Basal-like Breast Cancers: From Pathology to Biology and Back Again

Correlation between BRCA1 expression and the advanced stage of triple‑negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is highly aggressive and has a poor prognosis. TNBC is commonly reported in young women and often relapses quickly, exhibiting aggressive characteristics. It is also linked to a loss of function of BRCA1. Patients with BRCA mutations require different treatments because this tumor type is sensitive to platinum-based chemotherapy regimens and inhibitors of the poly (ADP ribose) polymerase. The present study aimed to investigate the prognostic significance of BRCA1 expression in Indonesian patients with TNBC. The study included 57 patients with TNBC. Epidermal growth factor receptor and cytokeratin 5/6 immunostaining were used to classify TNBC into basal-like and non-basal-like subtypes. The BRCA1 expression was also determined using immunohistochemistry. Pearson's Chi-square analysis and Fisher's exact test were used to examine correlations between variables. Kaplan-Meier method was used to analyze the survival rate. Patients with TNBC had an average age of 55.18±10.014; most of them were ≥50 years-old, had high-grade tumors (75.4%), and were in the advanced stages of cancer (82.5%). The majority had no specific type of cancer (78.9%), received non-platinum-based therapies (64.9%), had basal-like subtypes (72.9%), and were still alive (56.1%). Negative BRCA1 expression was higher (52.6%) than positive expression (47.4%) and correlated with advanced cancer stage (P=0.035). However, the BRCA1 expression was not correlated with other clinicopathological variables and the types of therapy. Survival analysis showed that the stage and BRCA1 expression acted as insignificant prognostic factors in patients with TNBC (P=0.091 and P=0.150). In the present study, negative BRCA1 expression was correlated with advanced stage but did not act as a prognostic factor in Indonesian patients with TNBC.

Transmembrane Amino Acid Transporters in Shaping the Metabolic Profile of Breast Cancer Cell Lines: The Focus on Molecular Biological Subtype

Amino acid metabolism in breast cancer cells is unique for each molecular biological subtype of breast cancer. In this review, the features of breast cancer cell metabolism are considered in terms of changes in the amino acid composition due to the activity of transmembrane amino acid transporters. In addition to the main signaling pathway PI3K/Akt/mTOR, the activity of the oncogene c-Myc, HIF, p53, GATA2, NF-kB and MAT2A have a direct effect on the amino acid metabolism of cancer cells, their growth and proliferation, as well as the maintenance of homeostatic equilibrium. A distinctive feature of luminal subtypes of breast cancer from TNBC is the ability to perform gluconeogenesis. Breast cancers with a positive expression of the HER2 receptor, in contrast to TNBC and luminal A subtype, have a distinctive active synthesis and consumption of fatty acids. It is interesting to note that amino acid transporters exhibit their activity depending on the pH level inside the cell. In the most aggressive forms of breast cancer or with the gradual progression of the disease, pH will also change, which will directly affect the metabolism of amino acids. Using the cell lines presented in this review, we can trace the characteristic features inherent in each of the molecular biological subtypes of breast cancer and develop the most optimal therapeutic targets.

Alpha-6 integrin deletion delays the formation of Brca1/p53-deficient basal-like breast tumors by restricting luminal progenitor cell expansion

BACKGROUND

The aberrant amplification of mammary luminal progenitors is at the origin of basal-like breast cancers associated with BRCA1 mutations. Integrins mediate cell-matrix adhesion and transmit mechanical and chemical signals that drive epithelial stem cell functions and regulate tumor progression, metastatic reactivation, and resistance to targeted therapies. Consistently, we have recently shown that laminin-binding integrins are essential for the expansion and differentiation of mammary luminal progenitors in physiological conditions. As over-expression of the laminin-binding α6 integrin (Itgα6) is associated with poor prognosis and reduced survival in breast cancer, we here investigate the role of Itgα6 in mammary tumorigenesis.

METHODS

We used Blg-Cre; Brca1F/F; Trp53F/F mice, a model that phenocopies human basal-like breast cancer with BRCA1 mutations. We generated mutant mice proficient or deficient in Itgα6 expression and followed tumor formation. Mammary tumors and pretumoral tissues were characterized by immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, RT-qPCR, Western blotting and organoid cultures. Clonogenicity of luminal progenitors from preneoplastic glands was studied in 3D Matrigel cultures.

