Supercritical fluid technologies applied to the extraction of compounds of industrial interest from Cannabis sativa L. and to their pharmaceutical formulations: A review

Assessing effects of Cannabis on various neuropathologies: A systematic review

Natural bioactives possess a wide range of chemical structures that can exert a plethora of pharmacological and toxicological actions, resulting in neuroprotection or neurotoxicity. These pharmacodynamic properties can positively or negatively impact human and animal global healthcare. Remarkably, Ayurvedic botanical Cannabis has been used worldwide by different ethnicities and religions for spiritual, commercial, recreational, nutraceutical, cosmeceutical, and medicinal purposes for centuries. Cannabis-based congeners have been approved by the United States of America's (USA) Food & Drug Administration (FDA) and other global law agencies for various therapeutic purposes. Surprisingly, the strict laws associated with possessing cannabis products have been mitigated in multiple states in the USA and across the globe for recreational use. This has consequently led to a radical escalation of exposure to cannabis-related substances of abuse. However, there is a lacuna in the literature on the acute and chronic effects of Cannabis and its congeners on various neuropathologies. Moreover, in the post-COVID era, there has been a drastic increase in the incidence and prevalence of numerous neuropathologies, leading to increased morbidity and mortality. There is an impending necessity for a safe, economically viable, multipotent, natural bioactive to prevent and treat various neuropathologies. The ayurvedic herb, Cannabis is one of the oldest botanicals known to humans and has been widely used. However, the comprehensive effect of Cannabis on various neuropathologies is not well established. Hence, this review presents effects of Cannabis on various neuropathologies.

Simultaneous analysis of cannabinoids and terpenes in Cannabis sativa inflorescence using full comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography coupled to smart active modulation

Nowadays, the higher peak capacity achievable by comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography (LC×LC) for the analysis of vegetal samples is well-recognized. In addition, numerous compounds may be present in very different amounts. Cannabinoids and terpenes represent the main components of Cannabis sativa inflorescence samples, whose quantities are relevant for many application purposes. The analyses of both families are performed by different methods, at least two different separation methodologies, mainly according to their chemical characteristics and concentration levels. In this work, concentration differences and sample complexity issues were addressed using an LC×LC method that incorporates an optimized modulation strategy, namely smart active modulation, for the simultaneous analysis of cannabinoids and terpenes. The system was built by interposing an active flow splitter pump between both dimensions. This set up aimed to exploit the known advantages of LC×LC. In addition, here we proposed to use the splitter pump for online control over the splitting ratio to facilitate the selective dilution of different eluted fractions containing compounds with highly different concentrations. This work represents the first application and demonstration of smart active modulation (SAM) in LC×LC to simultaneously determine analytes with significant differences in concentration levels present in complex samples. The proposed method was tested with eight different strains, from which fingerprints were taken, and numerous cannabinoids and terpenes were identified in these samples. With this strategy, between 49 and 54 peaks were obtained in the LC×LC chromatograms corresponding to different strains. THCA-A was the main component in six strains, while CBDA was the main component in the other two strains. The main terpenes found were myrcene (in five strains), limonene (in two strains), and humulene (in one strain). Additionally, numerous other cannabinoids and terpenes were identified in these samples, providing valuable compositional information for growers, as well as medical and recreational users. The SAM strategy here proposed is simple and it can be extended to other complex matrices.

Phytocannabinoids: Pharmacological effects, biomedical applications, and worldwide prospection

Scientific evidence exists about the association between neurological diseases (i.e., Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), multiple sclerosis, depression, and memory loss) and oxidative damage. The increasing worldwide incidence of such diseases is attracting the attention of researchers to find palliative medications to reduce the symptoms and promote quality of life, in particular, in developing countries, e.g., South America and Africa. Among potential alternatives, extracts of Cannabis Sativa L. are suitable for people who have neurological disorders, spasticity, and pain, nausea, resulting from diseases such as cancer and arthritis. In this review, we discuss the latest developments in the use of Cannabis, its subtypes and constituents, extraction methods, and relevant pharmacological effects. Biomedical applications, marketed products, and prospects for the worldwide use of Cannabis Sativa L. extracts are also discussed, providing the bibliometric maps of scientific literature published in representative countries from South America (i.e., Brazil) and Africa (i.e., South Africa). A lack of evidence on the effectiveness and safety of Cannabis, besides the concerns about addiction and other adverse events, has led many countries to act with caution before changing Cannabis-related regulations. Recent findings are expected to increase the social acceptance of Cannabis, while new technologies seem to boost the global cannabis market because the benefits of (-)-trans-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) use have been proven in several studies in addition to the potential to general new employment.

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Technology for Recovering Valuable Phytochemicals from Cannabis sativa L. and Valorization of Its Biomass for Food Applications

Supercritical carbon dioxide (CO₂) extraction techniques meet all-new consumer market demands for health-promoting phytochemical compound-rich extracts produced from green and sustainable technology. In this regard, this review is dedicated to discussing is the promise of integrating high-pressure CO₂ technologies into the Cannabis sativa L. processing chain to valorize its valuable pharmaceutical properties and food biomass. To do this, the cannabis plant, cannabinoids, and endocannabinoid system were reviewed to understand their therapeutic and side effects. The supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technique was presented as a smart alternative to producing cannabis bioproducts. The impact of SFE operating conditions on cannabis compound extraction was examined for aerial parts (inflorescences, stems, and leaves), seeds, and byproducts. Furthermore, the opportunities of using non-thermal supercritical CO₂ processing on cannabis biomass were addressed for industrial hemp valorization, focusing on its biorefinery to simultaneously produce cannabidiol and new ingredients for food applications as plant-based products.

Acute toxic effects of new synthetic cannabinoid on brain: Neurobehavioral and Histological: Preclinical studies

The psychoactive effects of new synthetic cannabinoids (SCs), MDMB-4en-PINACA, are being marketed as a blend of herbs and spices. This study aims to determine the behavioral, neurochemical, histopathological, and immunohistochemical alterations associated with the acute toxicity of MDMB-4en-PINACA compounds.

