Concentrations of anti-Müllerian hormone in the domestic cat. Relation with spay or neuter status and serum estradiol

Serum anti-Müllerian hormone is an indirect predictor of ovarian reserve in domestic cats

Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) serves as an indirect marker for predicting primordial follicles that are representative of ovarian reserve. In this study the possibility of using AMH and age to predict the ovarian reserve in domestic cats. Ovaries and blood were collected from 30 cats undergoing routine ovariohysterectomy. The animals were divided into three age groups: prepubertal (<4 mo, n = 10), adult (1-5 y, n = 10), and senior (>5 y, n = 10). Blood was collected at surgery for serum AMH measurements using the AMH Gen II ELISA kit. The intra-assay coefficient of variation (CV) and inter-assay CV were 3.56 % and 7.68 %, respectively. One side of the ovary was processed to determine AMH localization using immunohistochemistry and for a histological count of follicles, which is the gold standard. The expression of AMH protein was quantified from the contralateral ovary by Western blot analysis. Primordial follicles exhibited the most pronounced inverse relationship with age (rho = -0.779, P < 0.05), followed by a positive association with serum AMH concentration (rho = 0.490, P < 0.05), indicating that both age and AMH are potential markers indicative of primordial follicles. Furthermore, secondary (rho = 0.651, P < 0.05) and small antral follicles (rho = 0.648, P < 0.05) were identified as the major sources of circulating AMH, as indicated by the stronger correlation with serum AMH concentrations compared with primary follicles. However, there was no significant correlation between the expression of AMH protein and other factors, including age, primordial follicles, primary follicles, secondary follicles, small antral follicles, and serum AMH concentration. A model for predicting primordial follicle number using serum AMH concentration (AIC = 672.66, P < 0.05) and age (AIC = 668.93, P < 0.05) was established. In conclusion, both serum AMH concentration and age may serve as comparable markers of ovarian reserve in domestic cats. Moreover, AMH is particularly useful in situations where age information is not available.

Determination of anti-Müllerian hormone levels in blood and urine in fertile cats

In recent years, blood anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) levels have been investigated in female animals to diagnose many conditions, such as the presence of ovarian tissue, follicle reserve, and granulosa cell tumors. Since blood collection is an invasive method, diagnosis with a non-invasive method is important in terms of practicality and animal welfare. This study aimed to investigate the presence of AMH in cat urine and determine whether a correlation exists between blood and urine AMH levels. In addition, it was aimed at revealing whether there was a change in blood and urine AMH levels according to ovarian follicle distribution. Twenty-seven healthy, fertile female cats in the follicular phase were included. Following blood and urine sample collection, a routine ovariohysterectomy was performed. Histological analysis of the removed ovarian tissue was used to determine ovarian follicle types. While both AMH and estrogen levels were determined in blood samples, only AMH levels were investigated in urine samples. Blood AMH levels averaged 10.61 ± 0.75 ng/mL (range: 5-16 ng/mL), while urine AMH levels averaged 5.67 ± 0.91 ng/mL (range: 0.2-13 ng/mL). While urinary AMH level was <1 ng/mL in 7 cats, urinary AMH was >1 ng/mL in all remaining cats. While the study demonstrated AMH excretion in urine, no correlation was found between blood and urine AMH values. However, a significant positive correlation was observed between blood AMH levels and serum estrogen levels (P < 0.001). These findings suggest that urinary AMH may be a product of proteolytic degradation, potentially leading to inaccurate estimations of ovarian activity based solely on urine AMH levels.

Half-life of serum anti-Müllerian hormone and changes after gonadectomy in adult female and male dogs with normal and abnormal gonads

Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is a biomarker for the presence of gonadal tissue. Changes in serum AMH after gonadectomy are not well established, and its serum half-life is unknown in dogs. We measured serum AMH with a validated electro-chemiluminescent immunoassay in adult female (n = 12) and male (n = 7) dogs with normal gonads, as well as in dogs with gonadal pathology (ovarian remnant syndrome, ORS n = 3, testicular tumor [Leydig cell, Sertoli cell, seminoma] n = 3, unilateral abdominal cryptorchid n = 4) on the day of gonadectomy (D0), and on D3, D7, D14 (females and males), and D21, D28 (males only). Males had higher AMH concentrations than females independent of gonadal status (P < 0.001). Dogs with ORS had lower initial AMH (0.45 ± 0.43 ng/ml) than bitches with normal gonads (1.16 ± 0.44 ng/ml; P = 0.027). Cryptorchid dogs had higher initial concentrations (80.57 ± 52.81 ng/ml) than males with normal gonads (7.92 ± 2.45 ng/ml; P = 0.004), and those with testicular tumors (18.63 ± 5.04 ng/ml) were intermediate (P ≥ 0.250). AMH decreased over time (P ≤ 0.012) and was 0.01-0.04 ng/ml by D14 in females and 0.02-0.12 ng/ml by D28 in males. Serum half-life in the whole study population was 2.85 ± 0.51 days and did not differ between groups. In conclusion, serum AMH can differentiate between intact and gonadectomized status of adult dogs by 14 days after ovario(hyster)ectomy in females and by 28 days after surgical castration in males.

Serum anti-Müllerian hormone around the time of ovulation simulated by exogenous hormones in clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa)

Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is produced by granulosa cells of the antral follicles. It serves as a promising biomarker for ovarian reserve and responsiveness to ovarian stimulation in humans and domestic animals. This study aimed to validate the AMH Gen II enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and correlate ovarian structures with serum AMH concentrations after stimulation treatment in clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa). Serum samples were collected from 12 women (age 6.21 ± 3.56 years), and serum AMH concentrations were analysed using AMH Gen II ELISA. The animals were divided into two groups based on ovarian structures [preovulatory follicles (>2 mm) and/or corpora hemorrhagica] along with the presence of uterine tonicity visualized laparoscopically around the time of ovulation. Animals that exhibited these reproductive features were identified as the responder group (n = 9, aged 7.59 ± 2.96 years), whereas those lacking the corresponding features were assigned to the nonresponder group (n = 3, aged 2.06 ± 0.53 years). The intra-assay coefficient of variation (CV) and interassay CV was 3.56% and 7.75%, respectively. The linearity of AMH dilution was confirmed (r2  = .998), and the percentage of recovery ranged from 93% to 115%. The results demonstrated that overall serum AMH concentrations around the time of ovulation were negatively correlated with age (rs  = -.692, p = .013). However, serum AMH concentrations were not correlated with the average number of ovarian structures (rs  = -.535, p = .074). Thus, AMH Gen II ELISA was validated in clouded leopards. Around the time of ovulation, serum AMH decreased with advancing age and ovarian responsiveness cannot be evaluated using serum AMH.