RESULTS

We show that Itga6 deletion favors activation of p16 cell cycle inhibitor in the preneoplastic tissue. Subsequently, the amplification of luminal progenitors, the cell of origin of Brca1-deficient tumors, is restrained in Itgα6-deficient gland. In addition, the partial EMT program operating in Brca1/p53-deficient epithelium is attenuated in the absence of Itgα6. As a consequence of these events, mammary tumor formation is delayed in Itgα6-deficient mice. After tumor formation, the lack of Itgα6 does not affect tumor growth but rather alters their differentiation, resulting in reduced expression of basal cell markers.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that Itgα6 has a pro-tumorigenic role in Blg-Cre; Brca1F/F; Trp53F/F mice developing basal-like mammary tumors. In particular, we reveal that Itgα6 is required for the luminal progenitor expansion and the aberrant partial EMT program that precedes the formation of BRCA1 deficient tumors.

The intricate interplay between cancer stem cells and cell-of-origin of cancer: implications for therapeutic strategies

Background

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) have emerged as pivotal players in tumorigenesis, disease progression, and resistance to therapies.

Objective

This comprehensive review delves into the intricate relationship between CSCs and the cell-of-origin in diverse cancer types.

Design

Comprehensive review of thematically-relevant literature.

Methods

We explore the underlying molecular mechanisms that drive the conversion of normal cells into CSCs and the impact of the cell-of-origin on CSC properties, tumor initiation, and therapeutic responses. Moreover, we discuss potential therapeutic interventions targeting CSCs based on their distinct cell-of-origin characteristics.

Results

Accruing evidence suggest that the cell-of-origin, the cell type from which the tumor originates, plays a crucial role in determining the properties of CSCs and their contribution to tumor heterogeneity.

Conclusion

By providing critical insights into the complex interplay between CSCs and their cellular origins, this article aims to enhance our understanding of cancer biology and pave the way for more effective and personalized cancer treatments.

Basal-epithelial subpopulations underlie and predict chemotherapy resistance in triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive breast cancer subtype, characterized by extensive intratumoral heterogeneity, high metastasis, and chemoresistance, leading to poor clinical outcomes. Despite progress, the mechanistic basis of these aggressive behaviors remains poorly understood. Using single-cell and spatial transcriptome analysis, here we discovered basal epithelial subpopulations located within the stroma that exhibit chemoresistance characteristics. The subpopulations are defined by distinct signature genes that show a frequent gain in copy number and exhibit an activated epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition program. A subset of these genes can accurately predict chemotherapy response and are associated with poor prognosis. Interestingly, among these genes, elevated ITGB1 participates in enhancing intercellular signaling while ACTN1 confers a survival advantage to foster chemoresistance. Furthermore, by subjecting the transcriptional signatures to drug repurposing analysis, we find that chemoresistant tumors may benefit from distinct inhibitors in treatment-naive versus post-NAC patients. These findings shed light on the mechanistic basis of chemoresistance while providing the best-in-class biomarker to predict chemotherapy response and alternate therapeutic avenues for improved management of TNBC patients resistant to chemotherapy.

Targeting the Oxytocin Receptor for Breast Cancer Management: A Niche for Peptide Tracers

Breast cancer is a leading cause of death in women, and its management highly depends on early disease diagnosis and monitoring. This remains challenging due to breast cancer's heterogeneity and a scarcity of specific biomarkers that could predict responses to therapy and enable personalized treatment. This Perspective describes the diagnostic landscape for breast cancer management, molecular strategies targeting receptors overexpressed in tumors, the theranostic potential of the oxytocin receptor (OTR) as an emerging breast cancer target, and the development of OTR-specific optical and nuclear tracers to study, visualize, and treat tumors. A special focus is on the chemistry and pharmacology underpinning OTR tracer development, preclinical in vitro and in vivo studies, challenges, and future directions. The use of peptide-based tracers targeting upregulated receptors in cancer is a highly promising strategy complementing current diagnostics and therapies and providing new opportunities to improve cancer management and patient survival.

