Nanotechnology approaches for the regeneration and neuroprotection of the central nervous system

Calming the Nerves via the Immune Instructive Physiochemical Properties of Self-Assembling Peptide Hydrogels

Current therapies for the devastating damage caused by traumatic brain injuries (TBI) are limited. This is in part due to poor drug efficacy to modulate neuroinflammation, angiogenesis and/or promoting neuroprotection and is the combined result of challenges in getting drugs across the blood brain barrier, in a targeted approach. The negative impact of the injured extracellular matrix (ECM) has been identified as a factor in restricting post-injury plasticity of residual neurons and is shown to reduce the functional integration of grafted cells. Therefore, new strategies are needed to manipulate the extracellular environment at the subacute phase to enhance brain regeneration. In this review, potential strategies are to be discussed for the treatment of TBI by using self-assembling peptide (SAP) hydrogels, fabricated via the rational design of supramolecular peptide scaffolds, as an artificial ECM which under the appropriate conditions yields a supramolecular hydrogel. Sequence selection of the peptides allows the tuning of these hydrogels' physical and biochemical properties such as charge, hydrophobicity, cell adhesiveness, stiffness, factor presentation, degradation profile and responsiveness to (external) stimuli. This review aims to facilitate the development of more intelligent biomaterials in the future to satisfy the parameters, requirements, and opportunities for the effective treatment of TBI.

Biomaterials in Traumatic Brain Injury: Perspectives and Challenges

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of mortality and long-term impairment globally. TBI has a dynamic pathology, encompassing a variety of metabolic and molecular events that occur in two phases: primary and secondary. A forceful external blow to the brain initiates the primary phase, followed by a secondary phase that involves the release of calcium ions (Ca2+) and the initiation of a cascade of inflammatory processes, including mitochondrial dysfunction, a rise in oxidative stress, activation of glial cells, and damage to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), resulting in paracellular leakage. Currently, there are no FDA-approved drugs for TBI, but existing approaches rely on delivering micro- and macromolecular treatments, which are constrained by the BBB, poor retention, off-target toxicity, and the complex pathology of TBI. Therefore, there is a demand for innovative and alternative therapeutics with effective delivery tactics for the diagnosis and treatment of TBI. Tissue engineering, which includes the use of biomaterials, is one such alternative approach. Biomaterials, such as hydrogels, including self-assembling peptides and electrospun nanofibers, can be used alone or in combination with neuronal stem cells to induce neurite outgrowth, the differentiation of human neural stem cells, and nerve gap bridging in TBI. This review examines the inclusion of biomaterials as potential treatments for TBI, including their types, synthesis, and mechanisms of action. This review also discusses the challenges faced by the use of biomaterials in TBI, including the development of biodegradable, biocompatible, and mechanically flexible biomaterials and, if combined with stem cells, the survival rate of the transplanted stem cells. A better understanding of the mechanisms and drawbacks of these novel therapeutic approaches will help to guide the design of future TBI therapies.

Evaluation of Biogenic Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized from Vegetable Waste

Introduction

Vegetable waste has numerous essential values and can be used for various purposes. Unfortunately, it is often discarded worldwide due to a lack of awareness regarding its nutritional and practical significance. Even the nutrient-rich peels of fruits and vegetables are commonly wasted, despite their numerous useful applications. Utilizing vegetable waste to produce silver nanoparticles through green synthesis is an advantageous, economical, and environmentally friendly method for producing valuable products while addressing waste management concerns. The main emphasis of this study was to synthesize silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by using vegetable waste from Solanum tuberosum (potato) and Coriander sativum (coriander).

Methods

The stems of Coriander sativum and peels of Solanum tuberosum were used as extracts for the synthesis of AgNPs. The characterization of the synthesized AgNPs involved UV-spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The phytochemical analysis was performed to analyze antimicrobial, cytotoxic, antidiabetic, antitumor, antioxidant, alpha-amylase, and protein inhibition activities.

Results

The change in the color of the reaction mixture from yellowish green to brown following the addition of extracts to the silver nitrate solution confirmed nanoparticle synthesis. UV analysis has shown peaks in the range of 300-400nm. SEM confirmed the spherical and agglomerated morphology and size of 64nm for potato peel and 70nm for coriander stem. XRD confirmed the crystalline structure of silver nanoparticles. The phytochemical assays confirmed that silver nanoparticles had higher total phenolic and flavonoid contents. The biosynthesized silver nanoparticles showed promising antimicrobial, cytotoxic, antidiabetic, antitumor, and antioxidant properties and significant alpha-amylase and protein inhibition activities in comparison with the crude extracts.