METHODS

Adult male albino rats were administered various toxic doses of the drug (1.5, 3, and 6 mg/kg), and behavioral studies were conducted 2 and 24 h later; animals were then sacrificed. Histopathological and neurochemical examinations were performed. Two hours after intraperitoneal.

RESULTS

Intraperitoneal injection of MDMB-4en-PINACA, horizontal movement, the number of stops, and mobility ratio were significantly impaired, along with coordination and balance. In addition, it led to a decline in spatial learning and memory, and neurotransmitter concentrations decreased significantly in a dose-dependent manner. Further examination of the cerebral cortex and hippocampus histopathology revealed pathological degeneration of small pyramidal cells.

CONCLUSION

Thus, these findings revealed that MDMB-4en-PINACA interferes with hippocampal function and impairs cognitive performance, highlighting the cognitive risk associated with SC abuse.

Cold Ethanol Extraction of Cannabinoids and Terpenes from Cannabis Using Response Surface Methodology: Optimization and Comparative Study

Efficient cannabis biomass extraction can increase yield while reducing costs and minimizing waste. Cold ethanol extraction was evaluated to maximize yield and concentrations of cannabinoids and terpenes at different temperatures. Central composite rotatable design was used to optimize two independent factors: sample-to-solvent ratio (1:2.9 to 1:17.1) and extraction time (5.7 min-34.1 min). With response surface methodology, predicted optimal conditions at different extraction temperatures were a cannabis-to-ethanol ratio of 1:15 and a 10 min extraction time. With these conditions, yields (g 100 g dry matter^-1) were 18.2, 19.7, and 18.5 for -20 °C, -40 °C and room temperature, respectively. Compared to the reference ground sample, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid changed from 17.9 (g 100 g dry matter^-1) to 15, 17.5, and 18.3 with an extraction efficiency of 83.6%, 97.7%, 102.1% for -20 °C, -40 °C, and room temperature, respectively. Terpene content decreased by 54.1% and 32.2% for extraction at -20 °C and room temperature, respectively, compared to extraction at -40 °C. Principal component analysis showed that principal component 1 and principal component 2 account for 88% and 7.31% of total variance, respectively, although no significant differences in cold ethanol extraction at different temperatures were observed.

Chemical Composition, Antioxidant, Anti-Diabetic, Anti-Acetylcholinesterase, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antimicrobial Properties of Arbutus unedo L. and Laurus nobilis L. Essential Oils

The objectives of this work were to determine the phytochemical composition and antioxidant, anti-diabetic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-acetylcholinesterase properties of Arbutus unedo L. and Laurus nobilis L. EOs. The antioxidant effects were estimated using four complementary methods. In addition, the anti-diabetic activity was assessed by targeting three carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes, namely α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and lipase. The anti-inflammatory and anti-acetylcholinesterase effects were evaluated by testing the inhibitory potential of both plants on lipo-oxygenase and acetylcholinesterase (AChE), respectively. The antimicrobial activity of these oils was evaluated using disc-diffusion, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum lethal concentration (MLC) tests. The chemical composition of L. nobilis essential oil (EO) was dominated by eucalyptol (36.40%), followed by α-terpineole (13.05%), α-terpinyl acetate (10.61%), linalool (10.34%), and northujane (5.74%). The main volatile compounds of A. unedo EOs were decenal (13.47%), α-terpineol (7.8%), and palmitic acid (6.00%). L. nobilis and A. unedo EOs inhibited α-amylase with IC₅₀ values of 42.51 ± 0.012 and 102 ± 0.06 µg/mL, respectively. Moreover, both oils inhibited the activity of α-glucosidase (IC₅₀ = 1.347 ± 0.021 µg/mL and IC₅₀ = 76 ± 0.021 µg/mL) and lipase (IC₅₀ = 21.23 ± 0.021 µg/mL and IC₅₀ = 97.018 ± 0.012 µg/mL, respectively). In addition, L. nobilis EO showed an anti-AChE activity (IC₅₀ = 89.44 ± 0.07 µg/mL) higher than that of A. unedo EO (IC₅₀ = 378.57 ± 0.05 µg/mL). Regarding anti-inflammatory activity, in vitro assays showed that L. nobilis significantly inhibits (IC₅₀ = 48.31 ± 0.07 μg/mL) 5-lipoxygenase compared to A. unedo (IC₅₀ = 86.14 ± 0.05 μg/mL). This was confirmed in vivo via a notable inhibition of inflammation recorded after 6 h of treatment in both plants at a dose of 50 mg/kg. The microbiological results revealed that EOs from both plants inhibited the growth of all tested organisms except P. aeruginosa, with the highest antimicrobial effect for L. nobilis. The results of these tests showed that these two plants possess remarkable biological and pharmacological properties, explaining their medicinal effects and suggesting them as promising sources of natural drugs.

Suitability of botanical extracts as components of complex mixtures used in herbal tea infusions—challenges and opportunities

Herbal tea is a mainstay dosage form in practically all systems of traditional medicine and widely used in modern alternative and complementary medicine. Incorporating botanical extracts into herbal tea formulations is of vital interest to manufacturers as it allows for the use of herbal ingredients that would otherwise not be suitable for the dosage form, for instance, dosing requirements, solubility in water, sensory constraints etc. Furthermore, reducing the amount of ingredients in a formula increases compliance with dosing recommendations and thus therapeutic benefit. However, formulating with botanical extracts comes with challenges, ranging from sourcing ingredients of appropriate quality, developing suitable methods for quality control with combinations of (herbal) ingredients, processing constraints such as hygroscopicity, solubility, dispersibility, homogeneity of distribution, and packaging machinability, all the way to stability required for hot-water infusion. We report on experiences with overcoming such challenges in a set of examples and provide guidance to the extract industry on how to tap into the bagged tea sector with better suited or tailor-made solutions for the formulator.