GEMIN4, a potential therapeutic targets for patients with basal-like subtype breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Basal-like breast cancer (BLBC) takes up about 10-20% of all breast cancer(BC), what's more, BLBC has the lowest survival rate among all BC subtypes because of lacks of efficient treatment methods. We aimed to explore the molecules that can be used as diagnostic maker for BLBC at early stage and provide optimized treatment strategies for BLBC patients in this study.

METHODS

Apply weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) to identify gene modules related to BLBC;The functional enrichment of candidate genes related to BLBC in the red module of Go data package and KEGG analysis;Overlapping cross analysis of URGs and WGCNA to identify candidate genes in each BC subtype;Divide BCBL patients into high-risk and low-risk groups, and analyze the two groups of overall survival (OS) and relapse free survival (RFS);Screening of GEMIN4 dependent cell lines; QRT PCR was used to verify the expression of GEMIN4 transfected with siRNA; CCK8 was used to determine the effect of GEMIN4 on cell viability; Positive cell count detected by BrdU staining;GO and KEGG enrichment analysis of GEMIN4.

RESULTS

The "red module" has the highest correlation with BLBC, with 913 promising candidate genes identified from the red module;913 red module candidate genes related to BLBC participated in multiple GO terms, and KEGG enrichment analysis results mainly enriched in estrogen signaling pathways and pathways in cancer;There are 386 overlapping candidate genes among the 913 "red module" genes identified by 1893 common URG and WGCNA;In BLBC patients, 9 highly expressed genes are associated with OS. Five highly expressed genes are associated with RFS. Kaplan Meier survival analysis suggests that high GEMIN4 expression levels are associated with poor prognosis in BLBC patients;The GEMIN4 gene dependency score in HCC1143 and CAL120 cell lines is negative and low; Si-GEMIN4-1 can significantly reduce the mRNA expression of GEMIN4; Si-GEMIN4 can inhibit cell viability; Si-GEMIN4 can reduce the number of positive cells;GO enrichment analysis showed that GEMIN4 is associated with DNA metabolism processes and adenylate binding; KEGG pathway enrichment analysis shows that GEMIN4 is related to ribosome biogenesis in eukaryotes.

CONCLUSION

We hypothesized that GEMIN4 may be the potential target for the treatment of BLBC.

Imagine beyond: recent breakthroughs and next challenges in mammary gland biology and breast cancer research

On 8 December 2022 the organizing committee of the European Network for Breast Development and Cancer labs (ENBDC) held its fifth annual Think Tank meeting in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Here, we embraced the opportunity to look back to identify the most prominent breakthroughs of the past ten years and to reflect on the main challenges that lie ahead for our field in the years to come. The outcomes of these discussions are presented in this position paper, in the hope that it will serve as a summary of the current state of affairs in mammary gland biology and breast cancer research for early career researchers and other newcomers in the field, and as inspiration for scientists and clinicians to move the field forward.

Redefining normal breast cell populations using long noncoding RNAs

Single-cell RNAseq has allowed unprecedented insight into gene expression across different cell populations in normal tissue and disease states. However, almost all studies rely on annotated gene sets to capture gene expression levels and sequencing reads that do not align to known genes are discarded. Here, we discover thousands of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) expressed in human mammary epithelial cells and analyze their expression in individual cells of the normal breast. We show that lncRNA expression alone can discriminate between luminal and basal cell types and define subpopulations of both compartments. Clustering cells based on lncRNA expression identified additional basal subpopulations, compared to clustering based on annotated gene expression, suggesting that lncRNAs can provide an additional layer of information to better distinguish breast cell subpopulations. In contrast, these breast-specific lncRNAs poorly distinguish brain cell populations, highlighting the need to annotate tissue-specific lncRNAs prior to expression analyses. We also identified a panel of 100 breast lncRNAs that could discern breast cancer subtypes better than protein-coding markers. Overall, our results suggest that lncRNAs are an unexplored resource for new biomarker and therapeutic target discovery in the normal breast and breast cancer subtypes.