Conclusion

The bioactivity of the plant suggests that it could be a suitable option for therapeutic purposes. This study demonstrates a potential method for sustainable nanoparticle synthesis and the therapeutic applications of AgNPs derived from vegetable waste. By utilizing the potential of vegetable waste, we can contribute to both environmental sustainability and the development of innovative, valuable products in fields such as medicine, agriculture, and materials science. These findings encourage further research on agricultural byproducts, promoting environmentally friendly and economically advantageous research and development efforts.

Principles of risk decision-making

Risk management decisions in public health require consideration of a number of complex, often conflicting factors. The aim of this review was to propose a set of 10 fundamental principles to guide risk decision-making. Although each of these principles is sound in its own right, the guidance provided by different principles might lead the decision-maker in different directions. For example, where the precautionary principle advocates for preemptive risk management action under situations of scientific uncertainty and potentially catastrophic consequences, the principle of risk-based decision-making encourages decision-makers to focus on established and modifiable risks, where a return on the investment in risk management is all but guaranteed in the near term. To evaluate the applicability of the 10 principles in practice, one needs to consider 10 diverse risk issues of broad concern and explore which of these principles are most appropriate in different contexts. The 10 principles presented here afford substantive insight into the process of risk management decision-making, although decision-makers will ultimately need to exercise judgment in reaching appropriate risk decisions, accounting for all of the scientific and extra-scientific factors relevant to the risk decision at hand.

Nanotechnology-based drug delivery for the treatment of CNS disorders

Approximately 6.8 million people die annually because of problems related to the central nervous system (CNS), and out of them, approximately 1 million people are affected by neurodegenerative diseases that include Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and Parkinson's disease. CNS problems are a primary concern because of the complexity of the brain. There are various drugs available to treat CNS disorders and overcome problems with toxicity, specificity, and delivery. Barriers like the blood-brain barrier (BBB) are a challenge, as they do not allow therapeutic drugs to cross and reach their target. Researchers have been searching for ways to allow drugs to pass through the BBB and reach the target sites. These problems highlight the need of nanotechnology to alter or manipulate various processes at the cellular level to achieve the desired attributes. Due to their nanosize, nanoparticles are able to pass through the BBB and are an effective alternative to drug administration and other approaches. Nanotechnology has the potential to improve treatment and diagnostic techniques for CNS disorders and facilitate effective drug transfer. With the aid of nanoengineering, drugs could be modified to perform functions like transference across the BBB, altering signaling pathways, targeting specific cells, effective gene transfer, and promoting regeneration and preservation of nerve cells. The involvement of a nanocarrier framework inside the delivery of several neurotherapeutic agents used in the treatment of neurological diseases is reviewed in this study.

Acetylcholine esterase inhibitory activity of green synthesized nanosilver by naphthopyrones isolated from marine-derived Aspergillus niger

Aspergillus niger metabolites exhibited a wide range of biological properties including antioxidant and neuro-protective effects and some physical properties as green synthesis of silver nanoparticles AgNP. The present study presents a novel evidence for the various biological activities of green synthesized AgNPs. For the first time, some isolated naphtho-γ-pyrones from marine-derived Aspergillus niger, flavasperone (1), rubrofusarin B (2), aurasperone A (3), fonsecinone A (4) in addition to one alkaloid aspernigrin A (7) were invistigated for their inhibitory activity of acetylcholine esterase AChE, a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The ability to synthesize AgNPs by compounds 3, 4 and 7 has been also tested for the first time. Green synthesized AgNPs were well-dispersed, and their size was ranging from 8–30 nm in diameter, their morphology was obviously spherical capped with the organic compounds. Further biological evaluation of their AChE inhibitory activity was compared to the parent compounds. AgNps dramatically increased the inhibitory activity of Compounds 4, 3 and 7 by 84, 16 and 13 fold, respectively to be more potent than galanthamine as a positive control with IC₅₀ value of 1.43 compared to 0.089, 0.311 and 1.53 of AgNPs of Compounds 4, 3 and 7, respectively. Also compound 2 showed moderate inhibitory activity. This is could be probably explained by closer fitting to the active sites or the synergistic effect of the stabilized AgNPs by the organic compouds. These results, in addition to other intrinsic chemical and biological properties of naphtho-γ-pyrones, suggest that the latter could be further explored with a view towards other neuroprotective studies for alleviating AD.

