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Mandai SS, Branco EA, Moretto EM, Barros JD, Alves GP, Utsunomiya R, Arcoverde GFB, Assahira C, Arantes CC, Lobo GDS, Calvi MF, Doria CRDC, Johansen IC, Carreiro GA, Bonavigo PH, Ferronato ML, Reis VCES, Moran EF. Two decades of clear-cutting threats in the Brazilian Amazonian protected areas around the Jirau, Santo Antônio, and Belo Monte large dams. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 359:120864. [PMID: 38714029 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/09/2024]
Abstract
Deforestation rates in the Amazon have markedly increased in the last few years, affecting non-protected and protected areas (PAs). Brazil is a hotspot of Protected Area Downgrading, Downsizing, and Degazettement (PADDD) events, with most events associated with infrastructure projects. Despite the threats dams impose on PAs, there is a knowledge gap in assessing deforestation in PAs around large dams in the Amazon. This study investigates how deforestation affects Biodiversity Protection Areas (BioPAs) and Indigenous Lands around the Jirau and Santo Antônio (JSA) dams (Madeira River, Rondônia) and Belo Monte dam (Xingu River, Pará) in the Brazilian Amazon. We compared clear-cutting between PAs and control areas and the annual rates of forest change between pre-dam and post-dam periods. We discussed deforestation-related factors (e.g., PADDD events and the presence of management plans or councils). Our results show an increase in deforestation after the operation of the dams when environmental control from licensing agencies decreases and other political and economic factors are in practice. Indigenous Lands experienced a significant increase in deforestation around the Belo Monte dam, which is associated with the demarcation process and land conflicts. Surrounding the JSA dams, sustainable use BioPAs showed high deforestation rates, and 27 PADDD events were reported, four directly related to dams. In addition to dams, deforestation was associated with the crisis of Brazilian democracy and the weakening of environmental policies. In conclusion, the weak environmental control from environmental licensing agencies during dam operation and PADDD events have contributed to increased deforestation rates and additional stresses in the Amazon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Sayuri Mandai
- Institute of Energy and Environment, University of Sao Paulo - Environmental Science Graduate Program (PROCAM), 1289 Professor Luciano Gualberto avenue, Butanta, Zip Code 05508-010, Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil; Research Group on Environmental Planning and Management (PLANGEA), School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Evandro Albiach Branco
- Research Group on Environmental Planning and Management (PLANGEA), School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil; National Institute for Space Research, 1758 Astronautas avenue, Jardim da Granja, Zip Code 12227-010, Sao Jose dos Campos, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Evandro Mateus Moretto
- Research Group on Environmental Planning and Management (PLANGEA), School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil; School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo - Sustentabilidade, 1000 Arlindo Bettio street, Zip Code 03828-000, São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Jocilene Dantas Barros
- Research Group on Environmental Planning and Management (PLANGEA), School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil; National Institute for Space Research, 1758 Astronautas avenue, Jardim da Granja, Zip Code 12227-010, Sao Jose dos Campos, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Guilherme Prado Alves
- Research Group on Environmental Planning and Management (PLANGEA), School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil; School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo - Sustentabilidade, 1000 Arlindo Bettio street, Zip Code 03828-000, São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Renata Utsunomiya
- Institute of Energy and Environment, University of Sao Paulo - Environmental Science Graduate Program (PROCAM), 1289 Professor Luciano Gualberto avenue, Butanta, Zip Code 05508-010, Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil; Research Group on Environmental Planning and Management (PLANGEA), School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Gustavo Felipe Balué Arcoverde
- Research Group on Environmental Planning and Management (PLANGEA), School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil; National Institute for Space Research, 1758 Astronautas avenue, Jardim da Granja, Zip Code 12227-010, Sao Jose dos Campos, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Cyro Assahira
- Institute of Energy and Environment, University of Sao Paulo - Environmental Science Graduate Program (PROCAM), 1289 Professor Luciano Gualberto avenue, Butanta, Zip Code 05508-010, Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil; Research Group on Environmental Planning and Management (PLANGEA), School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Caroline C Arantes
- Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA.
| | - Guilherme de Sousa Lobo
- Center for Environmental Studies and Research, University of Campinas, 155 Flamboyants street, Cidade Universitaria, Zip Code 13083-867, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Miquéias Freitas Calvi
- Faculty of Forestry, Federal University of Pará, 2515 José Porfírio street, São Sebastião, Anex I, Zip Code 68.372-040, Altamira, Para, Brazil.