Abundance of Anti-Muellerian hormone in cat ovaries and correlation of its plasma concentration with animal age, weight and stage of the estrous cycle

In female animals of different species, Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is produced by follicular granulosa cells and has been associated with the ovarian follicle pool. Because concentration of AMH in plasma of ovary-intact female cats is apparently more variable than previously assumed, we have analysed AMH concentration in blood of cats (n = 93) presented for routine ovariectomy and assessed ovarian histology and AMH protein expression in the surgically removed ovaries. We hypothesised that AMH is synthesized only in preantral and small antral follicles and that plasma AMH concentration reflects the antral follicle count (AFC). Corpora lutea were detected in 35% of the female cats, whereas plasma progesterone concentration was ≥1 ng/mL in 57% of the cats. Follicular cysts were present in 15 cats (16%). Positive immunostaining for AMH protein was detected in close to all primordial and antral follicles, ovarian cysts, 70% of corpora lutea and 28% of atretic follicles. Concentration of AMH in plasma averaged 6.8 ± 0.5 ng/mL (range 1.3-21.7 ng/mL). The AFC increased with increasing AMH concentration with a moderate positive correlation between AFC and AMH (r = 0.286, p < 0.01). Plasma AMH concentration was not affected by season or cats' age, weight, stage of the estrous cycle and presence of follicular cysts. In conclusion, AMH protein is expressed in all endocrine structures of the cat ovary. While AMH is a marker for the presence of ovarian tissue, its usefulness to assess ovarian function in individual female cats is of limited value.

Molecular Factors Involved in the Reproductive Morphophysiology of Female Domestic Cat (Felis catus)

The domestic cat (Felis catus) is considered an important model for the study of feline reproductive morphophysiology. However, although the morphological changes and clinical signs that occur during the estrous cycle and pregnancy are well known, little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in the reproductive physiology of this animal species. Thus, this paper reviews the current knowledge about the modulation and expression profile of hormonal, immunological, redox, and growth mediators involved in the uterine, ovarian, and placental morphophysiology of domestic cats.

Anti-Müllerian hormone levels in serum and testes of male dogs: relations with neuter status and bilateral abdominal cryptorchidism

Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) analysis has contributed to new information in the reproductive endocrinology of domestic animals, due to clinically available diagnostic tools. An accurate and rapid diagnostic method to distinguish between neutered and bilateral abdominal cryptorchid dogs is needed in veterinary practice. Therefore, this study uses an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to evaluate the clinical relevance of AMH analysis in peripheral blood as a diagnostic tool for dogs with suspected bilateral abdominal cryptorchidism. The possible alteration of the AMH localization in testicular tissue caused by this pathologic condition was also investigated using immunohistochemistry. Male dogs were divided into three groups of healthy intact (n = 14), healthy castrated (n = 14), and bilateral abdominal cryptorchid (n = 14) dogs. The results demonstrated a higher level of serum AMH in the cryptorchid group compared to the intact group (P < 0.01), while serum AMH levels of all castrated dogs were below the limit of detection (<0.05 ng/mL). Moreover, the percentage of positive AMH immunostaining of the intact group was less than that of the cryptorchid group (P < 0.01). A significantly positive correlation was found between serum AMH concentration and localization in testicular tissues (r = 0.93, P < 0.01). Our findings suggest that AMH levels in the peripheral blood could be used as an alternative and rapid screening method for detecting dogs with abdominal cryptorchidism.

Anti-Müllerian Hormone Concentrations for Determining Resumption of Sertoli Cell Function following Removal of a 4.7 mg Deslorelin Implant in Tomcats

Background: Deslorelin implant use in cats is a medical alternative to surgical sterilization, and due to its prolonged efficacy, its use has shown growing interest in the veterinary community. In the case of breeding facilities, its removal is often requested for the early restoration of testicular function. As anti-Müllerian hormones (AMH) in males is dependent of testosterone secretion, its assay may determine the restoration of testicular steroid secretion. An average of 3 weeks has been already described for tomcats' testicular function resumption after implant removal, but information about AMH concentrations in deslorelin-treated tomcats is lacking. Methods: Fourteen tomcats were treated for temporary suppression of fertility with a 4.7 mg deslorelin implant, which was surgically removed after 3, 6 or 9 months (n = 6, 4 and 4 tomcats, respectively). A general clinical and reproductive check with a gonadorelin stimulation test for testosterone determination was performed before deslorelin implant administration. After implant removal, tomcats' testicles were ultrasonographically checked for volume determination every 1-2 weeks with observation of the glans penis (presence or absence of spikes) and blood collection to assay both testosterone and AMH concentrations. Results: AMH concentrations increased significantly during the deslorelin treatment from 20.95 ± 4.97 ng/mL to 82.41 ± 14.59 ng/mL (p < 0.05). Following implant removal, AMH concentrations progressively decreased to pre-treatment levels, with a value of 28.42 ± 7.98 ng/mL on the third week post-removal where testosterone secretion was again detected. Conclusions: Even if a big variability of AMH concentrations exists between male individuals, resumption of tomcats' testicular function following a deslorelin treatment can be determined by AMH assay.

[Diagnostic utility of the anti-Mullerian hormone in companion animals]

The anti-Mullerian hormone is a glycoprotein secreted by Sertoli cells in males and granulosa cells in females. The initial identification of this hormone in canine and feline serum was achieved in 2011. Meanwhile, a variety of studies have demonstrated its clinical significance as a tool in the endocrine diagnosis. This review summarizes the current knowledge about anti-Mullerian hormone in small animal reproduction and describes future opportunities for its diagnostic usage.