Recent Advances in the Application of Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials for Neural Tissue Engineering and Regeneration

The complexity of the nervous system structure and function, and its slow regeneration rate, makes it more difficult to treat compared to other tissues in the human body when an injury occurs. Moreover, the current therapeutic approaches including the use of autografts, allografts, and pharmacological agents have several drawbacks and can not fully restore nervous system injuries. Recently, nanotechnology and tissue engineering approaches have attracted many researchers to guide tissue regeneration in an effective manner. Owing to their remarkable physicochemical and biological properties, two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials have been extensively studied in the tissue engineering and regenerative medicine field. The great conductivity of these materials makes them a promising candidate for the development of novel scaffolds for neural tissue engineering application. Moreover, the high loading capacity of 2D nanomaterials also has attracted many researchers to utilize them as a drug/gene delivery method to treat various devastating nervous system disorders. This review will first introduce the fundamental physicochemical properties of 2D nanomaterials used in biomedicine and the supporting biological properties of 2D nanomaterials for inducing neuroregeneration, including their biocompatibility on neural cells, the ability to promote the neural differentiation of stem cells, and their immunomodulatory properties which are beneficial for alleviating chronic inflammation at the site of the nervous system injury. It also discusses various types of 2D nanomaterials-based scaffolds for neural tissue engineering applications. Then, the latest progress on the use of 2D nanomaterials for nervous system disorder treatment is summarized. Finally, a discussion of the challenges and prospects of 2D nanomaterials-based applications in neural tissue engineering is provided.

SARS-CoV-2 and tissue damage: current insights and biomaterial-based therapeutic strategies

The effect of SARS-CoV-2 infection on humanity has gained worldwide attention and importance due to the rapid transmission, lack of treatment options and high mortality rate of the virus. While scientists across the world are searching for vaccines/drugs that can control the spread of the virus and/or reduce the risks associated with infection, patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 have been reported to have tissue/organ damage. With most tissues/organs having limited regenerative potential, interventions that prevent further damage or facilitate healing would be helpful. In the past few decades, biomaterials have gained prominence in the field of tissue engineering, in view of their major role in the regenerative process. Here we describe the effect of SARS-CoV-2 on multiple tissues/organs, and provide evidence for the positive role of biomaterials in aiding tissue repair. These findings are further extrapolated to explore their prospects as a therapeutic platform to address the tissue/organ damage that is frequently observed during this viral outbreak. This study suggests that the biomaterial-based approach could be an effective strategy for regenerating tissues/organs damaged by SARS-CoV-2.

Neurodegenerative diseases and effective drug delivery: A review of challenges and novel therapeutics

The central nervous system (CNS) encompasses the brain and spinal cord and is considered the processing center and the most vital part of human body. The central nervous system (CNS) barriers are crucial interfaces between the CNS and the periphery. Among all these biological barriers, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) strongly impede hurdle for drug transport to brain. It is a semi-permeable diffusion barrier against the noxious chemicals and harmful substances present in the blood stream and regulates the nutrients delivery to the brain for its proper functioning. Neurological diseases owing to the existence of the BBB and the blood-spinal cord barrier have been terrible and threatening challenges all over the world and can rarely be directly mediated. In fact, drug delivery to brain remained a challenge in the treatment of neurodegenerative (ND) disorders, for these different approaches have been proposed. Nano-fabricated smart drug delivery systems and implantable drug loaded biomaterials for brain repair are among some of these latest approaches. In current review, modern approaches developed to deal with the challenges associated with transporting drugs to the CNS are included. Recent studies on neural drug discovery and injectable hydrogels provide a potential new treatment option for neurological disorders. Moreover, induced pluripotent stem cells used to model ND diseases are discussed to evaluate drug efficacy. These protocols and recent developments will enable discovery of more effective drug delivery systems for brain.

Nanotechnology: A Promising Approach for Delivery of Neuroprotective Drugs

Central nervous system (CNS) disorders especially neurodegenerative disorders are the major challenge for public health and demand the great attention of researchers to protect people against them. In past few decades, different treatment strategies have been adopted, but their therapeutic efficacy are not enough and have only shown partial mitigation of symptoms. Blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BSCFB) guard the CNS from harmful substances and pose as the major challenges in delivering drugs into CNS for treatment of CNS complications such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), stroke, epilepsy, brain tumors, multiple sclerosis (MS), and encephalitis, etc. Nanotechnology has come out as an exciting and promising new platform of treating neurological disorders and has shown great potential to overcome problems related to the conventional treatment approaches. Molecules can be nanoengineered to carry out multiple specific functions such as to cross the BBB, target specific cell or signaling pathway, respond to endogenous stimuli, and act as a vehicle for gene delivery, support nerve regeneration and cell survival. In present review, the role of nanocarrier systems such as liposomes, micelles, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNPs), dendrimers, and nanoemulsions for delivery of various neurotherapeutic agents has been discussed, besides this, their mechanism of action, and nanoformulation of different neuroprotective agents like curcumin, edaravone, nerve growth factors in CNS disorders like Alzheimer’s, Parkinsonism, epilepsy, stroke, and brain tumors has been reviewed.