Protein disulfide isomerase A3 activity promotes extracellular accumulation of proteins relevant to basal breast cancer outcomes in human MDA-MB-A231 breast cancer cells

Metastasis and recurrence of breast cancer remain major causes of patient mortality, and there is an ongoing need to identify new therapeutic targets relevant to tumor invasion. Protein disulfide isomerase A3 (PDIA3) is a disulfide oxidoreductase and isomerase of the endoplasmic reticulum that has known extracellular substrates and has been correlated with aggressive breast cancers. We show that either prior PDIA3 inhibition by the disulfide isomerase inhibitor 16F16 or depletion of heparin-binding proteins strongly reduces the activity of conditioned medium (CM) of MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells to support promigratory cell spreading and F-actin organization by newly adherent MDA-MB-231 cells. Quantitative proteomics to investigate effects of 16F16 inhibition on heparin-binding proteins in the CM of MDA-MB-231 cells identified 80 proteins reproducibly decreased at least twofold (at q ≤ 0.05) after 16F16 treatment. By Gene Ontology analysis, many of these have roles in extracellular matrix (ECM) structure and function and cell adhesion; ribosomal proteins that also correlate with extracellular vesicles were also identified. Protein-protein interaction analysis showed that many of the extracellular proteins have known network interactions with each other. The predominant types of disulfide-bonded domains in the extracellular proteins contained β-hairpin folds, with the knottin fold the most common. From human breast cancer data sets, the extracellular proteins were found to correlate specifically with the basal subtype of breast cancer and their high expression in tumors correlated with reduced distant metastasis-free survival. These data provide new evidence that PDIA3 may be a relevant therapeutic target to alter properties of the ECM-associated microenvironment in basal breast cancer.

Induction of alternative NF-κB within TAg-induced basal mammary tumors in activation-resistant inhibitor of κ-B kinase (IKKα) mutant mice

BACKGROUND: The alternative NF-κB pathway is activated by the NF-κB-inducing kinase (NIK) mediated phosphorylation of the inhibitor of κ-B kinase α (IKKα). IKKα then phosphorylates p100/NFKB2 to result in its processing to the active p52 subunit. Evidence suggests that basal breast cancers originate within a subpopulation of luminal progenitor cells which is expanded by signaling to IKKα. OBJECTIVE: To determine the role of IKKα in the development of basal tumors. METHODS: Kinase dead IkkαAA/AA mice were crossed with the C3(1)-TAg mouse model of basal mammary cancer. Tumor growth and tumor numbers in WT and IkkαAA/AA mice were assessed and immunopathology, p52 expression and stem/progenitor 3D colony forming assays were performed. Nik-/- mammary glands were isolated and mammary colonies were characterized. RESULTS: While tumor growth was slower than in WT mice, IkkαAA/AA tumor numbers and pathology were indistinguishable from WT tumors. Both WT and IkkαAA/AA tumors expressed p52 except those IkkαAA/AA tumors where NIK, IKKαAA/AA and ErbB2 were undetectable. Colonies formed by WT and IkkαAA/AA mammary cells were nearly all luminal/acinar however, colony numbers and sizes derived from IkkαAA/AA cells were reduced. In contrast to IkkαAA/AA mice, virgin Nik-/- mammary glands were poorly developed and colonies were primarily derived from undifferentiated bipotent progenitor cells. CONCLUSIONS: C3(1)-TAg induced mammary tumors express p100/p52 even without functional IKKα. Therefore the development of basal-like mammary cancer does not strictly rely on IKKα activation. Signal-induced stabilization of NIK may be sufficient to mediate processing of p100NFKB2 which can then support basal-like mammary tumor formation. Lastly, in contrast to the pregnancy specific role of IKKα in lobuloalveogenesis, NIK is obligatory for normal mammary gland development.

Investigation of Transcript Variant 6 of TPD52L2 as a Prognostic and Predictive Biomarker in Basal-Like MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-453 Cell Lines for Breast Cancer

Background

Basal-like breast cancer (BLBC) exhibits worse pathological features than other breast cancer subtypes, and patients diagnosed with BLBC have short disease-free and overall survival times. Thus, the identification of novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets for BLBC is of upmost importance. Although TPD52L2 is upregulated in multiple cancers, little is known about its roles in BLBC.