| | - Carolina Rodrigues da Costa Doria
- Laboratory of Ichthyology and Fisheries, Department of Biology, Federal University of Rondônia, BR-364, Km 9.5 - Rio Branco/Acre Direction, Zip Code 76801-059, Porto Velho, Rondonia, Brazil.
| | - Igor Cavallini Johansen
- Center for Environmental Studies and Research, University of Campinas, 155 Flamboyants street, Cidade Universitaria, Zip Code 13083-867, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Gabriela Alves Carreiro
- Research Group on Environmental Planning and Management (PLANGEA), School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil; National Institute for Space Research, 1758 Astronautas avenue, Jardim da Granja, Zip Code 12227-010, Sao Jose dos Campos, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Paulo Henrique Bonavigo
- Ação Ecológica Guaporé - Ecoporé, 3335 Rafael Vaz e Silva street, Liberdade, Zip Code 76803-847, Porto Velho, Rondonia, Brazil; Federal University of Rondônia, BR-364, Km 9.5, Zip Code 76801-059, Porto Velho, Rondonia, Brazil.
| | - Marcelo Lucian Ferronato
- Ação Ecológica Guaporé - Ecoporé, 3335 Rafael Vaz e Silva street, Liberdade, Zip Code 76803-847, Porto Velho, Rondonia, Brazil.
| | - Vanessa Cristine E Souza Reis
- Center for Environmental Studies and Research, University of Campinas, 155 Flamboyants street, Cidade Universitaria, Zip Code 13083-867, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil; Australian Rivers Institute - Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan Campus, QLD 4111, Australia.
| | - Emílio Federico Moran
- Center for Environmental Studies and Research, University of Campinas, 155 Flamboyants street, Cidade Universitaria, Zip Code 13083-867, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil; Center for Systems Integration and Sustainability, Michigan State University, 405 S. Harrison street, Zip Code 48823, East Lansing, MI, USA.
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Logie CH, Toccalino D, MacKenzie F, Hasham A, Narasimhan M, Donkers H, Lorimer N, Malama K. Associations between climate change-related factors and sexual health: A scoping review. Glob Public Health 2024; 19:2299718. [PMID: 38190290 DOI: 10.1080/17441692.2023.2299718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
There is growing attention to the ways in which climate change may affect sexual health, yet key knowledge gaps remain across global contexts and climate issues. In response, we conducted a scoping review to examine the literature on associations between climate change and sexual health. We searched five databases (May 2021, September 2022). We reviewed 3,183 non-duplicate records for inclusion; n = 83 articles met inclusion criteria. Of these articles, n = 30 focused on HIV and other STIs, n = 52 focused on sexual and gender-based violence (GBV), and n = 1 focused on comprehensive sexuality education. Thematic analysis revealed that hurricanes, drought, temperature variation, flooding, and storms may influence HIV outcomes among people with HIV by constraining access to antiretroviral treatment and worsening mental health. Climate change was associated with HIV/STI testing barriers and worsened economic conditions that elevated HIV exposure (e.g. transactional sex). Findings varied regarding associations between GBV with storms and drought, yet most studies examining flooding, extreme temperatures, and bushfires reported positive associations with GBV. Future climate change research can examine understudied sexual health domains and a range of climate-related issues (e.g. heat waves, deforestation) for their relevance to sexual health. Climate-resilient sexual health approaches can integrate extreme weather events into programming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen H Logie
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- Centre for Gender and Sexual Health Equity, Vancouver, Canada
- Women's College Research Institute, Women's College Hospital, Toronto, Canada
- United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment, and Health, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Danielle Toccalino
- Institute of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Frannie MacKenzie
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Aryssa Hasham
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Manjulaa Narasimhan
- Department of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, includes the UNDP/UNFPA/UNICEF/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP), Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Holly Donkers
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Nicole Lorimer