Nanogels as potential drug nanocarriers for CNS drug delivery

Hydrogel-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) have versatile applications such, as tissue engineering, scaffolds, drug delivery, and regenerative medicines. The drawback of higher size and poor stability in such DDSs are being addressed by developing nano-sized hydrogel particles, known as nanogels, to achieve the desired biocompatibility and encapsulation efficiency for better efficacy than conventional bulk hydrogels. In this review, we describe advances in the development of nanogels and their promotion as nanocarriers to deliver therapeutic agents to the central nervous system (CNS). We also discuss the challenges, possible solutions, and future prospects for the use of nanogel-based DDSs for CNS therapies.

Nanoparticle-Based Therapeutics for Brain Injury

Brain injuries affect a large patient population with major physical and emotional suffering for patients and their relatives; at a significant cost to the society. Effective diagnostic and therapeutic options available for brain injuries are limited by the complex brain injury pathology involving blood-brain barrier (BBB). Brain injuries, including ischemic stroke and brain trauma, initiate BBB opening for a short period of time, which is followed by a second reopening for an extended time. The leaky BBB and/or the alterations in the receptor expression on BBB may provide opportunities for therapeutic delivery via nanoparticles (NPs). The approaches for therapeutic interventions via NP delivery are aimed at salvaging the pericontusional/penumbra area for possible neuroprotection and neurovascular unit preservation. The focus of this progress report is to provide a survey of NP strategies employed in cerebral ischemia and brain trauma and finally provide insights for improved NP-based diagnostic/treatment approaches.

Nanotechnology for Neuroscience: Promising Approaches for Diagnostics, Therapeutics and Brain Activity Mapping

Unlocking the secrets of the brain is a task fraught with complexity and challenge - not least due to the intricacy of the circuits involved. With advancements in the scale and precision of scientific technologies, we are increasingly equipped to explore how these components interact to produce a vast range of outputs that constitute function and disease. Here, an insight is offered into key areas in which the marriage of neuroscience and nanotechnology has revolutionized the industry. The evolution of ever more sophisticated nanomaterials culminates in network-operant functionalized agents. In turn, these materials contribute to novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, including drug delivery, neuroprotection, neural regeneration, neuroimaging and neurosurgery. Further, the entrance of nanotechnology into future research arenas including optogenetics, molecular/ion sensing and monitoring, and piezoelectric effects is discussed. Finally, considerations in nanoneurotoxicity, the main barrier to clinical translation, are reviewed, and direction for future perspectives is provided.

Nanotechnology in neurosurgery: thinking small, dreaming big

Nanotechnology has the power to transform neurosurgery by facilitating intervention at the cellular and subcellular level. The unique properties of nanomaterials will not only improve the management of conditions traditionally treated through neurosurgery, but also make neurosurgical intervention possible for diseases where there are currently limited treatment options. Specifically, nanotechnology appears to be a promising tool for improving molecular imaging, seamlessly integrating diagnosis and therapy in neuro-oncology, identifying targets for selective neuromodulation, as well as promoting neuroregeneration. Despite the vast potential benefits of nanotechnology in neurosurgery, problems related to neurotoxicity and the long-term medical and social consequences must be adequately addressed before nanotechnology becomes a component of surgical care.

Fullerol potentiates the brain antioxidant defense system and decreases γ-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) mRNA during cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury

Fullerol compounds have potent antioxidant effects on biological systems. Therefore, we examined whether fullerol pretreatment potentiates the brain antioxidant defense system and decreases

Nanobiomaterials' applications in neurodegenerative diseases

The blood-brain barrier is the interface between the blood and brain, impeding the passage of most circulating cells and molecules, protecting the latter from foreign substances, and maintaining central nervous system homeostasis. However, its restrictive nature constitutes an obstacle, preventing therapeutic drugs from entering the brain. Usually, a large systemic dose is required to achieve pharmacological therapeutic levels in the brain, leading to adverse effects in the body. As a consequence, various strategies are being developed to enhance the amount and concentration of therapeutic compounds in the brain. One such tool is nanotechnology, in which nanostructures that are 1-100 nm are designed to deliver drugs to the brain. In this review, we examine many nanotechnology-based approaches to the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. The review begins with a brief history of nanotechnology, followed by a discussion of its definition, the properties of most reported nanomaterials, their biocompatibility, the mechanisms of cell-material interactions, and the current status of nanotechnology in treating Alzheimer's, Parkinson's diseases, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Of all strategies to deliver drug to the brain that are used in nanotechnology, drug release systems are the most frequently reported.