Methods

RNA levels were analyzed between breast cancer tissues and paired adjacent normal tissues using RNA-seq data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). TPD52L2 stable knockdown and inducible knockout cell lines were established using basal-like MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-453 cell lines. Cell proliferation assays in vitro and tumor growth analysis in vivo were performed to determine the function of TPD52L2 during BLBC progression. Transwell assays were used to estimate the regulatory effect of TPD52L2 on BLBC cell migration. The expression profile of all tpd52l2 transcripts was analyzed to assess the functional protein isoform. Association of transcript variant 6 (V6) expression with pathological parameters was carried out using the clinical data of the BRCA cohort.

Results

We identified V6 of TPD52L2 as a novel biomarker and regulator of BLBC progression. TPD52L2 is upregulated in BLBCs and associated with patient outcomes. TPD52L2 knockdown suppresses tumor growth, and V6 correlates with cancer-related phenotypes in BLBC. Clinical data further proved that V6 is associated with different pathological features, such as pathological stage and pathological tumor status, and independently predicts patient outcomes and responses to therapies.

Conclusions

Our findings demonstrate that V6 of TPD52L2 is a novel biomarker for BLBC patients. V6 promotes cell proliferation and migration and has marked oncogenic roles in determining the malignant phenotypes of BLBC.

Flavonoids Targeting the mTOR Signaling Cascades in Cancer: A Potential Crosstalk in Anti-Breast Cancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death in women, with triple-negative breast cancer being the most lethal and aggressive form. Conventional therapies, such as radiation, surgery, hormonal, immune, gene, and chemotherapy, are widely used, but their therapeutic efficacy is limited due to adverse side effects, toxicities, resistance, recurrence, and therapeutic failure. Many molecules have been identified and investigated as potential therapeutic agents for breast cancer, with a focus on various signaling pathways. Flavonoids are a versatile class of phytochemicals that have been used in cancer treatment to overcome issues with traditional therapies. Cell proliferation, growth, apoptosis, autophagy, and survival are all controlled by mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling. Flavonoids target mTOR signaling in breast cancer, and when this signaling pathway is regulated or deregulated, various signaling pathways provide potential therapeutic means. The role of various flavonoids as phytochemicals in targeting mTOR signaling pathways in breast cancer is highlighted in this review.

LncRNAs in breast cancer: a link to future approaches

Breast cancer affects millions of women each year. Despite recent advances in targeted treatments breast cancer remains a significant threat to women's health. In recent years the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies has advanced the field of transcriptomics shedding light on the role of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including long ncRNAs (lncRNAs), in human cellular function and disease. LncRNAs are classified as transcripts longer than 200nt with no coding potential. These transcripts constitute a diverse group of regulatory molecules essential to the modulation of crucial cellular processes, which dysregulation of leads to disease. LncRNAs exert their regulatory functions through their sequences and by forming complex secondary and tertiary structures that interact with other transcripts, chromatin and/or proteins. Numerous studies have provided evidence of the involvement of LncRNAs in tumor development and disease progression. They possess multiple characteristics that make them novel therapeutic and diagnostic targets. Indeed, the discovery of a novel mechanism by which lncRNAs associated with proteins can induce the formation of phase-separated droplets broadens our understanding of the spatiotemporal control of cellular processes and opens up developing a new treatment. Nevertheless, the role and the molecular mechanisms of many lncRNAs in the regulation of cellular processes and cancer still remain elusive. This is due to the absence of a thorough characterization of the regulatory role of their loci and the functional impact of their aberrations in cancer biology. Here, we present some of the latest advances concerning the role of LncRNAs in breast cancer.

Mammary basal cells: Stars of the show

Nearly all mammals rely on lactation to support their young and to ensure the continued survival of their species. Despite its importance, relatively little is known about how milk is produced and how it is ejected from the lumen of mammary alveoli and ducts. This review focuses on the latter. We discuss how a relatively small number of basal cells, wrapping around each alveolar unit, contract to forcibly expel milk from the alveolar lumen. We consider how individual basal cells coordinate their activity, the fate of these cells at the end of lactation and avenues for future deliberation and exploration.