Serum antimüllerian hormone concentrations in female cats. Relation with ovarian remnant syndrome, ovarian cysts and gonadectomy status

The aim of this study was to reveal (1) the determination of the serum antimüllerian hormone concentrations in cats with ovarian remnant syndrome and ovarian cyst, (2) the effectiveness of the serum antimüllerian hormone concentrations in detecting gonadectomy status, and (3) ovarian expression of the antimüllerian hormone in the ovarian cysts and ovarian remnant tissue. For this purpose, a total of 31 domestic cats older than 1 year, including ORS (n = 9), OC (n = 3), spayed (n = 8), and intact (n = 11), were used in the study. Serum and intrafollicular AMH concentrations were determined by the electrochemiluminescence immunoassay, and expression of the AMH was determined by the immunohistochemical method. The serum AMH concentration in the ORS group was 1.49 ± 1.24 ng/ml (0.10-3.63 ng/ml) whereas it was 1.78 ± 0.92 ng/ml (0.8-2.63 ng/ml) in the OC group. AMH concentration in the intrafollicular fluid was determined as 0.023 ng/ml in a cat with an ovarian cyst. While the serum AMH concentration was below 0.01 ng/ml in spayed cats, it was 5.80 ± 3.30 ng/ml (1.88-11.86 ng/ml) in the intact cats. There was a significant difference between the spayed and intact groups in terms of serum AMH concentration (p < 0.05). Moreover, in cats with ovarian cyst and ovarian remnant syndrome, no difference was found between the groups in terms of serum AMH concentration (p > 0.05). No difference was found between the ovarian remnant syndrome and intact cats in terms of serum AMH concentration (p > 0.05). In immunohistochemical staining, ovarian cysts were found to be negative for AMH while a moderate (+2) AMH positivity was observed in other follicles. Furthermore, in cats with ovarian remnant syndrome, severe (+3) AMH positivity was observed. As a result, it was determined that gonadectomy status can be accurately diagnosed by the AMH measurement. Ovarian remnant syndrome cannot be diagnosed accurately by AMH measurement. In addition, it was found that AMH did not seem to play a role in the pathogenesis of ovarian cysts in cats.

Anti-Müllerian hormone in queens: Serum concentrations and total ovarian follicle population

The objectives of this study were: a) To report anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) serum concentrations in neonatal, pre and postpubertal female cats. b) To establish the relationship between serum AMH with either age and estrous cycle c) To correlate the total number of different ovarian follicle types with AMH in adult queens. A single blood sample was collected from 10 neonates (including 5 male), 15 prepubertal and 48 postpubertal female cats to measure AMH. Eight, 10, and 18 of this latter group were in follicular (FP), luteal phase (LP), and anestrus (AN), respectively. The total number of each follicle type was histologically counted using the Gougeon and Chainy (1987) formula in a subgroup of 10 adult queens. Overall AMH mean of these the female cats was 6.31 ± 0.54 ng/mL. The neonatal females had lower AMH serum concentrations than their male littermates (2.56 ± 0.49 vs. >23 ng/mL; P < 0.01). Concentrations were also higher in prepubertal than in neonatal and postpubertal cats (11.79 ± 1.36 vs. 2.56 ± 0.49 vs. 4.87 ± 0.38 ng/mL; P < 0.01). Queens below 12 mo of age had the highest AMH levels (10.41 ± 1.16; P < 0.01). Age was inversely correlated with AMH (r = -0.5; P < 0.01). Animals in FP had lower AMH concentrations than AN females (2.51 ± 0.33 vs. 5.46 ± 0.76 ng/mL; P < 0.05). No difference in the total number of each follicle type were found between either ovary (P > 0.05). A high correlation was only found between small antral follicles and AMH concentrations (r = 0.85; P < 0.01). It was concluded, that AMH can provide an indirect, reliable marker for the assessment of ovarian follicle size and functionality. Age as well as pubertal state should be considered when evaluating AMH concentrations in this species.

Anti-Müllerian hormone concentrations in queens throughout the estrous cycle

Studies in cats and dogs have proven the usefulness of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) as a diagnostic tool to determine the castration status or to diagnose ovarian remnant syndrome. Yet the secretion pattern of AMH over the estrous cycle in queens has not been investigated so far. Seven healthy sexually intact female cats were examined daily for signs of estrous behavior over a trial period of 4 months. Five queens showed regular estrous behavior, 1 queen was mated in her first heat and 1 queen never showed any signs of heat. To distinguish between inter-estrus and metestrus progesterone levels were determined. Serum samples for AMH and progesterone measurement were collected from the regular cycling queens in late anestrus, at several times during heat, inter-estrus and metestrus, from the mated queen during her first heat and during pregnancy, and in the acycling queen at various times during the trial period. The measured AMH values in anestrus were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than in heat (P < 0.001), metestrus (P = 0.12) and inter-estrus (P = 0.449). In anestrus the median AMH levels were 10.26 ng/ml (range 4.96 to 22.90 ng/ml), in heat 5.97 ng/ml (range 3.32- 22.96 ng/ml), in inter-estrus 10.47 (range 3.35-22.96 ng/ml) and in metestrus 6.38 ng/ml (range 4.50-10.75 ng/ml. The pregnant cat showed median AMH concentrations of 6.47 ng/ml (range 5.60-9.80 ng/ml) during her pregnancy. The acycling queen had solely low AMH values with a median concentration of 0.39 ng/ml. In conclusion there were high variations of the AMH levels among and within the individual cats and between heat cycles in the single cat. Remarkable high AMH concentrations were measured in the younger queens of the study in their first estrous cycles and also in anestrus, when less ovarian activity is expected. Further studies are necessary to emphasize the reasons for these high AMH concentrations especially in young queens.