Nanomedicine in Central Nervous System (CNS) Disorders: A Present and Future Prospective

Purpose: For the past few decades central nervous system disorders were considered as a major strike on human health and social system of developing countries. The natural therapeutic methods for CNS disorders limited for many patients. Moreover, nanotechnology-based drug delivery to the brain may an exciting and promising platform to overcome the problem of BBB crossing. In this review, first we focused on the role of the blood-brain barrier in drug delivery; and second, we summarized synthesis methods of nanomedicine and their role in different CNS disorder. Method: We reviewed the PubMed databases and extracted several kinds of literature on neuro nanomedicines using keywords, CNS disorders, nanomedicine, and nanotechnology. The inclusion criteria included chemical and green synthesis methods for synthesis of nanoparticles encapsulated drugs and, their in-vivo and in-vitro studies. We excluded nanomedicine gene therapy and nanomaterial in brain imaging. Results: In this review, we tried to identify a highly efficient method for nanomedicine synthesis and their efficacy in neuronal disorders. SLN and PNP encapsulated drugs reported highly efficient by easily crossing BBB. Although, these neuro-nanomedicine play significant role in therapeutics but some metallic nanoparticles reported the adverse effect on developing the brain. Conclusion: Although impressive advancement has made via innovative potential drug development, but their efficacy is still moderate due to limited brain permeability. To overcome this constraint,powerful tool in CNS therapeutic intervention provided by nanotechnology-based drug delivery methods. Due to its small and biofunctionalization characteristics, nanomedicine can easily penetrate and facilitate the drug through the barrier. But still, understanding of their toxicity level, optimization and standardization are a long way to go.

"Extremely minimally invasive": recent advances in nanotechnology research and future applications in neurosurgery

The term "nanotechnology" refers to the development of materials and devices that have been designed with specific properties at the nanometer scale (10(-9) m), usually being less than 100 nm in size. Recent advances in nanotechnology have promised to enable visualization and intervention at the subcellular level, and its incorporation to future medical therapeutics is expected to bring new avenues for molecular imaging, targeted drug delivery, and personalized interventions. Although the central nervous system presents unique challenges to the implementation of new therapeutic strategies involving nanotechnology (such as the heterogeneous molecular environment of different CNS regions, the existence of multiple processing centers with different cytoarchitecture, and the presence of the blood-brain barrier), numerous studies have demonstrated that the incorporation of nanotechnology resources into the armamentarium of neurosurgery may lead to breakthrough advances in the near future. In this article, the authors present a critical review on the current 'state-of-the-art' of basic research in nanotechnology with special attention to those issues which present the greatest potential to generate major therapeutic progresses in the neurosurgical field, including nanoelectromechanical systems, nano-scaffolds for neural regeneration, sutureless anastomosis, molecular imaging, targeted drug delivery, and theranostic strategies.

Nanostructures: a platform for brain repair and augmentation

Nanoscale structures have been at the core of research efforts dealing with integration of nanotechnology into novel electronic devices for the last decade. Because the size of nanomaterials is of the same order of magnitude as biomolecules, these materials are valuable tools for nanoscale manipulation in a broad range of neurobiological systems. For instance, the unique electrical and optical properties of nanowires, nanotubes, and nanocables with vertical orientation, assembled in nanoscale arrays, have been used in many device applications such as sensors that hold the potential to augment brain functions. However, the challenge in creating nanowires/nanotubes or nanocables array-based sensors lies in making individual electrical connections fitting both the features of the brain and of the nanostructures. This review discusses two of the most important applications of nanostructures in neuroscience. First, the current approaches to create nanowires and nanocable structures are reviewed to critically evaluate their potential for developing unique nanostructure based sensors to improve recording and device performance to reduce noise and the detrimental effect of the interface on the tissue. Second, the implementation of nanomaterials in neurobiological and medical applications will be considered from the brain augmentation perspective. Novel applications for diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases such as multiple sclerosis, meningitis, stroke, epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia, and autism will be considered. Because the blood brain barrier (BBB) has a defensive mechanism in preventing nanomaterials arrival to the brain, various strategies to help them to pass through the BBB will be discussed. Finally, the implementation of nanomaterials in neurobiological applications is addressed from the brain repair/augmentation perspective. These nanostructures at the interface between nanotechnology and neuroscience will play a pivotal role not only in addressing the multitude of brain disorders but also to repair or augment brain functions.

