Physiological responses of cultured bovine granulosa cells to elevated temperatures under low and high oxygen in the presence of different concentrations of melatonin

Melatonin as a multifunctional modulator: emerging insights into its role in health, reproductive efficiency, and productive performance in livestock

Melatonin, a pleiotropic hormone plays a vital role in enhancing livestock performance not only by regulating circadian rhythms but also by exhibiting antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and metabolic regulatory effects that collectively improve resilience, fertility, and productivity. Melatonin's synthesis is predominantly influenced by light exposure, with increased production in darkness; however, factors such as diet and health status further modulate its levels. By helping animals adapt to environmental stressors, melatonin boosts immune responses, mitigates chronic illnesses, and optimizes production efficiency. Its regulatory influence extends to the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, enhancing hormone secretion, synchronizing estrous cycles, and improving embryo viability. This results in improved reproductive outcomes through the protection of gametes, increased sperm motility, and enhanced oocyte quality, all of which benefit the fertilization process. Additionally, melatonin positively impacts productive performance, promoting muscle growth, development, and optimizing milk yield and composition through its interaction with metabolic and endocrine systems. As ongoing research continues to uncover its broader physiological effects, melatonin supplementation emerges as a promising approach to improving livestock welfare, productivity, and sustainability in modern animal husbandry.

Developmental, cytogenetic and epigenetic consequences of removing complex proteins and adding melatonin during in vitro maturation of bovine oocytes

Background

In vitro maturation (IVM) of germinal vesicle intact oocytes prior to in vitro fertilization (IVF) is practiced widely in animals. In human assisted reproduction it is generally reserved for fertility preservation or where ovarian stimulation is contraindicated. Standard practice incorporates complex proteins (CP), in the form of serum and/or albumin, into IVM media to mimic the ovarian follicle environment. However, the undefined nature of CP, together with batch variation and ethical concerns regarding their origin, necessitate the development of more defined formulations. A known component of follicular fluid, melatonin, has multifaceted roles including that of a metabolic regulator and antioxidant. In certain circumstances it can enhance oocyte maturation. At this stage in development, the germinal-vesicle intact oocyte is prone to aneuploidy and epigenetic dysregulation.

Objectives

To determine the developmental, cytogenetic and epigenetic consequences of removing CP and including melatonin during bovine IVM.

Materials and methods

The study comprised a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement comparing (i) the inclusion or exclusion of CP, and (ii) the addition (100 nM) or omission of melatonin, during IVM. Cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) were retrieved from stimulated cycles. Following IVM and IVF, putative zygotes were cultured to Day 8 in standard media. RNAseq was performed on isolated cumulus cells, cytogenetic analyses (SNP-based algorithms) on isolated trophectoderm cells, and DNA methylation analysis (reduced representation bisulfite sequencing) on isolated cells of the inner-cell mass.

Results

Removal of CP during IVM led to modest reductions in blastocyst development, whilst added melatonin was beneficial in the presence but detrimental in the absence of CP. The composition of IVM media did not affect the nature or incidence of chromosomal abnormalities but cumulus-cell transcript expression indicated altered metabolism (primarily lipid) in COCs. These effects preceded the establishment of distinct metabolic and epigenetic signatures several days later in expanded and hatching blastocysts.

Conclusions

These findings highlight the importance of lipid, particularly sterol, metabolism by the COC during IVM. They lay the foundation for future studies that seek to develop chemically defined systems of IVM for the generation of transferrable embryos that are both cytogenetically and epigenetically normal.

Role of Melatonin in Bovine Reproductive Biotechnology

Melatonin has profound antioxidant activity and numerous functions in humans as well as in livestock and poultry. Additionally, melatonin plays an important role in regulating the biological rhythms of animals. Combining melatonin with scientific breeding management has considerable potential for optimizing animal physiological functions, but this idea still faces significant challenges. In this review, we summarized the beneficial effects of melatonin supplementation on physiology and reproductive processes in cattle, including granulosa cells, oocytes, circadian rhythm, stress, inflammation, testicular function, spermatogenesis, and semen cryopreservation. There is much emerging evidence that melatonin can profoundly affect cattle. In the future, we hope that melatonin can not only be applied to cattle, but can also be used to safely and effectively improve the efficiency of animal husbandry.