Anti-Müllerian hormone concentrations in female rabbits and its relation to spay status, pseudopregnancy and ovarian follicle numbers

Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), known for its role during fetal sexual differentiation, is secreted by the Sertoli cells in males and the granulosa cells in females during postnatal life. As serum AMH concentrations correlate with follicle numbers, AMH is utilised as a marker of ovarian reserve in many species. In dogs and cats, AMH is used as a diagnostic tool to determine spay or neuter status. In the available literature, no research regarding serum AMH levels in rabbits has been published yet. The objectives of the present study were to 1) measure serum AMH concentrations in female rabbits and investigate the value of AMH as a diagnostic tool to differentiate between spayed and intact does, and 2) relate measured AMH levels to pseudopregnancy and ovarian follicle numbers. For AMH measurement, serum samples were obtained from sexually intact (n = 64) and spayed (n = 22) female rabbits. Spayed does were of various breeds; intact rabbits were Zika hybrid rabbits. In the intact does, AMH measurement was complemented by determination of progesterone levels, gynaecological examination, and histopathologic evaluation of the uterus and ovaries, including follicle counts. Serum AMH and progesterone concentrations were measured using a human-based chemiluminescence immunoassay (CLIA) and an enzyme-linked fluorescence assay (ELFA), respectively. Depending on progesterone levels, sexually intact does were classified into follicular (n = 52) or luteal phase (n = 12). Median serum AMH levels were 1.53 ng/ml (range 0.77 - 3.36 ng/ml) in intact and 0.06 ng/ml (range ≤ 0.01 - 0.23 ng/ml) in spayed does. AMH concentrations between the intact and spayed rabbits differed significantly and did not overlap (p < 0.001). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis yielded a sensitivity and specificity of 100% for a cut-off level of 0.50 ng/ml. Follicular or luteal phase had no significant influence on measured AMH levels (t = 0.061, df = 62, p = 0.951). While the number of secondary follicles correlated significantly with AMH concentrations (r_s = 0.410, p = 0.001), the number of primary or antral follicles did not (r_s = 0.241, p = 0.055 and r_s = 0.137, p = 0.281, respectively). In conclusion, a single determination of serum AMH concentrations was adequate to distinguish spayed from intact female rabbits. Among sexually intact individuals, whether does were in follicular or luteal phase had no significant influence on measured serum AMH concentrations. The relationship between small growing follicles and AMH levels as described in other species could be partially confirmed, as secondary follicles correlated significantly with AMH.

Infertility In Toms: Clinical approach, experiences and challenges

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE

An infertile tom used to be a relatively rare presentation in feline practice. However, as a result of breeding strategies targeting specific morphological/behavioural traits, and the influence of inbreeding (especially practised in rare breeds), among other factors, feline infertility has become a genuine clinical problem. Furthermore, increased interest among cat breeders and pet owners in diagnosing and treating an 'unsuccessful' tom (including using assisted reproductive techniques [ARTs]), has made such patients more commonplace in veterinary practice.

CLINICAL CHALLENGES

A definitive cause for male infertility is often difficult to identify. One of the biggest challenges is the lack of fertility-based reference values for semen quality and hormone levels. Moreover, the literature in this field is scant and many reproductive tract conditions described in other species have not been reported in cats. The establishment of diagnostic tools and algorithms is essential to facilitate a reliable assessment of fertility potential.

GLOBAL IMPORTANCE

There is a growing demand for appropriate veterinary care relating to feline reproduction. There is an expectation among breeders, particularly of pedigree cats of high breeding value, that the same options widely used for dogs (including ARTs) should also be available for cats.

EQUIPMENT AND TECHNICAL SKILLS

Equipment required for investigating male infertility includes a microscope and ultrasound machine; a blood analyser may also be useful, but samples can instead be sent to a laboratory. The skills required are often already performed by veterinarians; for example, catheterising the urethra, performing ultrasonography and blood sampling.

EVIDENCE BASE

There are some reports of fertility problems in male cats in the literature, but this area of feline reproduction is still relatively undeveloped. This review draws on the comprehensive knowledge developed and shared by specialists in this field, and is supported by the authors' own clinical experience.

Infertility In Queens: Clinical approach, experiences and challenges

CLINICAL CHALLENGES

It is not easy for a veterinarian to determine the cause of infertility in a queen. The simplest method is to start by investigating the most common causes and then progress by successive elimination to the less common causes. For example, mating problems are commonly responsible for reproductive failure, and owners should be particularly vigilant in checking that the mating is progressing satisfactorily. Frequently, a veterinarian may have to determine, among other things, if there is a uterine or hormonal disorder or if an infectious pathology may be involved. In the case of a queen that is not cycling, it is important to differentiate a lack of onset of puberty in a young queen from a lack of cyclicity in an adult queen.

AIM

This review sets out a practical, step-by-step approach that veterinarians can follow, starting with the most common causes of infertility in queens and moving towards more rare or specific causes.

EQUIPMENT AND TECHNICAL SKILLS

Simple techniques such as vaginal smears are essential to determine if a queen that is ready to be mated is in full oestrus, if a queen is cycling or not and to diagnose inflammation of the genital tract. Veterinarians should be familiar with the peculiarities of the swabbing technique in cats, as well as the interpretation of feline vaginal cytology. Progesterone assays are useful on many occasions in the diagnosis pathway. A laboratory capable of performing karyotypes should ideally be available. Finally, it is important to be able to perform an ultrasound examination of the ovaries and uterus in a queen.

EVIDENCE BASE

Although it appears that infertility is a problem among purebred queens, there is a lack of knowledge in this area and too few published studies. Some causes of feline infertility remain poorly investigated.

Anti-Müllerian hormone as a diagnostic tool to identify queens with ovarian remnant syndrome

OBJECTIVES

Ovarian remnant syndrome (ORS) is suspected when heat signs occur in spayed individuals, but further diagnostic procedures are necessary to exclude other possible oestrogen sources, such as the adrenal gland or exogenous supplementation. Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), secreted by granulosa cells or Sertoli cells, serves to differentiate sexually intact from gonadectomised animals and has been described in dogs as a tool for diagnosing ORS. The aim of this study was to evaluate if AMH determination can be used to diagnose ORS in cats.

METHODS

AMH was measured with a chemiluminescence immunoassay in serum samples of 15 sexually intact, 9 spayed and 16 cats with a history of heat signs after spaying. Abdominal ultrasound (n = 13), vaginal smears (n = 7), progesterone measurement (n = 5) and laparotomy (n = 14) were used to determine the presence of ovarian tissue. After surgery, a histological examination of the obtained tissue was performed in the cats with suspected ORS.

RESULTS

In 15 cats with ORS the AMH serum concentrations were significantly higher than in spayed cats (n = 10; P = 0.025) and significantly lower than in sexually intact cats (n = 15; P = 0.001). Among the cats with ORS, the highest AMH serum concentrations were measured in the queens with cystic ovarian alterations and in one cat from which a whole ovary was obtained. The cat with the lowest AMH serum concentration had a simultaneous high progesterone serum concentration. Cats with ORS did not show any heat signs after surgical removal of the ovarian tissue.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

A single determination of AMH in blood serum is a useful diagnostic tool for the diagnosis of ORS in cats, regardless of the hormonal activity of the remnant ovarian tissue.