Nanoparticulate strategies for the five R’s of traumatic spinal cord injury intervention: restriction, repair, regeneration, restoration and reorganization

Nanomedicinal approaches for spinal cord injury (SCI) intervention encompasses the use of nanoscale materials and devices that prevent primary to secondary injury transition and improvement in the anatomical, physiological and functional outcomes of SCI. This review provides an incursion into the advances in nanoparticle-based neurotherapeutics for SCI and focuses on neuroactive-loaded nanoparticles for localized delivery of therapeutic factors to the severed spinal cord, targeted or nontargeted systemic drug delivery and nanoenclatherated neuroscaffolds. Special emphasis has been placed on the use of metal nanoparticles and functionalized structures as ‘drug-free’ interventions in SCI. Despite the immense advancements in nanoscience, nanointerventions still pose key challenges that need to be resolved in SCI. Several combinatorial strategies are proposed for the reconstruction of spinal architecture via restriction of the secondary injury cascade, reparation of the tethered neural architecture, regeneration of axons, restoration of biochemical functions and reorganization of the topographical and cortical networks of the spinal cord.

Neural ECM mimetics

The consequence of numerous neurological disorders is the significant loss of neural cells, which further results in multilevel dysfunction or severe functional deficits. The extracellular matrix (ECM) is of tremendous importance for neural regeneration mediating ambivalent functions: ECM serves as a growth-promoting substrate for neurons but, on the other hand, is a major constituent of the inhibitory scar, which results from traumatic injuries of the central nervous system. Therefore, cell and tissue replacement strategies on the basis of ECM mimetics are very promising therapeutic interventions. Numerous synthetic and natural materials have proven effective both in vitro and in vivo. The closer a material's physicochemical and molecular properties are to the original extracellular matrix, the more promising its effectiveness may be. Relevant factors that need to be taken into account when designing such materials for neural repair relate to receptor-mediated cell-matrix interactions, which are dependent on chemical and mechanical sensing. This chapter outlines important characteristics of natural and synthetic ECM materials (scaffolds) and provides an overview of recent advances in design and application of ECM materials for neural regeneration, both in therapeutic applications and in basic biological research.

Carbon nanomaterials for nerve tissue stimulation and regeneration

Nanotechnology offers new perspectives in the field of innovative medicine, especially for reparation and regeneration of irreversibly damaged or diseased nerve tissues due to lack of effective self-repair mechanisms in the peripheral and central nervous systems (PNS and CNS, respectively) of the human body. Carbon nanomaterials, due to their unique physical, chemical and biological properties, are currently considered as promising candidates for applications in regenerative medicine. This chapter discusses the potential applications of various carbon nanomaterials including carbon nanotubes, nanofibers and graphene for regeneration and stimulation of nerve tissue, as well as in drug delivery systems for nerve disease therapy.

A study on electrospray mass spectrometry of fullerenol C60(OH)24

Full characterization of fullerenol C₆₀(OH)₂₄ by HPLC ESI-MS in negative and positive ionization modes was achieved. Fragmentor voltage and capillary voltage were optimized in order to obtain a good signal stability and the best peak intensity distribution for the fullerenol C₆₀(OH)₂₄ in both negative and positive modes. While the predominant base peak observed for C₆₀(OH)₂₄ in the negative ionization mode was [M − H]⁻ at m/z 1127, those observed in the positive mode were multiply charged [M − H₂O + 4H]⁴⁺ at m/z 279 and [M − 12H₂O + 2NH₃ + 6H]⁶⁺ at m/z 158.

Revolutionary impact of nanodrug delivery on neuroscience

Brain research is the most expanding interdisciplinary research that is using the state of the art techniques to overcome limitations in order to conduct more accurate and effective experiments. Drug delivery to the target site in the central nervous system (CNS) is one of the most difficult steps in neuroscience researches and therapies. Taking advantage of the nanoscale structure of neural cells (both neurons and glia); nanodrug delivery (second generation of biotechnological products) has a potential revolutionary impact into the basic understanding, visualization and therapeutic applications of neuroscience. Current review article firstly provides an overview of preparation and characterization, purification and separation, loading and delivering of nanodrugs. Different types of nanoparticle bioproducts and a number of methods for their fabrication and delivery systems including (carbon) nanotubes are explained. In the second part, neuroscience and nervous system drugs are deeply investigated. Different mechanisms in which nanoparticles enhance the uptake and clearance of molecules form cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are discussed. The focus is on nanodrugs that are being used or have potential to improve neural researches, diagnosis and therapy of neurodegenerative disorders.

Nanotechnology-novel therapeutics for CNS disorders

Research into treatments for diseases of the CNS has made impressive strides in the past few decades, but therapeutic options are limited for many patients with CNS disorders. Nanotechnology has emerged as an exciting and promising new means of treating neurological disease, with the potential to fundamentally change the way we approach CNS-targeted therapeutics. Molecules can be nanoengineered to cross the blood-brain barrier, target specific cell or signalling systems, respond to endogenous stimuli, or act as vehicles for gene delivery, or as a matrix to promote axon elongation and support cell survival. The wide variety of available nanotechnologies allows the selection of a nanoscale material with the characteristics best suited to the therapeutic challenges posed by an individual CNS disorder. In this Review, we describe recent advances in the development of nanotechnology for the treatment of neurological disorders-in particular, neurodegenerative disease and malignant brain tumours-and for the promotion of neuroregeneration.

