate-free fermented sausage made from deer meat

Objective

This study evaluated the effect of acid whey and freeze-dried cranberries on the physicochemical characteristics, lipid oxidation and fatty acid composition of nitrite-free fermented sausage made from deer meat and pork fat. Antioxidant interactions between acid whey and cranberry compounds were also explored.

Methods

Four formulations of fermented venison sausage were prepared: F1 (control), F2 (with 5% liquid acid whey), F3 (with 0.06% of freeze-dried cranberries), and F4 (with 5% liquid acid whey and 0.06% of freeze-dried cranberries). Each sample was analyzed for pH, water activity (a_w), heme iron content, 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) value and conjugated dienes at the end of the manufacturing process and at 30 and 90 days of refrigerated storage. Fatty acid composition was measured once at the end of the manufacturing process.

Results

At the end of ripening, all samples presented statistically different values for a pH range of 4.47 to pH 4.59. The sum of the unsaturated fatty acids was higher, while the conjugated diene and the TBARS values were lower in sausages with freeze-dried cranberries as compared to the control sausage. The highest content of heme iron (21.52 mg/kg) at day 90 was found in the sausage formulation with the addition of freeze-dried cranberries, which suggests that the addition of cranberries stabilized the porphyrin ring of the heme molecule during storage and thereby reduced the release of iron. The use of liquid acid whey in combination with cranberries appears to not be justified in view of the oxidative stability of the obtained products.

Conclusion

The results suggest that the application of freeze-dried cranberries can lower the intensity of oxidative changes during the storage of nitrite-free fermented sausage made from deer meat.