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Kalonde Malama
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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De Sousa FB, de Curcio JS, do Carmo Silva L, da Silva DMF, Salem-Izacc SM, Anunciação CE, Ribeiro BM, Garcia-Zapata MTA, de Paula Silveira-Lacerda E. Report of natural Mayaro virus infection in Mansonia humeralis (Dyar & Knab, Diptera: Culicidae). Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:140. [PMID: 37095528 PMCID: PMC10124708 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-05707-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Arboviruses are a group of viruses transmitted to vertebrate hosts by certain blood-feeding arthropods. Among urban vectors of arboviruses, mosquitoes of the genus Aedes are the most common. However, other mosquitoes may be susceptible to infection and involved in the transmission, such as Mansonia spp. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether Mansonia humeralis can be infected with the Mayaro virus (MAYV). METHODS These insects were collected from 2018 to 2020 in chicken coops of rural communities in Jaci Paraná in Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil, while performing blood-feeding on roosters. The mosquitoes were randomly grouped in pools from which the head and thorax were macerated and checked for the presence of MAYV by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The positive pools were used to infect the C6/36 cell line, and on different days post-infection, the supernatant of the infected cells was subjected to viral detection by RT-qPCR. RESULTS A total of 183 pools of female mosquitoes were tested, of which 18% were positive for MAYV; some samples from insect pools inoculated into C6/36 cells showed in vitro multiplication capacity between 3 and 7 days post-infection. CONCLUSIONS This is the first report of Ma. humeralis mosquitoes that are naturally infected by MAYV, indicating that these vectors may be potential transmitting agents of this arbovirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flávia Barreto De Sousa
- Unidade Sentinela e Centro de Referência em Medicina Internacional e de Viagens (USCREMIVI)/Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisa de Agentes (Re) Emergentes (NUPEREME), Universidade Federal de Goiás, IPTSP/ICB, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Juliana Santana de Curcio
- Unidade Sentinela e Centro de Referência em Medicina Internacional e de Viagens (USCREMIVI)/Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisa de Agentes (Re) Emergentes (NUPEREME), Universidade Federal de Goiás, IPTSP/ICB, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Lívia do Carmo Silva
- Unidade Sentinela e Centro de Referência em Medicina Internacional e de Viagens (USCREMIVI)/Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisa de Agentes (Re) Emergentes (NUPEREME), Universidade Federal de Goiás, IPTSP/ICB, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Diego Michel Fernandes da Silva
- Unidade Sentinela e Centro de Referência em Medicina Internacional e de Viagens (USCREMIVI)/Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisa de Agentes (Re) Emergentes (NUPEREME), Universidade Federal de Goiás, IPTSP/ICB, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Silvia Maria Salem-Izacc
- Unidade Sentinela e Centro de Referência em Medicina Internacional e de Viagens (USCREMIVI)/Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisa de Agentes (Re) Emergentes (NUPEREME), Universidade Federal de Goiás, IPTSP/ICB, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Carlos Eduardo Anunciação
- Unidade Sentinela e Centro de Referência em Medicina Internacional e de Viagens (USCREMIVI)/Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisa de Agentes (Re) Emergentes (NUPEREME), Universidade Federal de Goiás, IPTSP/ICB, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | | | - Marco Tulio A Garcia-Zapata
- Unidade Sentinela e Centro de Referência em Medicina Internacional e de Viagens (USCREMIVI)/Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisa de Agentes (Re) Emergentes (NUPEREME), Universidade Federal de Goiás, IPTSP/ICB, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Elisângela de Paula Silveira-Lacerda
- Unidade Sentinela e Centro de Referência em Medicina Internacional e de Viagens (USCREMIVI)/Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisa de Agentes (Re) Emergentes (NUPEREME), Universidade Federal de Goiás, IPTSP/ICB, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Mendenhall
- Edmund A Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., USA.