Types of neural guides and using nanotechnology for peripheral nerve reconstruction

Peripheral nerve injuries can lead to lifetime loss of function and permanent disfigurement. Different methods, such as conventional allograft procedures and use of biologic tubes present problems when used for damaged peripheral nerve reconstruction. Designed scaffolds comprised of natural and synthetic materials are now widely used in the reconstruction of damaged tissues. Utilization of absorbable and nonabsorbable synthetic and natural polymers with unique characteristics can be an appropriate solution to repair damaged nerve tissues. Polymeric nanofibrous scaffolds with properties similar to neural structures can be more effective in the reconstruction process. Better cell adhesion and migration, more guiding of axons, and structural features, such as porosity, provide a clearer role for nanofibers in the restoration of neural tissues. In this paper, basic concepts of peripheral nerve injury, types of artificial and natural guides, and methods to improve the performance of tubes, such as orientation, nanotechnology applications for nerve reconstruction, fibers and nanofibers, electrospinning methods, and their application in peripheral nerve reconstruction are reviewed.

Nanotechnology applications and approaches for neuroregeneration and drug delivery to the central nervous system

Nanotechnology is the science and engineering concerned with the design, synthesis, and characterization of materials and devices that have a functional organization in at least one dimension on the nanometer (i.e., one billionth of a meter) scale. The potential impact of bottom up self-assembling nanotechnology, custom made molecules that self-assemble or self-organize into higher ordered structures in response to a defined chemical or physical cue, and top down lithographic type technologies where detail is engineered at smaller scales starting from bulk materials, stems from the fact that these nanoengineered materials and devices exhibit emergent mesocale and macroscale chemical and physical properties that are often different than their constituent nanoscale building block molecules or materials. As such, applications of nanotechnology to medicine and biology allow the interaction and integration of cells and tissues with nanoengineered substrates at a molecular (i.e., subcellular) level with a very high degree of functional specificity and control. This review considers applications of nanotechnology aimed at the neuroprotection and functional regeneration of the central nervous system (CNS) following traumatic or degenerative insults, and nanotechnology approaches for delivering drugs and other small molecules across the blood-brain barrier. It also discusses developing platform technologies that may prove to have broad applications to medicine and physiology, including some being developed for rescuing or replacing anatomical and/or functional CNS structures.

Biomaterials for Brain Tissue Engineering

Neurological disorders such as traumatic brain injuries or stroke result in neuronal loss and disruption of the brain parenchyma. Current treatment strategies are limited in that they can only mitigate the degeneration process or alleviate the symptoms but do not reverse the condition. In contrast, regenerative cell-based therapies offer long-term hope for many patients. Bioactive scaffolds are likely to reinforce the success of cell replacement therapies by providing a microenvironment that facilitates the survival, proliferation, differentiation, and connectivity of transplanted and/or endogenous cells. This Review outlines various biomaterials (including hydrogels, self-assembling peptides, and electrospun nanofibres) that have been investigated for the repair of brain tissue, and discusses strategies for the immobilization of biomolecules. An overview of the potential clinical applications of such scaffolds in neurodegenerative diseases is also provided.

Chapter 2 - Quantum dot nanotechnologies for neuroimaging

Functionalized quantum dot nanocrystals provide an opportunity for high signal-to-noise ratio specific labeling of cells with micron-scale spatial resolution, and extend the cellular imaging toolbox available to the cellular neurobiologist. In this review we discuss previous work from our group aimed at optimizing quantum dot labeling protocols specific to neurons and neural glial cells, labeling and imaging of intact neural retinal tissue sections in a rat model of retinal degeneration focused on the formation of the glial scar following focal reactive gliosis, and on the characterization and estimation of the number of functionally available antibodies for biological binding conjugated to quantum dots following two popular conjugation schemes.

Nanotechnological applications for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders

Nanotechnology employs engineered materials or devices that interact with biological systems at a molecular level and could revolutionize the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) by stimulating, responding to and interacting with target sites to induce physiological responses while minimizing side-effects. Conventional drug delivery systems do not provide adequate cyto-architecture restoration and connection patterns that are essential for functional recovery in NDs, due to limitations posed by the restrictive blood-brain barrier. This review article provides a concise incursion into the current and future applications of nano-enabled drug delivery systems for the treatment of NDs, in particular Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, and explores the application of nanotechnology in clinical neuroscience to develop innovative therapeutic modalities for the treatment of NDs.