SOX11 promotes epithelial/mesenchymal hybrid state and alters tropism of invasive breast cancer cells

SOX11 is an embryonic mammary epithelial marker that is normally silenced prior to birth. High SOX11 levels in breast tumours are significantly associated with distant metastasis and poor outcome in breast cancer patients. Here, we show that SOX11 confers distinct features to ER-negative DCIS.com breast cancer cells, leading to populations enriched with highly plastic hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal cells, which display invasive features and alterations in metastatic tropism when xenografted into mice. We found that SOX11+DCIS tumour cells metastasize to brain and bone at greater frequency and to lungs at lower frequency compared to cells with lower SOX11 levels. High levels of SOX11 leads to the expression of markers associated with mesenchymal state and embryonic cellular phenotypes. Our results suggest that SOX11 may be a potential biomarker for breast tumours with elevated risk of developing metastases and may require more aggressive therapies.

Triple Negative Breast Cancer and Breast Epithelial Cells Differentially Reprogram Glucose and Lipid Metabolism upon Treatment with Triterpenic Acids

Plant-derived pentacyclic triterpenic acids (TAs) have gained increasing attention due to their multiple biological activities. Betulinic acid (BA) and ursolic acid (UA) modulate diverse pathways in carcinogenesis, offering increased changes of success in refractory cancers, such as triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). The present work aimed to assess the metabolic effects of BA and UA in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells (TNBC model), as well as in MCF-10A non-cancer breast epithelial cells, with a view to unveiling the involvement of metabolic reprogramming in cellular responses to these TAs. Cell viability and cell cycle analyses were followed by assessment of changes in the cells exo- and endometabolome through 1H NMR analysis of cell culture medium supernatants, aqueous and organic cell extracts. In MDA-MB-231 cells, BA was suggested to induce a transient upregulation of glucose consumption and glycolytic conversion, tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intensification, and hydrolysis of neutral lipids, while UA effects were much less pronounced. In MCF-10A cells, boosting of glucose metabolism by the two TAs was accompanied by diversion of glycolytic intermediates to the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HBP) and the synthesis of neutral lipids, possibly stored in detoxifying lipid droplets. Additionally, breast epithelial cells intensified pyruvate consumption and TCA cycle activity, possibly to compensate for oxidative impairment of pyruvate glycolytic production. This study provided novel insights into the metabolic effects of BA and UA in cancer and non-cancer breast cells, thus improving current understanding of the action of these compounds at the molecular level.

Prognostic significance of branched-chain amino acid transferase 1 and CD133 in triple-negative breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have shown that branched-chain amino acid transferase 1 (BCAT1) is associated with tumour progression in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Furthermore, CD133 has emerged as a novel cancer stem cell marker for indicating tumour progression. However, the prognostic significance of these two markers remains to be verified. This study was conducted to investigate the correlation between BCAT1 and CD133 expression and clinicopathological features, as well as the prognosis of patients with TNBC.

METHODS

The study cohort included 291 patients with TNBC. Tissue microarrays were constructed for both cancer and normal tissues. The expression of BCAT1 and CD133 was detected by immunohistochemical staining, and the levels were evaluated using an H-scoring system. Cut-off points for BCAT1 and CD133 expression were determined using receiver operating characteristic curves.

RESULTS

The median follow-up time for the study participants was 68.73 months (range: 1.37-103.6 months). The 5-year disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) rates of the 291 patients with TNBC were 72.51 and 82.47%, respectively. Higher levels of BCAT1 and CD133 expression independently indicated shorter DFS and OS. High levels of both BCAT1 and CD133 expression were detected in 36 (12.37%) patients, who had significantly shorter DFS and OS (both P < 0.001) compared to other patients.

CONCLUSION

BCAT1 and CD133 can be considered as biomarkers with prognostic significance for TNBC.

RDGN-based predictive model for the prognosis of breast cancer

Background

Breast cancer is the most diagnosed malignancy in females in the United States. The members of retinal determination gene network (RDGN) including DACH, EYA, as well as SIX families participate in the proliferation, apoptosis, and metastasis of multiple tumors including breast cancer. A comprehensive predictive model of RDGN might be helpful to herald the prognosis of breast cancer patients.

Methods

In this study, the Gene Expression Ominibus (GEO) and Gene Set Expression Analysis (GSEA) algorithm were used to investigate the effect of RDGN members on downstream signaling pathways. Besides, based on The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, we explored the expression patterns of RDGN members in tumors, normal tissues, and different breast cancer subtypes. Moreover, we estimated the relationship between RDGN members and the outcomes of breast cancer patients. Lastly, we constructed a RDGN-based predictive model by Cox proportional hazard regression and verified the model in two separate GEO datasets.