Production Ganoderma lucidum extract nanoparticles by expansion of supercritical fluid solution and evaluation of the antioxidant ability

Due to the growing human tendency to treat with natural substances, fungi such as Ganoderma lucidum can be a good source to meet this need. Effectiveness, ease of use and a rich source of active ingredients such as ganoderic acids have caused G. lucidum to be considered in the pharmaceutical and food industries. In this project, G. lucidum was applied to extraction using supercritical carbon dioxide. Then expansion of supercritical fluid solution (ESS) was used as, novel, repeatable and green method to yield nanoparticles from G.lucidum extract. The response surface method was used to improve the Extraction efficiency, antioxidant activity, and improving the nanoparticles production status. Optimal conditions were observed at the extraction step by setting pressure at 27.5 MPa, dynamic time of 46 min, and modifier volume of 162 μL. The optimum point for the production of nanoparticles was obtained as follows: pressure drop at 25 MPa, 20 min for collection time, and 40° C for temperature. Under these conditions, the size and count were 86.13 nm, and 98, respectively. Nanoparticles were analyzed by FESM and, the DPPH was used for antioxidant activity evaluation. The LC-MS identified various ganoderic acids from G.lucidum that are famous to be highly oxygenated triterpenoids.

Isotopic Characterization of Italian Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Intended for Food Use: A First Exploratory Study

In this study, Italian industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) intended for food use was isotopically characterized for the first time. The stable isotope ratios of five bioelements were analyzed in different parts of the plant (i.e., roots, stems, inflorescences, and seeds) sampled in eight different regions of Italy, and in five hemp seed oils. The values of δ2H, δ13C, δ18O, and δ34S differed according to the latitude and, therefore, to the geographical origin of the samples and the climate conditions of plant growth, while the δ15N values allowed us to distinguish between crops grown under conventional and organic fertilization. The findings from this preliminary study corroborate the reliability of using light stable isotope ratios to characterize hemp and its derived food products and contribute to the creation of a first isotopic database for this plant, paving the way for future studies on authentication, traceability, and verification of organic labeling.

Fractional Separation and Characterization of Cuticular Waxes Extracted from Vegetable Matter Using Supercritical CO2

Cuticular waxes can be used in high-value applications, including cosmetics, foods and nutraceuticals, among the others. The extraction process determines their quality and purity that are of particular interest when biocompatibility, biodegradability, flavor and fragrance are the main features required for the final formulations. This study demonstrated that supercritical fluid extraction coupled with fractional separation can represent a suitable alternative to isolate cuticular waxes from vegetable matter that preserve their natural properties and composition, without contamination of organic solvent residues. Operating in this way, cuticular waxes can be considered as a fingerprint of the vegetable matter, where C27, C29 and C31 are the most abundant compounds that characterize the material; the differences are mainly due to their relative proportions and the presence of hydrocarbon compounds possessing other functional groups, such as alcohols, aldehydes or acids. Therefore, selectivity of supercritical fluid extraction towards non-polar or slightly polar compounds opens the way for a possible industrial approach to produce extracts that do not require further purification steps.

Recovery of Carotenoids from Tomato Pomace Using a Hydrofluorocarbon Solvent in Sub-Critical Conditions

The enrichment of oils with nutraceutical bioactive phytomolecules allows the achievement of functional oil-based products of great interest in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic fields. Carotenoids, such as lycopene and β-carotene, are available at a high concentration in tomatoes and tomato waste products, as peels, seeds, and pulp; their recovery is recently attracting growing interest and economic importance in the food industry, and also in consideration of the huge amount of industrial waste produced. The aim of this work is to study the production of an oil functionalized with carotenoids from tomato peels. The extractions were carried out using an innovative process based on the use of commercial Norflurane as solvent in subcritical conditions. Extraction trials were performed on dried tomato peels, with the addition of tomato seeds or wheat germ flour as sources of oily co-solvents, capable of also preserving the biological characteristics of the carotenoids extracted. Although lycopene solubility in Norflurane is quite low, the solvent recirculation and regeneration were allowed to reach a concentration in the oily extracts of approximately 0.3 mg/goil after 2 h of the process. The enrichment in β-carotene was more pronounced, and concentrations of 0.733 mg/goil and 0.952 mg/goil were observed in wheat germ and tomato seed oils, respectively. The results obtained in this study were compared with those obtained by traditional and supercritical CO2 extraction methods.

The Medicinal Natural Products of Cannabis sativa Linn.: A Review

Cannabis sativa is known among many cultures for its medicinal potential. Its complexity contributes to the historical application of various parts of the plant in ethno-medicines and pharmacotherapy. C. sativa has been used for the treatment of rheumatism, epilepsy, asthma, skin burns, pain, the management of sexually transmitted diseases, difficulties during child labor, postpartum hemorrhage, and gastrointestinal activity. However, the use of C. sativa is still limited, and it is illegal in most countries. Thus, this review aims to highlight the biological potential of the plant parts, as well as the techniques for the extraction, isolation, and characterization of C. sativa compounds. The plant produces a unique class of terpenophenolic compounds, called cannabinoids, as well as non-cannabinoid compounds. The exhaustive profiling of bioactive compounds and the chemical characterization and analysis of C. sativa compounds, which modern research has not yet fully achieved, is needed for the consistency, standardization, and the justified application of Cannabis sativa products for therapeutic purposes. Studies on the clinical relevance and applications of cannabinoids and non-cannabinoid phenols in the prevention and treatment of life-threatening diseases is indeed significant. Furthermore, psychoactive cannabinoids, when chemically standardized and administered under medical supervision, can be the legal answer to the use of C. sativa.