Nanotechnology, nanotoxicology, and neuroscience

Nanotechnology, which deals with features as small as a 1 billionth of a meter, began to enter into mainstream physical sciences and engineering some 20 years ago. Recent applications of nanoscience include the use of nanoscale materials in electronics, catalysis, and biomedical research. Among these applications, strong interest has been shown to biological processes such as blood coagulation control and multimodal bioimaging, which has brought about a new and exciting research field called nanobiotechnology. Biotechnology, which itself also dates back approximately 30 years, involves the manipulation of macroscopic biological systems such as cells and mice in order to understand why and how molecular level mechanisms affect specific biological functions, e.g., the role of APP (amyloid precursor protein) in Alzheimer's disease (AD). This review aims (1) to introduce key concepts and materials from nanotechnology to a non-physical sciences community; (2) to introduce several state-of-the-art examples of current nanotechnology that were either constructed for use in biological systems or that can, in time, be utilized for biomedical research; (3) to provide recent excerpts in nanotoxicology and multifunctional nanoparticle systems (MFNPSs); and (4) to propose areas in neuroscience that may benefit from research at the interface of neurobiologically important systems and nanostructured materials.

Neurosurgery in the realm of 10(-9), part 1: stardust and nanotechnology in neuroscience

Nanotechnology as a science has evolved from notions and speculation to emerge as a prominent combination of science and engineering that stands to impact innumerable aspects of technology. Medicine in general and neurosurgery in particular will benefit greatly in terms of improved diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities. The recent explosion in nanotechnology products, including diverse applications such as beauty products and medical contrast agents, has been accompanied by an ever increasing volume of literature. Recent articles from our institution provided an historical and scientific background of nanotechnology, with a purposeful focus on nanomedicine. Future applications of nanotechnology to neuroscience and neurosurgery were briefly addressed. The present article is the first of two that will further this discussion by providing specific details of current nanotechnology applications and research related to neuroscience and clinical neurosurgery. This article also provides relevant perspective in scale, history, economics, and toxicology. Topics of specific importance to developments or advances of technologies used by neuroscientists and neurosurgeons are presented. In addition, advances in the field of microelectromechanical systems technology are discussed. Although larger than nanoscale, microelectromechanical systems technologies will play an important role in the future of medicine and neurosurgery. The second article will discuss current nanotechnologies that are being, or will be in the near future, incorporated into the armamentarium of the neurosurgeon. The goal of these articles is to keep the neuroscience community abreast of current developments in nanotechnology, nanomedicine, and, in particular, nanoneurosurgery, and to present possibilities for future applications of nanotechnology. As applications of nanotechnology permeate all forms of scientific and medical research, clinical applications will continue to emerge. Physicians of the present and future must take an active role in shaping the design and research of nanotechnologies to ensure maximal clinical relevance and patient benefit.

Novel nanomaterials for clinical neuroscience

Neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and stroke are rapidly increasing as population ages. The field of nanomedicine is rapidly expanding and promises revolutionary advances to the diagnosis and treatment of devastating human diseases. This paper provides an overview of novel nanomaterials that have potential to improve diagnosis and therapy of neurodegenerative disorders. Examples include liposomes, nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, block ionomer complexes, nanogels, and dendrimers that have been tested clinically or in experimental models for delivery of drugs, genes, and imaging agents. More recently discovered nanotubes and nanofibers are evaluated as promising scaffolds for neuroregeneration. Novel experimental neuroprotective strategies also include nanomaterials, such as fullerenes, which have antioxidant properties to eliminate reactive oxygen species in the brain to mitigate oxidative stress. Novel technologies to enable these materials to cross the blood brain barrier will allow efficient systemic delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic agents to the brain. Furthermore, by combining such nanomaterials with cell-based delivery strategies, the outcomes of neurodegenerative disorders can be greatly improved.

Recent advances in basic and clinical nanomedicine

Nanomedicine is a global business enterprise. Industry and governments clearly are beginning to envision nanomedicine's enormous potential. A clear definition of nanotechnology is an issue that requires urgent attention. This problem exists because nanotechnology represents a cluster of technologies, each of which may have different characteristics and applications. Although numerous novel nanomedicine-related applications are under development or nearing commercialization, the process of converting basic research in nanomedicine into commercially viable products will be long and difficult. Although realization of the full potential of nanomedicine may be years or decades away, recent advances in nanotechnology-related drug delivery, diagnosis, and drug development are beginning to change the landscape of medicine. Site-specific targeted drug delivery and personalized medicine are just a few concepts that are on the horizon.