Results

The results of GSEA showed that the expression of DACH1 was negatively correlated with cell cycle and DNA replication pathways. On the contrary, the levels of EYA2 and SIX1 were significantly positively correlated with DNA replication, mTOR, and Wnt pathways. Further investigation in TCGA database indicated that DACH1 expression was lower in breast cancers especially basal-like subtype. In the meanwhile, SIX1 was remarkably upregulated in breast cancers while EYA2 level was increased in Basal-like and Her-2 enriched subtypes. Survival analyses demonstrated that DACH1 was a favorable factor while EYA2 and SIX1 were risk factors for breast cancer patients. Given the results of Cox proportional hazard regression analysis, two members of RDGN were involved in the present predictive model and patients with high model index had poorer outcomes.

Conclusion

This study showed that aberrant RDGN expression was an unfavorable factor for breast cancer. This RDGN-based comprehensively framework was meaningful for predicting the prognosis of breast cancer patients.

Organoid cultures from normal and cancer-prone human breast tissues preserve complex epithelial lineages

Recently, organoid technology has been used to generate a large repository of breast cancer organoids. Here we present an extensive evaluation of the ability of organoid culture technology to preserve complex stem/progenitor and differentiated cell types via long-term propagation of normal human mammary tissues. Basal/stem and luminal progenitor cells can differentiate in culture to generate mature basal and luminal cell types, including ER+ cells that have been challenging to maintain in culture. Cells associated with increased cancer risk can also be propagated. Single-cell analyses of matched organoid cultures and native tissues by mass cytometry for 38 markers provide a higher resolution representation of the multiple mammary epithelial cell types in the organoids, and demonstrate that protein expression patterns of the tissue of origin can be preserved in culture. These studies indicate that organoid cultures provide a valuable platform for studies of mammary differentiation, transformation, and breast cancer risk.

Organoid technology has enabled the generation of several breast cancer organoids. Here, the authors combine propagation of normal human mammary tissues with mass cytometry to evaluate the ability of organoid culture technologies to preserve stem cells and differentiated cell types.

N-glycosylated SGK196 suppresses the metastasis of basal-like breast cancer cells

SGK196 is a protein O-mannose kinase involved in an indispensable phosphorylation step during laminin-binding glycan synthesis on alpha-dystroglycan (α-DG). However, the function of SGK196 in cancer diseases remains elusive. In the current study, we demonstrated that SGK196 is primarily modified by N-glycosylation in breast cancer (BC) cells. Furthermore, gain and loss-of-function studies showed that N-glycosylated SGK196 suppresses cell migration, invasion, and metastasis in BC, particularly in the basal-like breast cancer (BLBC) type. In addition, we found that SGK196 N-glycosylation performs the regulatory function through the PI3K/AKT/GSK3β signaling pathway. Collectively, our results show that N-glycosylated SGK196 plays suppression roles in BLBC metastases, therefore providing new insights into SGK196 function in BC.

Anillin regulates breast cancer cell migration, growth, and metastasis by non-canonical mechanisms involving control of cell stemness and differentiation

Background

Breast cancer metastasis is driven by a profound remodeling of the cytoskeleton that enables efficient cell migration and invasion. Anillin is a unique scaffolding protein regulating major cytoskeletal structures, such as actin filaments, microtubules, and septin polymers. It is markedly overexpressed in breast cancer, and high anillin expression is associated with poor prognosis. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of anillin in breast cancer cell migration, growth, and metastasis.

Methods

CRISPR/Cas9 technology was used to deplete anillin in highly metastatic MDA-MB-231 and BT549 cells and to overexpress it in poorly invasive MCF10AneoT cells. The effects of anillin depletion and overexpression on breast cancer cell motility in vitro were examined by wound healing and Matrigel invasion assays. Assembly of the actin cytoskeleton and matrix adhesion were evaluated by immunofluorescence labeling and confocal microscopy. In vitro tumor development was monitored by soft agar growth assays, whereas cancer stem cells were examined using a mammosphere formation assay and flow cytometry. The effects of anillin knockout on tumor growth and metastasis in vivo were determined by injecting control and anillin-depleted breast cancer cells into NSG mice.