Determination of Drugs in Clinical Trials: Current Status and Outlook

All pharmaceutical drugs, vaccines, cosmetic products, and many medical breakthroughs must first be approved through clinical research and trials before advancing to standard practice or entering the marketplace. Clinical trials are sets of tests that are required to determine the safety and efficacy of pharmaceutical compounds, drugs, and treatments. There is one pre-phase and four main clinical phase requirements that every drug must pass to obtain final approval. Analytical techniques play a unique role in clinical trials for measuring the concentrations of pharmaceutical compounds in biological matrices and monitoring the conditions of patients (or volunteers) during various clinical phases. This review focuses on recent analytical methods that are employed to determine the concentrations of drugs and medications in biological matrices, including whole blood, plasma, urine, and breast milk. Four primary analytical techniques (extraction, spectroscopy, chromatography, and electrochemical) are discussed, and their advantages and limitations are assessed. Subsequent to a survey of evidence and results, it is clear that microelectromechanical system (MEMS) based electrochemical sensor and biosensor technologies exhibit several notable advantages over other analytical methods, and their future prospects are discussed.

Effect of Extraction Methods on Polyphenols, Flavonoids, Mineral Elements, and Biological Activities of Essential Oil and Extracts of Mentha pulegium L

Our study evaluated the in vitro antioxidant properties, antibacterial and antifungal activities, anti-inflammatory properties, and chemical composition of the essential oils (EOs), total phenol, and total flavonoid of wild Mentha pulegium L. This study also determined the mineral (nutritional and toxic) elements in the plant. The EOs were extracted using three techniques-hydro distillation (HD), steam distillation (SD), and microwave-assisted distillation (MAD)-and were analyzed using chromatography coupled with flame ionization (GC-FID) and gas chromatography attached with mass spectrometry detector (GC-MS). The antioxidant effects of the EOs were tested with 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ABTS (2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), while the antibacterial and antifungal activities of the EO and methanolic extract were tested using Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans. Twenty-six compounds were identified in the essential oil, representing 97.73% of the total oil, with 0.202% yield. The major components were pulegone (74.81%), menthone (13.01%) and piperitone (3.82%). Twenty-one elements, including macro- and micro-elements (Ba, Br, Ca, Cl, Co, Cr, Cs, Eu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Rb, Sb, Sc, Sr, Th, U and Zn), were detected using neutron activation analysis (INAA) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), with the concentration of mineral element close to the FAO recommendation. The results show that the EOs and extracts from Mentha pulegium L. had significant antimicrobial activities against the microorganisms, including five human pathogenic bacteria, one yeast (Candida albicans), and one phytopathogenic fungi. The in vivo anti-inflammatory activities of the leaf extracts were confirmed. The results indicate that the EOs and extracts from Mentha pulegium L. have promising applications in the pharmaceutical industries, clinical applications, and in medical research.

Qualitative and Quantitative Comparison of Liquid–Liquid Phase Extraction Using Ethyl Acetate and Liquid–Solid Phase Extraction Using Poly-Benzyl-Resin for Natural Products

A key step in the process of isolating microbial natural products is the preparation of an extract from a culture. This step determines which molecules will be available for detection in the subsequent chemical and biological analysis of a biodiscovery pipeline. In the present study we wanted to document potential differences in performance between liquid–liquid extraction using ethyl acetate and liquid–solid extraction using a poly-benzyl-resin. For the comparison of the two extraction protocols, we spiked a culture of Flavobacterium sp. with a diverse selection of natural products of microbial and plant origin to investigate whether the methods were comparable with respect to selectivity. We also investigated the efficiency of the two extraction methods quantitatively, using water spiked with a selection of natural products, and studied the quantitative effect of different pH levels of the aqueous solutions on the extraction yields of the two methods. The same compounds were extracted by the two methods, but the solid-phase extract contained more media components compared with the liquid-phase extract. Quantitatively, the two extraction methods varied in their recovery rates. We conclude that practical aspects could be more important when selecting one of the extraction protocols, as their efficiencies in extracting specific compounds were quite similar.

Phenolics from Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Characterisation and Potential as Biostimulants and Bioprotectants

Biostimulants and bioprotectants are derived from natural sources and can enhance crop growth and protect crops from pests and pathogens, respectively. They have attracted much attention in the past few decades and contribute to a more sustainable and eco-friendly agricultural system. Despite not having been explored extensively, plant extracts and their component secondary metabolites, including phenolic compounds have been shown to have biostimulant effects on plants, including enhancement of growth attributes and yield, as well as bioprotectant effects, including antimicrobial, insecticidal, herbicidal and nematicidal effects. Medicinal and aromatic plants are widely distributed all over the world and are abundant sources of phenolic compounds. This paper reviews the characterisation of phenolic compounds and extracts from medicinal and aromatic plants, including a brief overview of their extraction, phytochemical screening and methods of analysis. The second part of the review highlights the potential for use of phenolic compounds and extracts as biostimulants and bioprotectants in agriculture as well as some of the challenges related to their use.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Mill.) Ethyl Acetate Extract on Croton Oil-Induced Mouse Ear Edema

Nowadays, there is a growing interest in the development of medicinal plant-based therapies to diminish the ravages of the inflammatory process related to diseases and tissue damage. Most therapeutic effects of these traditional medicinal plants are owed to their phenolic and antioxidant properties. C. aconitifolius is a traditional medicinal plant in Mexico. Previous characterization reports have stated its high nutritional and antioxidant components. The present study aimed to better understand the biological activity of C. aconitifolius in inflammation response. We developed an ethyl acetate extract of this plant to evaluate its anti-inflammatory capacity and its flavonoid content. The topical anti-inflammatory effect of the ethyl acetate extract of C. aconitifolius was determined by the croton oil-induced mouse ear edema test, while flavonoid detection and concentration were determined by thin layer chromatography and the aluminum chloride colorimetric assay, respectively. Topical application of the extract showed significant inhibition of the induced-ear edema (23.52 and 49.41% for 25 and 50 mg/kg dose, respectively). The extract also exhibited the presence of flavonoids. The finding of the anti-inflammatory activity exerted by the C. aconitifolius and the identification of its active principles may suggest and support its use for inflammation treatment.

