Metabolic regulatory effects of licorice: a bile acid metabonomic study by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry

Effect of Chinese Herbs on Serum Biochemical Parameters, Immunity Indices, Antioxidant Capacity and Metabolomics in Early Weaned Yak Calves

Chinese traditional herbs are used widely as feed supplements to improve the immune response and antioxidant capacity of livestock. Twenty early-weaned 4-month-old yak calves (72.3 ± 3.65 kg) were divided randomly into four groups (n = 5 per group); three groups were provided with supplementary 80 mL/kg DMI of the root water extracts of either Angelica sinensis, Codonopsis pilosula or Glycyrrhiza uralensis, and one group (control) was not provided with a supplement. Compared to control calves, calves consuming the three herbal extracts increased serum concentrations of albumin (ALB) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), but decreased serum concentrations of free fatty acids (FFAs) and malondialdehyde (MDA) (p < 0.05). Calves consuming A. sinensis decreased (p < 0.05) serum concentration of total cholesterol (TC), and increased (p < 0.05) serum concentration of total proteins (TP). Serum FFA concentrations increased (p = 0.004) linearly with time in the control group, but not in the groups consuming herbs. Serum metabolomic data demonstrated that A. sinensis and C. pilosula regulate mainly amino acid metabolism, while G. uralensis regulates mainly carbon and amino acid metabolism. It was concluded that the three herbal root extracts, as dietary supplements, improved energy and nitrogen metabolism, and enhanced the antioxidant capacity of yak calves.

A comprehensive profiling and identification of liquiritin metabolites in rats using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with linear ion trap-orbitrap mass spectrometer

Liquiritin (LQ), a main component of liquorice, exerts various biological activities. However, insufficient attentions have been paid to the metabolism study on this natural compound until now. Our present study was conducted to investigate the LQ metabolites in rats urine, faeces and plasma using UHPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap mass spectrometer in both positive and negative ion modes. Meanwhile, post-acquisition data-mining methods including high-resolution extracted ion chromatogram (HREIC), multiple mass defect filters (MMDFs), neutral loss fragments (NLFs) and diagnostic product ions (DPIs) were utilised to screen and identify LQ metabolites from HR-ESI-MS to ESI-MSⁿ stage. As a result, a total of 49 metabolites were detected and characterised unambiguously or tentatively. These metabolites were presumed to generate through glucuronidation, sulfation, deglucosylation, dehydrogenation, methylation, hydrogenation, hydroxylation, ring cleavage and their composite reactions. Our results not only provided novel and useful data to better understand the biological activities of LQ, but also indicated that the proposed strategy was reliable for a rapid discovery and identification drug-related constituents in vivo.

An Integrated Approach Exploring the Synergistic Mechanism of Herbal Pairs in a Botanical Dietary Supplement: A Case Study of a Liver Protection Health Food

Herbal pairs are used as a bridge between single herb and polyherbal formulas in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) to provide rationale for complicated TCM formulas. The effectiveness and rationality of TCM herbal pairs have been widely applied as a strategy for dietary supplements. However, due to the complexity of the phytochemistry of individual and combinations of herbal materials, it is difficult to reveal their effective and synergistic mechanisms from a molecular or systematic point of view. In order to address this question, UPLC-Q-TOF/MS analysis and System Pharmacology tools were applied to explore the mechanism of action, using a White Peony (Paeoniae Radix Alba) and Licorice (Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma)-based dietary supplement. A total of sixteen chemical constituents of White Peony and Licorice were isolated and identified, which interact with 73 liver protection-related targets. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis were then performed along with network analysis. Results showed that the synergistic mechanism of the White Peony and Licorice herbal pair was associated with their coregulation of bile secretion and ABC transporter pathways. In addition, Licorice exhibits a specific response to drug and xenobiotic metabolism pathways, whereas White Peony responds to Toll-like receptor signaling, C-type lectin receptor signaling, IL-17 signaling, and TNF signaling pathways, resulting in the prevention of hepatocyte apoptosis and the reduction of immune and inflammation-mediated liver damage. These findings suggest that a White Peony and Licorice herbal pair supplement would have a liver-protecting benefit through complimentary and synergistic mechanisms. This approach provides a new path to explore herbal compatibility in dietary supplements derived from TCM theory.