Results

Loss-of-function and gain-of-function studies demonstrated that anillin is necessary and sufficient to accelerate migration, invasion, and anchorage-independent growth of breast cancer cells in vitro. Furthermore, loss of anillin markedly attenuated primary tumor growth and metastasis of breast cancer in vivo. In breast cancer cells, anillin was localized in the nucleus; however, knockout of this protein affected the cytoplasmic/cortical events, e.g., the organization of actin cytoskeleton and cell-matrix adhesions. Furthermore, we observed a global transcriptional reprogramming of anillin-depleted breast cancer cells that resulted in suppression of their stemness and induction of the mesenchymal to epithelial trans-differentiation. Such trans-differentiation was manifested by the upregulation of basal keratins along with the increased expression of E-cadherin and P-cadherin. Knockdown of E-cadherin restored the impaired migration and invasion of anillin-deficient breast cancer cells.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrates that anillin plays essential roles in promoting breast cancer growth and metastatic dissemination in vitro and in vivo and unravels novel functions of anillin in regulating breast cancer stemness and differentiation.

Correlation of FGFR2 rs2981582 polymorphisms with susceptibility to breast cancer: a case-control study in a Chinese population

Objective

Breast cancer (BC) is a common malignancy among women worldwide. Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) rs2981582 is reported to play a vital role in BC development. However, the relationship between them remains unclear.

Methods

Ninety-five patients and 140 healthy controls were enrolled in the study. Plasma DNA was genotyped by the MassARRAY method. A meta-analysis was conducted to clarify the effect of FGFR2 polymorphism on BC risk.

Results

Our case-control study results revealed a significant difference in CC, TC, and TT genotypes between patients and controls. Logistic regression analysis showed that TT and TC genotype and the dominant mode were significantly correlated with BC development [odds ratio (OR) = 1.21, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.050–2.27; OR = 1.81, 95% CI: 1.24–2.73; OR = 2.15, 95% CI: 1.25–5.31, respectively], even after adjusting for age, body weight, drinking, smoking, and estrogen receptor status. A meta-analysis of 15 studies showed significant differences among the dominant, recessive, heterozygote, and homozygote models between patients and controls.

Conclusions

Our results showed an association of FGFR2 rs2981582 polymorphism with BC in an Asian population. However, a more comprehensive study of the relationship between the polymorphism and BC is still needed.

s-SHIP Promoter Expression Identifies Mouse Mammary Cancer Stem Cells

During normal mammary gland development, s-SHIP promoter expression marks a distinct type of mammary stem cells, at two different stages, puberty and early mid-pregnancy. To determine whether s-SHIP is a marker of mammary cancer stem cells (CSCs), we generated bitransgenic mice by crossing the C3(1)-SV40 T-antigen transgenic mouse model of breast cancer, and a transgenic mouse (11.5kb-GFP) expressing green fluorescent protein from the s-SHIP promoter. Here we show that in mammary tumors originating in these bitransgenic mice, s-SHIP promoter expression enriches a rare cell population with CSC activity as demonstrated by sphere-forming assays in vitro and limiting dilution transplantation in vivo. These s-SHIP-positive CSCs are characterized by lower expression of Delta-like non-canonical Notch ligand 1 (DLK1), a negative regulator of the Notch pathway. Inactivation of Dlk1 in s-SHIP-negative tumor cells increases their tumorigenic potential, suggesting a role for DLK1 in mammary cancer stemness.

Decoding the link between WWOX and p53 in aggressive breast cancer

Basal-like breast cancer (BLBC) and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) are aggressive forms of human breast cancer with poor prognosis and limited treatment response. Molecular understanding of BLBC and TNBC biology is instrumental to improve detection and management of these deadly diseases. Tumor suppressors WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) and TP53 are altered in BLBC and in TNBC. Nevertheless, the functional interplay between WWOX and p53 is poorly understood. In a recent study by Abdeen and colleagues, it has been demonstrated that WWOX loss drives BLBC formation via deregulating p53 functions. In this review, we highlight important signaling pathways regulated by WWOX and p53 that are related to estrogen receptor signaling, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and genomic instability and how they impact BLBC and TNBC development.