Progress in the Valorization of Fruit and Vegetable Wastes: Active Packaging, Biocomposites, By-Products, and Innovative Technologies Used for Bioactive Compound Extraction

According to the Food Wastage Footprint and Climate Change Report, about 15% of all fruits and 25% of all vegetables are wasted at the base of the food production chain. The significant losses and wastes in the fresh and processing industries is becoming a serious environmental issue, mainly due to the microbial degradation impacts. There has been a recent surge in research and innovation related to food, packaging, and pharmaceutical applications to address these problems. The underutilized wastes (seed, skin, rind, and pomace) potentially present good sources of valuable bioactive compounds, including functional nutrients, amylopectin, phytochemicals, vitamins, enzymes, dietary fibers, and oils. Fruit and vegetable wastes (FVW) are rich in nutrients and extra nutritional compounds that contribute to the development of animal feed, bioactive ingredients, and ethanol production. In the development of active packaging films, pectin and other biopolymers are commonly used. In addition, the most recent research studies dealing with FVW have enhanced the physical, mechanical, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties of packaging and biocomposite systems. Innovative technologies that can be used for sensitive bioactive compound extraction and fortification will be crucial in valorizing FVW completely; thus, this article aims to report the progress made in terms of the valorization of FVW and to emphasize the applications of FVW in active packaging and biocomposites, their by-products, and the innovative technologies (both thermal and non-thermal) that can be used for bioactive compounds extraction.

Pressurized Extraction as an Opportunity to Recover Antioxidants from Orange Peels: Heat treatment and Nanoemulsion Design for Modulating Oxidative Stress

Orange peel by-products generated in the food industry are an important source of value-added compounds that can be potentially reused. In the current research, the effect of oven-drying (50–70 °C) and freeze-drying on the bioactive compounds and antioxidant potential from Navelina, Salustriana, and Sanguina peel waste was investigated using pressurized extraction (ASE). Sixty volatile components were identified by ASE-GC-MS. The levels of terpene derivatives (sesquitenenes, alcohols, aldehydes, hydrocarbons, and esters) remained practically unaffected among fresh and freeze-dried orange peels, whereas drying at 70 °C caused significative decreases in Navelina, Salustriana, and Sanguina peels. Hesperidin and narirutin were the main flavonoids quantified by HPLC-MS. Freeze-dried Sanguina peels showed the highest levels of total-polyphenols (113.3 mg GAE·g⁻¹), total flavonoids (39.0 mg QE·g⁻¹), outstanding values of hesperedin (187.6 µg·g⁻¹), phenol acids (16.54 mg·g⁻¹ DW), and the greatest antioxidant values (DPPH•, FRAP, and ABTS^•+ assays) in comparison with oven-dried samples and the other varieties. Nanotechnology approaches allowed the formulation of antioxidant-loaded nanoemulsions, stabilized with lecithin, starting from orange peel extracts. Those provided 70–80% of protection against oxidative UV-radiation, also decreasing the ROS levels into the Caco-2 cells. Overall, pressurized extracts from freeze-drying orange peel can be considered a good source of natural antioxidants that could be exploited in food applications for the development of new products of commercial interest.

Comparative Study of Bioactivity and Safety Evaluation of Ethanolic Extracts of Zanthoxylum schinifolium Fruit and Pericarp

The fruit and pericarp of Zanthoxylum schinifolium (ZS) have been used in traditional medicine; however, few studies have characterized ZS fruit and pericarp. Therefore, in the present study, we evaluated the safety of ZS fruit (ZSF) and pericarp (ZSP) extracts and compared their bioactivity. To evaluate the safety of ZSF and ZSP, mutagenicity, cytotoxicity, and oxidative stress assays were performed and nontoxic concentration ranges were obtained. ZSP was found to be superior to ZSF in terms of its antimutagenic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities. In the S9 mix, the mutation inhibition rate of ZSP was close to 100% at concentrations exceeding 625 µg·plate⁻¹ for both the TA98 and TA100 strains. ZSP exhibited efficient DPPH (IC₅₀ = 75.6 ± 6.1 µg·mL⁻¹) and ABTS (IC₅₀ = 57.4 ± 6 µg·mL⁻¹) scavenging activities. ZSP inhibited the release of cytokines, involved in IL-1β (IC₅₀ = 134.4 ± 7.8), IL-6 (IC₅₀ = 262.8 ± 11.2), and TNF-α (IC₅₀ = 223.8 ± 5.8). These results indicate that ZSP contains a higher amount of biochemicals than ZSF, or that ZSP contains unique biochemicals. In conclusion, for certain physiological activities, the use of ZSP alone may be more beneficial than the combined use of ZSF and ZSP.

Micronization of Thebaine Extracted from Papaver Bracteatum Lindl. Using Supercritical Fluid Technology

BACKGROUND

Thebaine, as a main opiate alkaloid extracted from papaveraceae plants, is widely used in the synthesis of many pharmaceutical ingredients such as buprenorphine, naltrexone, naloxone, and hydrocodone. Nevertheless, thebaine and related derivatives are often insoluble in aqueous media and have low bioavailability in digestive system.

OBJECTIVE

Reducing particle size and changing the morphology can mitigate the mentioned problem. In this study, extraction of thebaine from the capsule, steam, and root of Papaver bracteatum L. was optimized and micronization of extract components was developed to study of solubility.

METHODS

Extraction process was performed using supercritical carbon dioxide. Experimental central composite design was employed to determine the optimal conditions. Analysis of extract was done using validated HPLC method and mass spectrometry. Micronization process was performed using an inhouse developed supercritical technique. The nanoparticles were characterized using FESEM and Image J software. The Effect of micronization was explored on the solubility of extract components via ultraviolet spectroscopy.