The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) system as a key regulator of ovarian follicle angiogenesis and growth

The vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGFA) system is a complex set of proteins, with multiple isoforms and receptors, including both angiogenic (VEGFxxx, VEGFR2) and antiangiogenic members (VEGFxxxb, VEGFR1 and soluble forms of VEGFR). The members of the VEGF system affect the proliferation, survival, and migration of endothelial and nonendothelial cells and are involved in the regulation of follicular angiogenesis and development. The production of VEGF by secondary follicles stimulates preantral follicular development by directly affecting follicular cells and promoting the acquisition of the follicular vasculature and downstream antrum formation. Additionally, the pattern of expression of the components of the VEGF system may provide a proangiogenic milieu capable of triggering angiogenesis and stimulating follicular cells to promote antral follicle growth, whereas, during atresia, this milieu becomes antiangiogenic and blocks follicular development.

Low oxygen environment and astaxanthin supplementation promote the developmental competence of bovine oocytes derived from early antral follicles during 8 days of in vitro growth in a gas-permeable culture device

We evaluated the effects of a constant low (5-5%) and modulated (5-20%) oxygen environments on the in vitro development of bovine oocyte-cumulus-granulosa cell complexes (OCGCs) cultured in the presence or absence of an antioxidant (astaxanthin: Ax). OCGCs were cultured in a gas permeable culture device for 8 days in 5-5% O₂ (±Ax) and 5-20% O₂ (±Ax) culture conditions. In the oxygen modulated culture conditions, the oxygen concentration was switched from 5% to 20% on day 4 of culture. Ax promoted the viability of OCGCs (P < 0.05), but both oxygen and Ax had a significant effect on ROS production levels by OCGCs (P < 0.05). Specifically, ROS levels were significantly lower and higher under 5-5% O₂ (+Ax) and 5-20% O₂ (-Ax) conditions, respectively (P < 0.05), with intermediate levels observed in the 5-5% O₂ (-Ax) and the 5-20% O₂ (+Ax) culture conditions. The steroidogenic pattern was characterized by increasing estradiol-17β but with constant progesterone production levels regardless of culture conditions, suggesting the inhibition of luteinization-like changes in granulosa cells. OCGCs cultured in the 5-20% O₂ (+Ax) had higher nuclear maturation rates (P < 0.05) that were similar to the oocytes grown in vivo. However, there was no clear difference in the subsequent cleavage rates among the 5-5% O₂ (±Ax) and the 5-20% O₂ (+Ax) culture conditions (P > 0.05). A constant low oxygen environment significantly promoted the blastocyst rates (P < 0.05); however, the presence of Ax in the 5-20% O₂ (+Ax) condition also promoted development similar to the OCGCs cultured in the 5-5% O₂ (-Ax) condition (P > 0.05). In conclusion, exposure of OCGCs to constant low oxygen or oxygen modulation in the presence of Ax promotes the healthy development of OCGCs during the 8-day IVG culture using the gas permeable culture device.

Adaptive and Biological Responses of Buffalo Granulosa Cells Exposed to Heat Stress under In Vitro Condition

Simple Summary

The pertinent consequences of global warming substantially affect both animal productivity and fertility. Noteworthy, tropical and subtropical animal breeds are productively suited to hot climate conditions. Therefore studying the physiological changes accompanying high temperature, especially in tropically adapted species such as buffalo, will help in understanding the mechanisms that the animal use to accomplish the necessary functions efficiently. Concerning fertility-related activity, granulosa cells are important for the regulation of ovarian function and the completion of oocyte maturation. In this study, the buffalo granulosa cells were examined for their viability, physiological and molecular responses under in vitro heat stress conditions. Buffalo granulosa cells displayed different adaptive responses, at the physiological and molecular levels, to the different heat stress conditions. At 40.5 °C, granulosa cells exhibited a functional persistence compared to the control and other heat-treated groups. These results will provide insights into ways that tropically adapted breeds may be able to maintain better reproductive function when exposed to heat stress compared to temperate breeds.

Abstract

The steroidogenesis capacity and adaptive response of follicular granulosa cells (GCs) to heat stress were assessed together with the underlying regulating molecular mechanisms in Egyptian buffalo. In vitro cultured GCs were exposed to heat stress treatments at 39.5, 40.5, or 41.5 °C for the final 24 h of the culture period (7 days), while the control group was kept under normal conditions (37 °C). Comparable viability was observed between the control and heat-treated GCs at 39.5 and 40.5 °C. A higher release of E2, P4 and IGF-1 was observed in the 40.5 °C group compared with the 39.5 or 41.5 °C groups. The total antioxidant capacity was higher in response to heat stress at 39.5 °C. At 40.5 °C, a significant upregulation pattern was found in the expression of the stress resistance transcripts (SOD2 and NFE2L2) and of CPT2. The relative abundance of ATP5F1A was significantly downregulated for all heat-treated groups compared to the control, while TNFα was downregulated in GCs at 39.5 °C. Expression analyses of stress-related miRNAs (miR-1246, miR-181a and miR-27b) exhibited a significant downregulation in the 40.5 °C group compared to the control, whereas miR-708 was upregulated in the 39.5 and 40.5 °C groups. In conclusion, buffalo GCs exhibited different adaptive responses, to the different heat stress conditions. The integration mechanism between the molecular and secretory actions of the GCs cultured at 40.5 °C might provide possible insights into the biological mechanism through which buffalo GCs react to heat stress.