Serum Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 Is a Biomarker of Testosterone Production and Intact Acrosome in Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus)

Simple Summary

In Thailand, the low fertility rate of Asian elephants has been identified. Factors contributing to poor semen quality in the elephants are not fully understood. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is related to male infertility. It plays an essential role in testicular development by stimulating cell proliferation, differentiation, and steroidogenesis. In addition, there is increasing evidence that IGF-1 plays a critical role in spermatogenesis. This may be conducive to finding the causes of poor sperm quality in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). In the present study, we investigated the relationships among serum IGF-1, serum testosterone level, and semen parameters in seven elephant bulls. The findings suggest that serum IGF-1 concentration is likely to predict sperm quality like acrosome integrity. The further mechanism by which IGF-1 affects sperm quality requires further investigation.

Abstract

The objective of this study was to find relationships among serum IGF-1, serum testosterone, seminal plasma IGF-1 concentrations and semen parameters in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). A total of 17 ejaculates (one to three ejaculates/bull) were collected from seven captive elephant bulls by performing rectal massage. Before each ejaculation, blood samples were obtained for serum IGF-1 and testosterone assays. Subsequently, the semen characteristics of each ejaculate were evaluated. Mean serum IGF-1 concentration of elephant bulls was estimated as 326.3 ± 114.6 ng/mL (median, 286.2 ng/mL; range, 167.4–542.7 ng/mL). An increase in serum IGF-1 concentration was found to correlate with the percentage of spermatozoa with intact acrosomes. In addition, IGF-1 concentration was positively correlated with testosterone level. However, seminal IGF-1 concentrations could not be detected. In conclusion, our findings suggest that serum IGF-1 concentration is likely a biomarker of normal testicular functions, particularly spermatogenesis in elephants. Moreover, this commercial IGF-1 ELISA is eligible for analyzing serum IGF-1 concentration in Asian elephants.

Analysis of the concentrations of some haematological parameters, C-reactive protein and anti-Müllerian hormone in bitches affected by pyometra

The work was aimed to research into the vital signs, haematological and biochemical parameters, acute-phase protein concentrations (CRP, albumin), progesterone (PG) and anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) concentrations in bitches with pyometra and their comparison with those in healthy bitches. In addition, the goal of this work was to assess if some of the tested parameters may be used as a biomarker in the diagnostics of pyometra and the monitoring of the postoperative recovery. Forty 3-6-year-old bitches of various breeds were included in the research and allotted to two groups: the control (C, n = 20) and the diseased - bitches diagnosed with pyometra (P, n = 20). Blood samples for the analyses were taken immediately before surgery (0 h), and 12 h, 24 h, 48 h and 72 h after, excepting for AMH and PG concentrations, which were determined only at 0 h. Clinical examination detected significantly higher respiration rates in bitches with pyometra in comparison to healthy ones at all time points, higher heart rates before and 12 h after surgery, and higher body temperature before and 12 h, 48 h and 72 h post operation (p < .01). Significantly higher concentrations of CRP (p < .01) and lower concentrations of albumin were detected in bitches with pyometra in comparison to their healthy counterparts at all time points. Progesterone and AMH concentration analysis immediately before surgery detected significantly higher levels of the hormone in bitches with pyometra than in the control (p < .01). The inflammatory reaction of the endometrium resulted in a significant AMH concentration increase, whilst increased CRP concentrations and lower albumin concentrations throughout the research may be used as biomarkers of proinflammatory activities, that is of the acute-phase response.

Expression of Anti-Müllerian Hormone and Its Type 2 Receptor in the Ovary of Pregnant and Cyclic Domestic Cats

To evaluate the expression of AMH and its receptor AMHRII, ovaries of 33 p cats were investigated by western blot and immunohistochemistry. After ovariohysterectomy, the cats were grouped according to pregnancy stages and ovarian/placental endocrine activity: group I (n = 3, 24−29 days), II (n = 8, 32−40 days), III (n = 4, 41−46 days), IV (n = 6, 53−61 days) and according to cycle stages: V (n = 6, interestrus) and VI (n = 6, estrus). Serum progesterone- and AMH-concentration was measured. Follicle numbers did not differ between groups. The number of corpora lutea was higher in pregnant cats than in the non-pregnant cats. Serum AMH concentration was at maximum between day 30 and 50 of gestation, and was higher than in non-pregnant cats, then decreased towards term (p < 0.05). In the ovaries, AMH immunopositivity was observed in granulosa cells of secondary and antral follicles, and in interstitial cells of corpora lutea; highest percentage of immunopositive areas was detected in group III (p < 0.05). A positive correlation between the number of corpora lutea and the positive AMH signals in ovarian tissue was determined (r2 = 0.832, p < 0.05); however, only during mid-gestation (group II). Expression of AMHRII was in close co-localization with AMH and strong in the interstitial cells surrounding follicles undergoing atresia. AMHRII expression did not differ between pregnant groups but was higher compared to estrus cats (p ˂ 0.05). We conclude that AMH and AMHRII expression in the feline ovary is comparable to other species. The high serum AMH concentration and ovarian AMHRII expression between day 30 and 50 of gestation are probably related to ovarian activity and follicular atresia.

Clinical use of Anti-Müllerian Hormone to monitor resumption of ovarian activity following removal of a 4.7 mg deslorelin implant in queens

OBJECTIVE

The use of deslorelin implants to control reproduction in cats is increasing but because of its prolonged duration, cat breeders often request implant removal before the end of the treatment. Assaying Anti Mullerian Hormone (AMH) concentrations might be useful to predict time of resumption of ovarian activity in deslorelin-treated queens following implant removal. In queens a minimum of 3 weeks during increasing photoperiod after implant removal has been described for resumption of ovarian activity but no information about AMH concentrations were observed for determining ovarian activity.

ANIMALS

Sixteen queens in which deslorelin implants were surgically removed after 3, 6 or 9 months (n = 6, 4 and 6 queens, respectively) were used in this study.