RESULTS

The percentage of thebaine in dried capsule, steam, and root powder was about 1.05%, 0.31, and 0.83% respectively. The extraction results indicated that supercritical pressure has the greatest effect on the extraction yield. Analysis of FESEM images revealed that nanoparticles of extract components with particle size distribution of 5 to 100 nm were collected successfully.

CONCLUSIONS

The extraction results indicated that pressure has the greatest effect on the extraction yield. In vitro studies illustrated that the solubility of extract components increased up to 1.7 times during the micronization process.

HIGHLIGHTS

Expansion of supercritical methods as an effective method was performed for extracting and preparing alkaloids nanoparticles. This process led to improved oral bioavailability of alkaloids.

Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils from Leaves of Two Specimens of Eugenia florida DC

Eugenia florida DC. belongs to the Myrtaceae family, which is present in almost all of Brazil. This species is popularly known as pitanga-preta or guamirim and is used in folk medicine to treat gastrointestinal problems. In this study, two specimens of Eugenia florida (Efl) were collected in different areas of the same region. Specimen A (EflA) was collected in an area of secondary forest (capoeira), while specimen B (EflB) was collected in a floodplain area. The essential oils (EOs) were extracted from both specimens of Eugenia florida by means of hydrodistillation. Gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was used to identify the volatile compounds present, and the antioxidant capacity of the EOs was determined by antioxidant capacity (AC-DPPH) and the Trolox equivalent antioxidant (TEAC) assay. For E. florida, limonene (11.98%), spathulenol (10.94%) and α-pinene (5.21%) were identified as the main compounds of the EO extracted from sample A, while sample B comprised selina-3,11-dien-6α-ol (12.03%), eremoligenol (11.0%) and γ-elemene (10.70%). This difference in chemical composition impacted the antioxidant activity of the EOs between the studied samples, especially in sample B of E. florida. This study is the first to report on the antioxidant activity of Eugenia florida DC. essential oils.

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction of Four Medicinal Mediterranean Plants: Investigation of Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity

With everyday advances in the field of pharmaceuticals, medicinal plants have high priority regarding the introduction of novel synthetic compounds by the usage of environmentally friendly extraction technologies. Herein, a supercritical CO2 extraction method was implemented in the analysis of four plants (chamomile, St. John's wort, yarrow, and curry plant) after which the non-targeted analysis of the chemical composition, phenolic content, and antioxidant activity was evaluated. The extraction yield was the highest for the chamomile (5%), while moderate yields were obtained for the other three plants. The chemical composition analyzed by gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) and liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) demonstrated extraction of diverse compounds including terpenes and terpenoids, fatty acids, flavonoids and coumarins, functionalized phytosterols, and polyphenols. Voltammetry of microfilm immobilized on a glassy carbon electrode using square-wave voltammetry (SWV) was applied in the analysis of extracts. It was found that antioxidant activity obtained by SWV correlates well to 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhidrazine (DPPH) radical assay (R2 = 0.818) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay (R2 = 0.640), but not to the total phenolic content (R2 = 0.092). Effective results were obtained in terms of activity showing the potential usage of supercritical CO2 extraction to acquire bioactive compounds of interest.

Maximizing Contents of Phytochemicals Obtained from Dried Sour Cherries by Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction

Sour cherries were first dried by vacuum drying and then used as material for obtaining extracts rich in bioactive compounds by ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE). The first step was to apply a factorial design for the preliminary experiments to determine the most influential UAE factors, and thus the three studied parameters were chosen as the most suitable for the design of the main experiment (temperature, liquid–solid ratio and ethanol concentration). In this part, the contents of total phenols and the total content of monomeric anthocyanins were taken for responses. For the further optimization of UAE, experimental design (face-centered) was applied, and the yield, total phenolics, flavonoid content and content of monomeric anthocyanins and antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS and FRAP assays) were analyzed. Temperature (40–80 °C), ethanol concentration (40–80%, w/w) and liquid–solid ratio (10–30 mL/g) were investigated as independent variables. The obtained experimental results were fitted to a second-order polynomial model and analysis of variance was used to determine the fit of the model and the optimal conditions for investigated responses. High quality extracts with high concentrations of polyphenols and anthocyanins were also obtained, which could be used as food additives.

Cannabinoid Formulations and Delivery Systems: Current and Future Options to Treat Pain

The field of Cannabis sativa L. research for medical purposes has been rapidly advancing in recent decades and a growing body of evidence suggests that phytocannabinoids are beneficial for a range of conditions. At the same time impressing development has been observed for formulations and delivery systems expanding the potential use of cannabinoids as an effective medical therapy. The objective of this review is to present the most recent results from pharmaceutical companies and research groups investigating methods to improve cannabinoid bioavailability and to clearly establish its therapeutic efficacy, dose ranges, safety and also improve the patient compliance. Particular focus is the application of cannabinoids in pain treatment, describing the principal cannabinoids employed, the most promising delivery systems for each administration routes and updating the clinical evaluations. To offer the reader a wider view, this review discusses the formulation starting from galenic preparation up to nanotechnology approaches, showing advantages, limits, requirements needed. Furthermore, the most recent clinical data and meta-analysis for cannabinoids used in different pain management are summarized, evaluating their real effectiveness, in order also to spare opioids and improve patients' quality of life. Promising evidence for pain treatments and for other important pathologies are also reviewed as likely future directions for cannabinoids formulations.