A Comprehensive Review for Phytochemical, Pharmacological, and Biosynthesis Studies on Glycyrrhiza spp

Licorice is extensively applied in food as well as herbal medicine across the world, possessing a substantial share in the global market. It has made great progress in chemical and pharmacological research in recent years. Currently, Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch., Glycyrrhiza inflata Bat., and Glycyrrhiza glabra L. were officially used as Gan-Cao according to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Accumulating evidence demonstrated three varieties of licorice have their own special compounds except for two quality markers set by Pharmacopoeia, providing great possibility for better understanding their characteristics, evaluating quality of each species and studying biosynthesis mechanisms of species-specific compounds. As a special "guide drug" in clinic, licorice plays an important role in Chinese herbal formulas. The interaction between licorice with other ingredients and their metabolism in vivo should also be taken into consideration. In addition, draft genome annotation, and success of the final step of glycyrrhizin biosynthesis have paved the way for biosynthesis of other active constituents in licorice, a promising beginning of solving source shortage. Accordingly, we comprehensively explored the nearly 400 chemical compounds found in the three varieties of licorice so far, systematically excavated various pharmacological activities, including metabolism via CYP450 system in vivo, and introduced the complete biosynthesis pathway of glycyrrhizin in licorice. The review will facilitate the further research toward this herbal medicine.

Scutellariae Radix and Coptidis Rhizoma Improve Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in T2DM Rats via Regulation of the Metabolic Profiling and MAPK/PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway

Aim Scutellariae Radix (SR) and Coptidis Rhizoma (CR) have often been combined to cure type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in the clinical practice for over thousands of years, but their compatibility mechanism is not clear. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway has been suggested to play a critical role during the process of inflammation, insulin resistance, and T2DM. This study was designed to investigate their compatibility effects on T2DM rats and explore the underlying mechanisms by analyzing the metabolic profiling and MAPK/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Methods The compatibility effects of SR and CR were evaluated with T2DM rats induced by a high-fat diet (HFD) along with a low dose of streptozocin (STZ). Ultra performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) was performed to discover potential biomarkers. The levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines; biochemical indexes in serum, and the activities of key enzymes related to glycometabolism in liver were assessed by ELISA kits. qPCR was applied to examine mRNA levels of key targets in MAPK and insulin signaling pathways. Protein expressions of p65; p-p65; phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K); phosphorylated-PI3K (p-PI3K); protein kinase B (Akt); phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt) and glucose transporter 2 (Glut2) in liver were investigated by Western blot analysis. Results Remarkably, hyperglycaemia, dyslipidemia, inflammation, and insulin resistance in T2DM were ameliorated after oral administration of SR and CR, particularly their combined extracts. The effects of SR, CR, low dose of combined extracts (LSC) and high dose of combined extracts (HSC) on pro-inflammatory cytokine transcription in T2DM rats showed that the MAPK pathway might account for the phenomenon with down-regulation of MAPK (P38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (P38), extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)) mRNA, and protein reduction in p-P65. While mRNA levels of key targets such as insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1), PI3K, Akt2, and Glut2 in the insulin signaling pathway were notably up-modulated, phosphorylations of PI3K, Akt, and expression of Glut2 were markedly enhanced. Moreover, the increased activities of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (FBPase), glucose 6-phosphatase (G6Pase), and glycogen phosphorylase (GP) were highly reduced and the decreased activities of glucokinase (GK), phosphofructokinase (PFK), pyruvate kinase (PK), and glycogen synthase (GS) in liver were notably increased after treatment. Further investigation indicated that the metabolic profiles of plasma and urine were clearly improved in T2DM rats. Fourteen potential biomarkers (nine in plasma and five in urine) were identified. After intervention, these biomarkers returned to normal level to some extent. Conclusion The results showed that SR, CR, and combined extract groups were normalized. The effects of combined extracts were more remarkable than single herb treatment. Additionally, this study also showed that the metabonomics method is a promising tool to unravel how traditional Chinese medicines work.

UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS analysis, antioxidant activity combined fingerprints for quality consistency evaluation of compound liquorice tablets

Traditional Chinese medicines (TCM)/herbal medicines (HM) are too complicated to comprehensively investigate their quality consistency effectively with a single detection technique. Hence, finding an effective, rapid, and comprehensive quality control (QC) method is of great importance for guaranteeing the safety and efficacy of TCM/HM in clinical applications. In our current research, a novel strategy of multi-wavelength fusion HPLC fingerprints and ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopic fingerprinting was proposed and successfully applied to monitor the quality consistency of compound liquorice tablets (CLT). The quality grades of 35 CLT samples from two manufacturers were successfully discriminated and evaluated by the averaged linear quantified fingerprint method (ALQFM) from a qualitative and quantitative perspective. The results showed that the UV spectroscopic fingerprints agreed well with the multi-wavelength fusion HPLC fingerprints. In addition, ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS) was applied to investigate the chemical constituents in CLT samples, providing an important chemical structural foundation for further QC and bioactivity studies. Additionally, a simple flow injection analysis (FIA) was developed to investigate the antioxidant capacity in CLT, which was based on the scavenging of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radicals by antioxidants. Furthermore, the fingerprint-efficacy relationship between high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) fingerprints and the antioxidant activities of CLT samples was established utilizing orthogonal projection to latent structures (OPLS). In conclusion, this study indicated that integrating UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS, UV spectroscopic fingerprints, and multi-wavelength fusion HPLC fingerprints coupled with the antioxidant activities reported could give important clues for further pharmacological and clinical studies of CLT. Meanwhile, it provides a practical strategy for the rapid screening and identifying of TCM/HM quality consistency.

Characterizing serum metabolic alterations of Alzheimer's disease and intervention of Shengmai-San by ultra-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization quadruple time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Metabolomics approach describing the nervous protective mechanism of Shengmai-San (SMS) in Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Glycyrrhetinic acid might increase the nephrotoxicity of bakuchiol by inhibiting cytochrome P450 isoenzymes

Background

Licorice, a popular traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), is widely used to moderate the effects (detoxification) of other herbs in TCM and often combined with Fructus Psoraleae. However, the classical TCM book states that Fructus Psoraleae is incompatible with licorice; the mechanism underlying this incompatibility has not been identified. Glycyrrhetinic acid (GA), the active metabolite of licorice, may increase the toxicity of bakuchiol (BAK), the main chemical ingredient in Psoralea corylifolia, by inhibiting its detoxification enzymes CYP450s.

Methods

The effect of concomitant GA administration on BAK-induced nephrotoxicity was investigated, and the metabolic interaction between BAK and GA was further studied in vitro and in vivo. The cytotoxicity was assessed using an MTT assay in a co-culture model of HK-2 cell and human liver microsomes (HLMs). The effect of GA on the metabolism of BAK, and on the activities of CYP isoforms were investigated in HLMs. The toxicokinetics and tissue exposure of BAK as well as the renal and hepatic functional markers were measured after the administration of a single oral dose in rats.

Results

In vitro studies showed that the metabolic detoxification of BAK was significantly reduced by GA, and BAK was toxic to HK-2 cells, as indicated by 25∼40% decreases in viability when combined with GA. Further investigation revealed that GA significantly inhibited the metabolism of BAK in HLMs in a dose-dependent manner. GA strongly inhibits CYP3A4 and weakly inhibits CYP2C9 and CYP1A2; these CYP isoforms are involved in the metabolism of BAK. In vivo experiment found that a single oral dose of BAK combined with GA or in the presence of 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT), altered the toxicokinetics of BAK in rats, increased the internal exposure, suppressed the elimination of BAK prototype, and therefore may have enhanced the renal toxicity.