PROCEDURES

A general and reproductive health check with a GnRH stimulation test were performed before the treatment. After implant removal queens were checked every 1-2 weeks with reproductive ultrasonography, a vaginal smear and blood collection to assay AMH concentrations.

RESULTS

AMH concentrations decreased significantly at the end of the treatment to ≤ 2.5 + 0.6 ng/ml (p ≤ 0.05) and reached a nadir at 1.9 ± 0.9 (p < 0.05) one-week post-removal. Following implant removal AMH concentrations started to rise reaching a value of 3.9 ± 0.7 ng/ml on the third week and were not different from pre-treatment levels on week 6 post-removal (5.8 ng/ml + 0.9, p ≥ 0.05). AMH values did not differ depending on duration of deslorelin treatment but were lower in adult queens (p < 0.05).

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

AMH assay can be a useful tool to follow resumption of feline ovarian function following a deslorelin treatment.

Clinical and Histological Features of Ovarian Hypoplasia/Dysgenesis in Alpacas

Alpacas have a high incidence of congenital reproductive tract abnormalities, including ovarian hypoplasia/dysgenesis. Diagnosis of this condition is often challenging. The present study describes the clinical, ultrasonographic, and histologic features of ovarian hypoplasia/dysgenesis syndrome in 5 female alpacas. Additionally, serum AMH levels were compared between female alpacas diagnosed with ovarian hypoplasia/dysgenesis and a group of reproductively sound females (n = 11). The syndrome was suspected based on the presence of an infantile uterus and lack of ovaries by ultrasonography and laparoscopy. All females had normal female karyotype (n = 74 XX), but one presented a minute chromosome. The ovaries from these cases showed 3 main histological classifications: hypoplasia (n = 2), dysgenesis (n = 2), and dysplasia (n = 1). Serum AMH levels in affected females were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than those of reproductively sound control females. In conclusion, Serum AMH level may be helpful in the rapid diagnosis of ovarian hypoplasia/dysgenesis syndrome in alpacas. Furthermore, this syndrome in alpacas presents a variety of histological features. Different mechanisms may be involved in the derangement of ovarian differentiation. Further studies are needed to elucidate the causes of the syndrome.

Short Term Safety, Immunogenicity, and Reproductive Effects of Combined Vaccination With Anti-GnRH (Gonacon) and Rabies Vaccines in Female Feral Cats

Overpopulation of free-roaming cats is a major problem leading to negative impacts on animal health and welfare, public nuisance, transmission of zoonotic diseases, and well-documented harm to wildlife. Surgical sterilization had failed to provide a practical solution to free-roaming cats' overpopulation under field conditions; therefore, efficient and safe non-surgical immunocontraception methods are aspired. Rabies is a deadly virus that may infect people and animals. However, the safety and efficacy of combined vaccination with anti-GnRH and rabies vaccines in feral cats, which often suffer from disrupted health conditions and experienced high stress level, has never been studied. Therefore, our objective was to examine the short-term safety and efficacy of anti-GnRH vaccine (Gonacon), in combination with rabies vaccine in female feral cats. Mature feral female cats were captured and divided into the following groups: (I) GonaconX1-Rabies: queens vaccinated with both Gonacon and rabies (n = 5); (II) GonaconX2-Rabies: queens vaccinated twice with Gonacon (3 weeks apart) and with Rabies (n = 4); (III) OVx-Rabies: queens ovariohysterectomized and vaccinated with rabies (n = 4); (IV) Intact-Rabies: queens vaccinated against rabies and remained intact (n = 3). Comprehensive veterinary examinations and blood tests were performed every 2 weeks for 14 weeks. Data were analyzed by Repeated-Measures-ANOVA or Fisher-Exact-Test. There were neither systemic nor local adverse reactions at the vaccination sites. Blood count (PCV, TS, RBC, HGB, HCT, WBC) and chemistry (Total protein, Total globulin, Albumin, Urea, Creatinine, Creatine kinase, Bilirubin, GGT, ALT, AST) analyses revealed no differences among groups. There were no differences in serum rabies antibodies titers among groups, and queens kept a protective titer (>0.5 IU/mL) starting at 2–4 weeks after vaccination. Anti-GnRH antibodies were detected in all Gonacon-vaccinated queens, excluding one queen (GonaconX2-Rabies group). Anti-müllerian hormone serum concentrations reduced significantly after ovariohysterectomy, as well as gradually following vaccination with Gonacon, but it remained high in intact queens. Evaluation of vaginal cytology and ovarian histology suggested that reproductive cyclicity was suppressed in Gonacon-vaccinated queens. Our results support the conclusion that in the short term, the combined vaccination with Gonacon and rabies is safe and effective in female feral cats. However, further long-term studies are warranted to test this immunologic regimen in feral cats.

Infertility in purebred cats - A review of the potential causes

Although purebred cat breeding is growing in popularity in European countries, most research and publications concern dog reproduction. Infertility in queens has been poorly studied. It may not come as a surprise as common domestic shorthair cats are well known for their excellent fertility. However, even in the latter, the infertility rate is around 20%. Only recently, published articles have analyzed the reproductive performances in different breeds, for example in UK, Sweden, France and Italy, and found similar figures. In cats, infertility may arise from many factors such as mismating, prolonged anestrus or silent heats, hormonal, nutritional, genetical or chromosomal causes. Also, infectious diseases, probably frequent in breeding facilities, include pathological agents that are well recognized as having a negative effect on pregnancy or other pathogens for which the involvement in fertility problems is unclear. However, analyzing the literature, it appears that the most prevalent causes of infertility in pedigree cats may well be, in females, uterine pathology (sub-clinical endometritis, cystic endometrial hyperplasia, or mucometra), and in males, teratospermia, which may be "permanent" and linked to reduced heterozygosity or "transient" in tomcats that present normal quantitative spermatogenic parameters. The influence of the breed is unknown. There is an urgent need to study the origin of infertility in purebred cats in order to improve the diagnosis and to develop treatments that may restore normal fertility in subfertile or infertile animals.

Anti-Müllerian hormone in dogs and cats reproduction

The anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is a glycoprotein secreted by Sertoli cells in males and granulosa cells in females. It has first been determined in blood serum of dogs and cats by Place et al. in 2011 with the use of a human-based ELISA test. Meanwhile, different immunoassays have been validated for AMH determination in animals and a variety of studies have demonstrated the clinical significance of AMH. This review summarizes the current knowledge about AMH in dogs and cats and describes future opportunities for its diagnostic use.