An Evaluation of the Antioxidant Activity of a Methanolic Extract of Cucumis melo L. Fruit (F1 Hybrid)

Cucumis melo L. (C. melo) is a fruit with many medicinal properties and is consumed in various countries. It is utilised for chronic eczema and to treat minor burns and scrapes. The present study was conducted to evaluate the antioxidant activity of a methanolic extract of Cucumis melo Linn (MECM). A coarse powder prepared from the fruit and seeds was extracted with methanol (absolute) by a hot continuous percolation process in accordance with the standard protocols. All the extracts were estimated for potential antioxidant activities with tests such as an estimation of total antioxidant activity, hydroxyl radical and nitric oxide scavenging activity and reducing power ability. The qualitative analysis of the methanolic extract of C. melo fruit showed the presence of various phytochemical constituents such as carbohydrates, alkaloids, sterols, phenolic compounds, terpenes and flavonoids. The total antioxidant activity of concentrations of 50, 100 and 200 µg were tested and observed to be 3.3 ± 0.1732, 6.867 ± 0.5457 and 13.63 ± 0.8295 µg of ascorbic acid, respectively. The results also showed significant nitric oxide and DPPH scavenging activities as well as a reducing power activity of MECM. Thus, our results suggest that MECM may serve as a putative source of natural antioxidants for therapeutic and nutraceutical applications.

Simultaneous Determination of 78 Compounds of Rhodiola rosea Extract by Supercritical CO2-Extraction and HPLC-ESI-MS/MS Spectrometry

The plant Rhodiola rosea L. of family Crassulaceae was extracted using the supercritical CO₂-extraction method. Several experimental conditions were investigated in the pressure range of 200–500 bar, with the used volume of cosolvent ethanol in the amount of 1% in the liquid phase at a temperature in the range of 31–70°C. The most effective extraction conditions are pressure 350 bar and temperature 60°C. The extracts were analyzed by HPLC with MS/MS identification. 78 target analytes were isolated from Rhodiola rosea (Russia) using a series of column chromatography and mass spectrometry experiments. The results of the analysis showed a spectrum of the main active ingredients Rh. rosea: salidroside, rhodiolosides (B and C), rhodiosin, luteolin, catechin, quercetin, quercitrin, herbacetin, sacranoside A, vimalin, and others. In addition to the reported metabolites, 29 metabolites were newly annotated in Rh. rosea. There were flavonols: dihydroquercetin, acacetin, mearnsetin, and taxifolin-O-pentoside; flavones: apigenin-O-hexoside derivative, tricetin trimethyl ether 7-O-hexosyl-hexoside, tricin 7-O-glucoronyl-O-hexoside, tricin O-pentoside, and tricin-O-dihexoside; flavanones: eriodictyol-7-O-glucoside; flavan-3-ols: gallocatechin, hydroxycinnamic acid caffeoylmalic acid, and di-O-caffeoylquinic acid; coumarins: esculetin; esculin: fraxin; and lignans: hinokinin, pinoresinol, L-ascorbic acid, glucaric acid, palmitic acid, and linolenic acid. The results of supercritical CO₂-extraction from roots and rhizomes of Rh. rosea, in particular, indicate that the extract contained all biologically active components of the plant, as well as inert mixtures of extracted compositions.

Natural Dyeing of Cellulose and Protein Fibers with the Flower Extract of Spartium junceum L. Plant

In this study, the natural dye was extracted from Spartium junceum L. (SJL) flowers and applied on cellulose (cotton) and protein (wool) fabric. Fabrics were pre-mordant with alum prior to the dyeing process. Considering the global requirements on zero waste and green policy, the dyeing process was intended to be as much as possible environmentally friendly but still effective. Therefore, mordant concentration was optimized due to the reduction of the negative impact. The efficiency of the dyeing process was investigated by examination of fabrics’ color characteristics and colorfastness to washing properties. In this paper, we have proved that the extracted dye from Spartium junceum L. is an acidic dye (mordant dye) which is more applicable for the treatment of wool fabrics. In this paper, it was proved that phytochemicals responsible for coloring are part of the flavonoids group. The UV absorption spectra of extracted dye show 4 bands in the region of λ_max 224, 268, 308 and 346 nm which are ascribed to bands characteristic for flavonoids. Wool fabric pre-mordant with 3% alum and dyed shows great chromatic (C*) properties where C* value is in a range from 47.76 for unwashed samples to 47.50 for samples after 5 washing cycles and color hue (h°) is in a range 82.13 for unwashed samples to 81.52 for samples after 5 washing cycles. The best result regarding the colorfastness properties is shown by the wool sample treated with 3% alum after 5 washing cycles (total difference in color (Delta E*) = 0.87). These results confirm that metal (Al) from alum mordant make strong chemical bonds with wool substrate and dye since Delta E* values decrease in comparison to Delta E* values of the cotton samples treated the same way. The results revealed it is possible to reduce the concentration of mordant up to 3% and obtain satisfactory results regarding the colorfastness. Nevertheless, future research will go in the direction of replacing synthetic mordant with a more environmentally friendly one.

Development and Optimization of Supercritical Fluid Extraction Setup Leading to Quantification of 11 Cannabinoids Derived from Medicinal Cannabis

In this study, the optimal setup of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) was designed and developed, leading to the quantitation of 11 distinct cannabinoids (cannabidivann (CBDV), tetrahydrocannabivann (THCV), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabigerol (CBG) cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), cannabinol (CBN), delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁸-THC), cannabichomere (CBC) and delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol acid (THCA-A)) extracted from the flowers of medicinal cannabis (sp. Sativa). Supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO₂) extraction was performed at 37 °C, a pressure of 250 bar with the maximum theoretical density of CO₂ (893.7 kg/m³), which generated the highest yield of cannabinoids from the flower-derived extract. Additionally, a cold separator (separating chamber) was used and positioned immediately after the sample containing chamber to maximize the yield. It was also found that successive washing of the extract with fresh scCO₂ further increased yields. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with DAD (uHPLC-DAD) was used to develop a method for the quantification of 11 cannabinoids. The C18 stationary phase was used in conjunction with a two solvent system gradient program resulting in the acquisition of the well-resolved chromatogram over a timespan of 32 min. The accuracy and precision of isolated cannabinoids across inter-and intra-day periods were within acceptable limits (<±15%). The assay was also fully validated and deemed sensitive from linearity, LOQ, and LOD perspective. The findings of this body of work are expected to facilitate improved conditions for the optimal extraction of select cannabinoids using scCO₂, which holds promise in the development of well-characterized medicinal cannabis formulations. As to our best knowledge, this is the first study to report the uHPLC quantification method for the analysis of 11 cannabinoids from scCO₂ extract in a single run with more than 1 min peak separation.

Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Organic Solvents from Flunisolide and Fluticasone Propionate

In this work, Class 2 and Class 3 solvents contained in two corticosteroids, flunisolide (Fluni) and fluticasone propionate (Fluti), were reduced to a few ppm by supercritical CO₂ extraction. The process was carried out at pressures from 80 to 200 bar, temperatures of 40 °C and 80 °C, and at a fixed CO₂ flow rate of 0.7 kg/h. The results demonstrated that CO₂ density is the key parameter influencing the extraction kinetics and the solvent final residue. In particular, in the range investigated, optimal pressure and temperature conditions for the extraction of residual organic solvents were found working at 200 bar and 40 °C, which corresponds to a CO₂ density of 0.840 g/cm³. Operating in this way, total organic solvent residues were reduced from 13,671 ppm and 326 ppm to 12 ppm and 10 ppm for Fluni and Fluti, respectively.

Valorization of byproducts from tropical fruits: A review, Part 2: Applications, economic, and environmental aspects of biorefinery via supercritical fluid extraction

The global trade of tropical fruits is expected to increase significantly in the coming years. In 2018, the production was approximately 100 million tones, an increase of 3.3% compared to the previous year. Nevertheless, according to the Food and Agricultural Organization, every year one-third of the food produced in the world for human consumption is lost or wasted. More specifically, around 45% of the fruits, constituted mainly by peels, seeds, and pulps after juice extraction, are discarded mainly in the agricultural and processing steps. Therefore, decreasing and/or using these byproducts, which are often rich in bioactive components, have become an important focus for both the scientific community and the fruit processing industry. In this line, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technology is expected to play a significant role in the valorization of these byproducts. This review presents the concepts of a tropical fruit biorefinery using supercritical CO₂ extraction and the potential applications of the isolated fractions. There is a specific focus on the extraction of bioactive compounds, that is, carotenoids and phenolics, but also oils and other valuable molecules. Moreover, the techno-economic and environmental performance is assessed. Overall, the biorefinery of tropical fruits via SFE provides new opportunities for development of food and pharmaceutical products with improved economic and environmental performance.

The Cannabis Terpenes

Terpenes are the primary constituents of essential oils and are responsible for the aroma characteristics of cannabis. Together with the cannabinoids, terpenes illustrate synergic and/or entourage effect and their interactions have only been speculated in for the last few decades. Hundreds of terpenes are identified that allude to cannabis sensory attributes, contributing largely to the consumer's experiences and market price. They also enhance many therapeutic benefits, especially as aromatherapy. To shed light on the importance of terpenes in the cannabis industry, the purpose of this review is to morphologically describe sources of cannabis terpenes and to explain the biosynthesis and diversity of terpene profiles in different cannabis chemovars.

Biological Activity of Cannabis sativa L. Extracts Critically Depends on Solvent Polarity and Decarboxylation

Minor cannabinoid and non-cannabinoid molecules have been proposed to significantly contribute to the pharmacological profile of cannabis extracts. Phytoplant Research has developed highly productive cannabis cultivars with defined chemotypes, as well as proprietary methods for the extraction and purification of cannabinoids. Here, we investigate the effect of solvent selection and decarboxylation on the composition and pharmacological activity of cannabis extracts. A library of forty cannabis extracts was generated from ten different cannabis cultivars registered by Phytoplant Research at the EU Community Plant Variety Office. Plant material was extracted using two different solvents, ethanol and hexane, and crude extracts were subsequently decarboxylated or not. Cannabinoid content in the resulting extracts was quantified, and biological activity was screened in vitro at three molecular targets involved in hypoxia and inflammation (NF-κB, HIF-1α and STAT3). Changes in transcriptional activation were strongly associated to solvent selection and decarboxylation. Two decarboxylated extracts prepared with hexane were the most potent at inhibiting NF-κB transcription, while HIF-1α activation was preferentially inhibited by ethanolic extracts, and decarboxylated extracts were generally more potent at inhibiting STAT3 induction. Our results indicate that solvent selection and proper decarboxylation represent key aspects of the standardized production of cannabis extracts with reproducible pharmacological activity.

Microwave-Assisted Industrial Scale Cannabis Extraction

Cannabis is a flowering plant that has long been used for medicinal, therapeutic, and recreational purposes. Cannabis contains more than 500 different compounds, including a unique class of terpeno-phenolic compounds known as cannabinoids. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are the most extensively studied cannabinoids. They have been associated with the therapeutic and medicinal properties of the cannabis plant and also with its popularity as a recreational drug. In this paper, an industrial method for cannabis extraction using 915 MHz microwaves coupled with continuous flow operation is presented. The main advantages of the microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) are associated to the continuous-flow operation at atmospheric pressure which allows for higher volumes of biomass to be processed in less time than existing extraction methods, with improved extraction efficiency leading to increased final product yields, improved extract consistency and quality because the process does not require stopping and restarting material flows, and ease of scale-up to industrial scale without the use of pressurised batch vessels. Moreover, due to the flexibility of changing the operation conditions, MAE eliminates additional steps required in most extraction methods, such as biomass decarboxylation or winterisation, which typically adds at least a half day to the extraction process. Another factor that sets MAE apart is the ability to achieve high extraction efficiency, i.e., up to 95% of the active compounds from cannabis biomass can be recovered at industrial scale.