| | - Timothy Newfield
- Department of History, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., USA
| | - Alexander C Tsai
- Center for Global Health and Mongan Institute, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Singer M, Bulled N, Ostrach B, Lerman Ginzburg S. Syndemics: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach to Complex Epidemic Events Like COVID-19. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANTHROPOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-100919-121009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we trace the origins and dissemination of syndemics, a concept developed within critical medical anthropology that rapidly diffused to other fields. The goal is to provide a review of the literature, with a focus on key debates. After a brief discussion of the nature and significance of syndemic theory and its applications, we trace the history and development of the syndemic framework within anthropology and the contributions of anthropologists who use it. We also look beyond anthropology to the adoption and use of syndemics in other health-related disciplines, including biomedicine, nursing, public health, and psychology, and discuss controversies in syndemics, particularly the perception that existing syndemics research focuses on methodologies at the individual level rather than at the population level and fails to provide evidence of synergistic interactions. Finally, we discuss emerging syndemics research on COVID-19 and provide an overview of the application of syndemics research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merrill Singer
- Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-1248, USA
- Institute for Collaboration on Health, Intervention, and Policy (InCHIP), University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-1248, USA
| | - Nicola Bulled
- Institute for Collaboration on Health, Intervention, and Policy (InCHIP), University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-1248, USA
| | - Bayla Ostrach
- Family Medicine Department, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
| | - Shir Lerman Ginzburg
- Department of Public Health Sciences, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Manchester, Connecticut 06042, USA
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Logie CH, Toccalino D, Reed AC, Malama K, Newman PA, Weiser S, Harris O, Berry I, Adedimeji A. Exploring linkages between climate change and sexual health: a scoping review protocol. BMJ Open 2021; 11:e054720. [PMID: 34663670 PMCID: PMC8524293 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-054720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The effects of climate change and associated extreme weather events (EWEs) present substantial threats to well-being. EWEs hold the potential to harm sexual health through pathways including elevated exposure to HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), disrupted healthcare access, and increased sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV). The WHO defines four components of sexual health: comprehensive sexuality education; HIV and STI prevention and care; SGBV prevention and care; and psychosexual counselling. Yet, knowledge gaps remain regarding climate change and its associations with these sexual health domains. This scoping review will therefore explore the linkages between climate change and sexual health. METHODS AND ANALYSIS Five electronic databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Web of Science, CINAHL) will be searched using text words and subject headings (eg, Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), Emtree) related to sexual health and climate change from the inception of each database to May 2021. Grey literature and unpublished reports will be searched using a comprehensive search strategy, including from the WHO, World Bank eLibrary, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The scoping review will consider studies that explore: (a) climate change and EWEs including droughts, heat waves, wildfires, dust storms, hurricanes, flooding rains, coastal flooding and storm surges; alongside (b) sexual health, including: comprehensive sexual health education, sexual health counselling, and HIV/STI acquisition, prevention and/or care, and/or SGBV, including intimate partner violence, sexual assault and rape. Searches will not be limited by language, publication year or geographical location. We will consider quantitative, qualitative, mixed-methods and review articles for inclusion. We will conduct thematic analysis of findings. Data will be presented in narrative and tabular forms. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION There are no formal ethics requirements as we are not collecting primary data. Results will be published in a peer-reviewed journal and shared at international conferences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen H Logie
- Centre for Gender and Sexual Health Equity, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Danielle Toccalino
- Rehabilitation Science Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anna Cooper Reed
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kalonde Malama
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Peter A Newman
- Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sheri Weiser
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Orlando Harris
- Department of Community Health Systems, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Isha Berry
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Adebola Adedimeji
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
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Ramírez IJ, Lee J. COVID-19 and Ecosyndemic Vulnerability: Implications for El Niño-Sensitive Countries in Latin America. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DISASTER RISK SCIENCE 2021; 12:147-156. [PMCID: PMC7662729 DOI: 10.1007/s13753-020-00318-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Latin America has emerged as an epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic. Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador report some of the highest COVID-19 rates of incidence and deaths in the region. These countries also face synergistic threats from multiple infectious diseases (that is, ecosyndemic) and quasi-periodic El Niño-related hazards every few years. For example, Peru, which is highly sensitive to El Niño, already copes with an ecosyndemic health burden that heightens during and following weather and climate extreme events. Using an ecosyndemic lens, which draws on a multi-disease hazard context of place, this commentary highlights the importance of El Niño as a major factor that not only may aggravate COVID-19 incidence in the future, but also the broader health problem of ecosyndemic vulnerability in Latin America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan J. Ramírez
- Department of Health and Behavioral Sciences, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO 80217 USA
- Consortium for Capacity Building, Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80308 USA
| | - Jieun Lee
- Department of Geography, GIS, and Sustainability, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO 80639 USA
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Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are a growing global health threat. The Stockholm Paradigm suggests that their toll will grow tragically in the face of climate change, in particular. The best research protocol for predicting and preventing infectious disease emergence states that an urgent search must commence to identify unknown human and animal pathogens. This short communication proposes that the ethnobiological knowledge of indigenous and impoverished communities can be a source of information about some of those unknown pathogens. I present the ecological and anthropological theory behind this proposal, followed by a few case studies that serve as a limited proof of concept. This paper also serves as a call to action for the medical anthropology community. It gives a brief primer on the EID crisis and how anthropology research may be vital to limiting its havoc on global health. Local knowledge is not likely to play a major role in EID research initiatives, but the incorporation of an awareness of EIDs into standard medical anthropological practice would have myriad other benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hampton Gray Gaddy
- Institute of Human Sciences, University of Oxford, 58a Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 6QS, United Kingdom.
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