Investigation of interference from canine anti-mouse antibodies in hormone immunoassays

BACKGROUND

Canine anti-mouse antibodies are a potential source of immunoassay interference, but erroneous immunoassay results are not always easily identifiable. Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is a marker for the presence of gonads in dogs, but elevated AMH concentrations in neutered dogs could also be caused by antibody interference. For other assays, a discrepant result obtained after antibody precipitation might indicate antibody interference.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to evaluate if canine anti-mouse antibodies are a source of erroneous results in the AMH assay and if antibody precipitation with polyethylene glycol (PEG) is a useful tool for detecting antibody interference in a variety of immunoassays used in the veterinary clinical laboratory.

METHODS

Twenty-nine positive and 25 negative samples for anti-mouse antibodies were analyzed for AMH, canine total thyroxine (TT₄ ), canine thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and progesterone before and after treatment with PEG. Results that differed by more than four SDs from the intra-assay coefficients of variation were considered discrepant. Elevated AMH concentrations in neutered dogs with anti-mouse antibodies and no visible gonads present were considered evidence of interference.

RESULTS

Evidence of antibody interference was found in two samples analyzed for AMH. The presence of anti-mouse antibodies did not lead to a higher proportion of discrepant results after PEG treatment for any of the immunoassays. The overall incidence of discrepant results for healthy controls was very high (73%).

CONCLUSIONS

Canine anti-mouse antibodies are a source of erroneous AMH results. Antibody precipitation with PEG is not a useful tool for detecting interference caused by such antibodies.

Immunohistochemical and qPCR determination of the expression and serum level of anti-Müllerian hormone in pre-pubertal, intact and ovarian remnant syndrome detected bitches

The aim of this study was to determine the serum concentrations, ovarian presence and expression of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) in pre-pubertal, bitches with signs of ovarian remnant syndrome (ORS) and intact bitches. In addition, we aimed to verify the suitability of serum AMH concentrations for diagnostic purposes in sterilized bitches and/or in suspected cases of ORS in the field of veterinary medicine. For this purpose, 36 healthy female dogs divided into six groups: proestrus, oestrus, dioestrus, anoestrus, pre-pubertal and ORS. Serum AMH concentrations were determined by electrochemiluminescence immunoassay, and ovarian presence and distribution of AMH was confirmed by immunohistochemical and qPCR techniques. According to the results of qPCR, while the expression values of AMH were at the highest concentrations in the proestrus and oestrus, there was a statistically significant decrease in these values at the later stages of the cycle (p < 0.05). According to hormone analysis, the serum AMH values of the ORS group had decreased significantly compared with the proestrus and oestrus (p < 0.05). Although serum AMH levels of ORS group were increased compared with anestrus and pre-pubertal groups, this increase was statistically non-significant (p > 0.05). Immunohistochemically, AMH expression was first observed in the granulosa cells of primordial follicles in folliculogenesis. Expression values were the highest in the proestrous and oestrus groups, but values from bitches in later stages of the cycle were statistically significant decrease in comparison with these groups (p < 0.05). As a result, AMH concentration and expression were found to be higher in proestrus and oestrus than in other periods (p < 0.05). In addition, the measurable level of AMH concentration in bitches with ORS is an indication that it can be used in the diagnosis of ORS.

Changes in anti-Müllerian hormone concentrations in bitches throughout the oestrous cycle

Studies in female dogs proved the measurement of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) as a diagnostic tool to distinguish ovarioectomized from intact females or to diagnose ovarian remnant syndrome. Furthermore, its usability to diagnose a granulosa cell tumour and predict litter size was also investigated in female dogs. Although serum AMH was previously shown to increase during the transition from anoestrus to pro-oestrus in dogs, changes in AMH concentration over the entire oestrous cycle have not yet been determined. The aim of this study was to investigate the secretion pattern of AMH throughout the oestrous cycle in non-pregnant bitches. As a preliminary step, we tested our assay by measuring AMH concentrations in serum samples of 19 intact bitches (10 in anoestrus, 3 in pro-oestrus, 3 in oestrus, 3 in metoestrus) and 19 spayed females of different age and breed. For the main study, 20 healthy female dogs were examined (10 Beagles, and 10 Labrador crossbreeds, body weight 10-28 kg, age 1-6 years) during a normal oestrous cycle. Serum samples were collected in late anoestrus, at several times during pro-oestrus and oestrus, as well as 28 days and 4.5 months after ovulation. Blood collection was combined with a gynaecological examination including progesterone measurement. Serum concentration of AMH was determined using a chemiluminescence immunoassay validated for dog serum. In the preliminary test, intact bitches in various stages of the oestrous cycle had significantly higher serum AMH levels (0.19-1.45 ng/ml) than spayed females (0.01-0.06 ng/ml, P < 0.001). In cycling Beagle and Labrador crossbreed bitches participating in our main study, AMH concentrations were between 0.09 and 2.65 ng/ml with higher AMH concentrations in Beagles but overall high inter-individual and intra-individual variation. The highest AMH values were reached in the last three weeks before the onset of heat until six days before ovulation, and the lowest AMH concentrations were recorded during preovulatory oestrus in 6, metoestrus in 7 or anoestrus in 7 dogs. Serum AMH concentrations increased significantly from late anoestrus up to six days before ovulation and decreased significantly over the last three days before ovulation. A further significant decrease occurred from the last days of oestrus to metoestrus and mid anoestrus. This study shows that the used AMH assay can clearly distinguish between intact and spayed females and that the serum AMH pattern over the oestrous cycle is similar in all bitches, but with high variation among the breeds and among and within bitches. These changes in the AMH concentration are a challenge in timing serum sample collection and interpreting AMH values in bitches. Further studies are necessary to emphasize the factors influencing the AMH concentration.