Conclusion

The present study demonstrated that GA inhibits CYP isoforms and subsequently may increase the nephrotoxicity of BAK, which underlie one of the possible mechanisms responsible for the incompatibility of Licorice with Fructus Psoraleae.

Bile acids synthesis decreases after laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy

BACKGROUND

Bariatric surgery is the most effective treatment alternative in morbid obesity. The mechanisms contributing to these benefits remain poorly understood. Bile acids (BAs) are mediators of different regulatory functions in glucose and cholesterol homeostasis and energy expenditure. Recent evidence suggests that BAs are critically important for the beneficial effects of sleeve gastrectomy (SG).

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of SG on BA synthesis.

SETTING

University Hospital. Santiago, Chile.

METHODS

Obese patients were evaluated before and after SG (1, 3, 6, and 12 months). BA synthesis was evaluated through the serum marker, 7 α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one (C4). Primary and secondary BA and C4 were determined by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry detection (HPLC-MS/MS).

RESULTS

From June 2013 to January 2014, 19 patients (age 37.6±7.8 years; BMI 35.8±3.5 kg/m(2); 79% female) were included in this study. Mean weight loss at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months was 11.3, 17.5, 23.6, and 25.4 kg, respectively, equivalent to 11.8, 18.6, 24.8, and 26.9 of total body water percentage (%TBW) (P<.0001), respectively and 43.2, 68.2, 91, and 98.8 of percentage of excess weight loss (%EWL), respectively (P<.001). Serum C4 levels at baseline, 1, 3, 6, and 12 months were 23.4±21.1, 4.9±8.2, 8.7±12.1, 13.8±12.9, and 18.8±16.8 ng/mL (P<.0001), respectively. Fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF19) levels at baseline, 1, 3, 6, and 12 months were 71±33.3, 130.5±66.2, 117.8±57.2, 134.6±91.7, and 124.3±85.9 pg/mL (P = .019), respectively.

CONCLUSION

Serum levels of C4 decrease after SG, indicating a reduction in the synthesis of BA. FGF19 may play a role in decreasing BA synthesis. Further studies are necessary to characterize the effect of bariatric surgery on BA homeostasis.

Metabolomics and its application to the evaluation of the efficacy and toxicity of traditional Chinese herb medicines

Traditional Chinese herb medicines (TCHMs) have been used in the treatment of a variety of diseases for thousands of years in Asian countries. The active components of TCHMs usually exert combined synergistic therapeutic effects on multiple targets, but with less potential therapeutic effect based on routine indices than Western drugs. These complex effects make the assessment of the efficacy of TCHMs and the clarification of their underlying mechanisms very challenging, and therefore hinder their wider application and acceptance. Metabolomics is a crucial part of systems biology. It allows the quantitative measurement of large numbers of the low-molecular endogenous metabolites involved in metabolic pathways, and thus reflects the fundamental metabolism status of the body. Recently, dozens of metabolomic studies have been devoted to prove the efficacy/safety, explore the underlying mechanisms, and identify the potential biomarkers to access the action targets of TCHMs, with fruitful results. This article presents an overview of these studies, focusing on the progress made in exploring the pharmacology and toxicology of various herbal medicines.

Quantification of 15 bile acids in lake charr feces by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Many fishes are hypothesized to use bile acids (BAs) as chemical cues, yet quantification of BAs in biological samples and the required methods remain limited. Here, we present an UHPLC-MS/MS method for simultaneous, sensitive, and rapid quantification of 15 BAs, including free, taurine, and glycine conjugated BAs, and application of the method to fecal samples from lake charr (Salvelinus namaycush). The analytes were separated on a C18 column with acetonitrile-water (containing 7.5mM ammonium acetate and 0.1% formic acid) as mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.25mL/min for 12min. BAs were monitored with a negative electrospray triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (Xevo TQ-S™). Calibration curves of 15 BAs were linear over the concentration range of 1.00-5,000ng/mL. Validation revealed that the method was specific, accurate, and precise. The method was applied to quantitative analysis of feces extract of fry lake charr and the food they were eating. The concentrations of analytes CA, TCDCA, TCA, and CDCA were 242.3, 81.2, 60.7, and 36.2ng/mg, respectively. However, other taurine conjugated BAs, TUDCA, TDCA, and THDCA, were not detected in feces of lake charr. Interestingly, TCA and TCDCA were detected at high concentrations in food pellets, at 71.9 and 38.2ng/mg, respectively. Application of the method to feces samples from lake charr supported a role of BAs as chemical cues, and will enhance further investigation of BAs as chemical cues in other fish species.