Accuracy of a point-of-care luteinizing hormone test for help in distinguishing between sexually intact and ovariectomized or castrated domestic cats

Objectives The aim of this study was to determine the accuracy of a commercial luteinizing hormone (LH) test as an aid in distinguishing between sexually intact and ovariectomized or castrated domestic cats. Methods Convenience serum samples collected from sexually intact female and male cats (n = 67) undergoing elective sterilization surgery and archived sera from ovariectomized and castrated cats (n = 54) were tested for LH using a commercial diagnostic assay. Test results were compared with the known reproductive status of the cats. Additionally, sera from sexually intact (n = 54) and ovariectomized (n = 94) queens were collected at specific times of the year to evaluate possible seasonal effects on test results. Results Overall test sensitivity was 89.3% (95% confidence interval [CI] 82.3-94.2%), specificity was 92.6% (95% CI 87.1-96.2%) and accuracy was 91.1%. Analysis of results of female cats (n = 216) - sexually intact (n = 87) and ovariectomized (n = 129) - yielded a test sensitivity of 90.8% (95% CI 82.7-96.0%), a specificity of 92.3% (95% CI 86.2-96.2%) and accuracy of 91.7%. Analysis of the results of male cats (n = 53) - sexually intact (n = 19) and neutered (n = 34) - yielded test a sensitivity of 85.3% (95% CI 68.9-95.1%), a specificity of 94.7% (95% CI 74.0-99.9%) and accuracy of 88.7%. The sera of 10 intact queens unexpectedly yielded positive LH results; two of these cats were in estrus, based on visual inspection at the time of ovariohysterectomy. Test accuracy was 94.6% for those 148 samples collected at specific times of the year, with two samples each over three, 3 month periods yielding false-positive results. Conclusions and relevance The commercial point-of-care LH test is a useful adjunct to historical and physical examination findings for determination of reproductive status in domestic cats. Repeat testing 24 h later should be considered for those female cats with signs of estrus and initial positive test results.

Identifying ovarian tissue in the bitch using anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) or luteinizing hormone (LH)

Reliable methods for determining whether or not a bitch has ovarian tissue present are needed for cases with unknown neutering status. Vaginal cytology consistent with heat is indicative of functional ovarian tissue. Other methods are required when the bitch is not presented in suspected heat. Progesterone can be analyzed during 2 months after suspected heat. During other stages, assays for the analyses of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) have been used. The AMH assay is expected to give detectable concentrations (positive) in bitches with ovarian tissue, and the LH assay should give negative results in intact bitches, except during the pre-ovulatory LH peak. The aim of the present study was to study the diagnostic efficiency for detecting ovarian tissue in bitches using an AMH assay developed for human samples, and a semi-quantitative rapid immune migration (RIM™) LH assay developed for use in dogs. An AMH concentration of ≥0.1 μg/L, and an LH concentration of ≤1 μg/L, was set as the cut-off for presence of ovarian tissue. Client or staff owned bitches were included (N = 125). There were 73 intact bitches that were classified as being in heat (N = 25); in luteal phase (N = 12); or in anestrus (N = 36), and 52 spayed bitches that showed no clinical signs of estrogen influence. In total 64 of the 73 intact bitches (88%) were correctly identified using AMH, and 70/73 (96%) intact bitches were correctly identified using the LH assay. Excluding bitches in heat, the corresponding figures were 42/48 (88%) for AMH and 48/48 (100%) for LH. Of the 52 spayed bitches, 51 (98%) were correctly identified using the AMH assay and 49 (94%) were correctly identified using the LH assay. In this population, the predictive value of a positive AMH for intact bitches was 98%, and of a negative AMH for spayed bitches was 85%. Excluding bitches in heat, the predictive value of a negative LH test for intact bitches was 94%, and the predictive value of a positive LH test for identifying spayed bitches was 100%. It was concluded that analyses of AMH and LH are useful for detecting ovarian tissue in bitches, but that low concentrations of AMH may be obtained in intact bitches, classifying them as spayed. For LH, bitches in suspected estrus should not be tested to avoid the pre-ovulatory LH-surge, that otherwise may cause intact bitches being incorrectly identified as spayed.

Serum anti-Müllerian hormone concentrations before and after treatment of an ovarian granulosa cell tumour in a cat

Case summary

A 15-year-old female cat was presented for investigation of progressive behavioural changes, polyuria, polydipsia and periuria. An ovarian granulosa cell tumour was identified and the cat underwent therapeutic ovariohysterectomy (OHE). The cat’s clinical signs resolved, but 6 months later it was diagnosed as having an anaplastic astrocytoma and was euthanased. Serum anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) concentration prior to OHE was increased vs a control group of entire and neutered female cats. Following OHE, serum AMH concentration decreased to <1% of the original value.

Relevance and novel information

Serum AMH measurement may represent a novel diagnostic and monitoring tool for functional ovarian neoplasms in cats.

Anti-Müllerian hormone: a potentially useful biomarker for the diagnosis of canine Sertoli cell tumours

Background

Testicular tumours are common in dogs and in many cases do not give rise to clinical signs. In other cases, signs of feminization, hyperpigmentation or alopecia may be observed, most commonly associated with Sertoli cell tumours (SCT). Although these signs are often associated with elevated concentrations of oestradiol, analysis of oestradiol may give inconclusive results due to large variations among individuals. Other biomarkers are therefore needed. Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is expressed by the Sertoli cell. In humans, AMH has been shown to be a specific marker of Sertoli cell origin in gonadal tumours. Using immunohistochemistry, AMH has been shown to be a useful marker of immature and neoplastic Sertoli cells in dogs. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the clinical relevance of AMH analysis in peripheral blood in the diagnostic workup of dogs with suspected testicular tumours.

Results

Blood was collected from 20 dogs with a palpable testicular mass and from 27 healthy controls. Serum was analysed for oestradiol-17β using a RIA and for AMH using an ELISA. The Mann–Whitney U test was used to compare hormone concentrations between different groups.

All control dogs had AMH concentrations ≤ 10 ng/mL, except one outlier that had a concentration of 43 ng/mL. Six dogs with SCT or mixed tumours containing SCT had AMH concentrations higher than 22 ng/mL, significantly higher than AMH concentrations in control dogs (P = 0.0004). Concentrations between 10 and 22 ng/mL were found in about half of the dogs with non-neoplastic testicular pathologies or with testicular tumours other than SCTs. Age did not significantly affect concentrations of AMH in the control dogs.

Conclusion

AMH was shown to be a promising biomarker for the diagnosis of Sertoli cell tumours in dogs.