A protective mechanism of licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis): isoliquiritigenin stimulates detoxification system via Nrf2 activation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Licorice (Glycyrrhizae radix), the root of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. (Leguminosae), is mainly used to moderate the characteristics of toxic herbs in Traditional Chinese Medicine, which could be partly interpreted as detoxification. However, the underlying mechanism is still not fully elucidated. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) plays a key role in the protection against toxic xenobiotics. In our previous research, we have identified that extracts from Glycyrrhiza uralensis induced the expression of Nrf2 nuclear protein and its downstream genes. This research aims to screen the most potent Nrf2 inducer isolated from Glycyrrhiza uralensis and examine its effect on Nrf2 signaling pathway and detoxification system.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Four compounds derived from Glycyrrhiza uralensis (glycyrrhetinic acid, liquiritigenin, isoliquiritigenin and liquiritin) were screened by ARE-luciferase reporter. The most potent ARE-luciferase inducer was chosen to further examine its effect on Nrf2 and detoxification genes in HepG2 cells. The role of Nrf2-dependent mechanism was tested by using Nrf2 knockout mice (Nrf2 KO) and Nrf2 wild-type mice (Nrf2 WT).

RESULTS

ARE-luciferase reporter assay showed these four compounds were all potent Nrf2 inducers, and isoliquiritigenin was the most potent inducer. Isoliquiritigenin significantly up-regulated the expression of Nrf2 and its downstream detoxification genes UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 (UGT1A1), glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL), multidrug resistance protein 2 (MRP2) and bile salt export pump (BSEP) in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, isoliquiritigenin showed Nrf2-dependent transactivation of UGT1A1, GCLC and MRP2.

CONCLUSIONS

Isoliquiritigenin, isolated from Glycyrrhiza uralensis, stimulates detoxification system via Nrf2 activation, which could be a potential protective mechanism of licorice.

Using UPLC-QTOF-MS to analyze the chemical changes between traditional and dispensing granule decoctions of San-Ao-Tang

In the present study, a chemical profiling approach based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with photodiode array detection and time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-PDA-TOF-MS) was proposed to rapidly evaluate the chemical consistency between traditional and dispensing granule decoctions of traditional medicine combinatorial formulae and validated using San-Ao-Tang (SAT) as a model combinatorial formula. SAT is an effective traditional Chinese medicine, which is usually used in treating asthma and other diseases of the respiratory system. Two decoctions were prepared: traditional decoction, which is a water extract of three mixed constituent herbs of SAT; and dispensing granule decoction, which is a mixed water extract of each individual herb of SAT. Batches of these two decoction samples were subjected to UPLC-PDA-TOF-MS analysis and the data sets of t(R)-m/z pairs, ion intensities and sample codes were processed with supervised orthogonal partial least squared discriminant analysis to holistically compare their differences. Once a clear classification trend was found in the score plot, further statistics were performed to generate points at the two ends of S, and the components that correlated to these ions were regarded as the most changed components during decoction of the combinatorial formula. The changed components were identified by comparing the mass/ultraviolet spectra and retention times with those of reference compounds and/or tentatively assigned by matching empirical molecular formulae with those of the known compounds published in the literature. Using the proposed approach, global chemical differences were found between traditional and dispensing granule decoctions, like ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, norpseudoephedrine, licorice saponine H2, licorice saponine G2 and amygdalin.