Hypoxia up-regulates VEGF ligand and downregulates VEGF soluble receptor mRNA expression in bovine granulosa cells in vitro

Oxygen concentration (0₂) in antral ovarian follicles is below that found in most tissues, which is important for adequate granulosa cell function. The VEGF system is linked to angiogenesis and responds to changing 0₂ by stimulating neovascularization when levels are low. However, in the avascular granulosa cell layer of the follicle, VEGF action is directed to stimulating cell viability and steroidogenesis. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of 0₂ concentration on granulosa cell expression of the VEGF-system components. Bovine granulosa cells were isolated from medium-sized follicles (4-7 mm in diameter), placed in McCoy 5a medium supplemented with 10 ng/mL of insulin, 1 ng/mL of IGF-I, and 1 ng/mL of FSH, and cultured in four well plates (500 thousand cells per well), on three separate occasions. Culture plates were placed in gas-impermeable jars with a gas mixture containing either 2%, or 5% of O₂, or under atmospheric air condition inside an incubator (20% of 0₂). Media was replaced at 48 h of culture and cells from the plate in each oxygen concentration were pooled for RNA extraction after 96 h. The number of mRNA copies for the VEGF-system components - including ligands (VEGF120, VEGF120b, VEGF165 and VEGF165b), enzymes (cyclin-dependent like kinases-1, CLK1 and serine-arginine protein kinase 1, SRPK1), splicing factors (serine-arginine-rich splicing factors, SRSF1 and SRSF6), and the membrane-bound (VEGFR1, VEGFR2) and soluble forms of the receptors (sVEGFR1 and sVEGFR2) were quantified by qPCR. Granulosa cells cultured with low 0₂ (2%) had a higher expression of VEGF ligands (P < 0.05) when compared to cells cultured at 20% 0₂. VEGF164b mRNA was absent in granulosa cells from all culture conditions. The 2 and 5% 0₂ levels, which coincide with physiological concentrations, in the ovarian follicle, induced higher SRSF6 expression than atmospheric 0₂ concentrations (20%, P < 0.05). In contrast, mRNA copies for SRPK1, CLK1, SRSF1, VEGFR1 or VEGFR2 did not differ between 0₂ culture conditions. (P > 0.05). Nonetheless, mRNA copies for the soluble receptors, sVEGFR1 and sVEGFR2, linearly increased (P < 0.05) with 0₂ concentration. These results suggest that when cultured under hypoxic conditions, granulosa cells may develop an autocrine milieu that favors VEGF's biological effects on their survival and function.

Interspecific Variation in One-Carbon Metabolism within the Ovarian Follicle, Oocyte, and Preimplantation Embryo: Consequences for Epigenetic Programming of DNA Methylation

One-carbon (1C) metabolism provides methyl groups for the synthesis and/or methylation of purines and pyrimidines, biogenic amines, proteins, and phospholipids. Our understanding of how 1C pathways operate, however, pertains mostly to the (rat) liver. Here we report that transcripts for all bar two genes (i.e., BHMT, MAT1A) encoding enzymes in the linked methionine-folate cycles are expressed in all cell types within the ovarian follicle, oocyte, and blastocyst in the cow, sheep, and pig; as well as in rat granulosa cells (GCs) and human KGN cells (a granulosa-like tumor cell line). Betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT) protein was absent in bovine theca and GCs, as was activity of this enzyme in GCs. Mathematical modeling predicted that absence of this enzyme would lead to more volatile S-adenosylmethionine-mediated transmethylation in response to 1C substrate (e.g., methionine) or cofactor provision. We tested the sensitivity of bovine GCs to reduced methionine (from 50 to 10 µM) and observed a diminished flux of 1C units through the methionine cycle. We then used reduced-representation bisulfite sequencing to demonstrate that this reduction in methionine during bovine embryo culture leads to genome-wide alterations to DNA methylation in >1600 genes, including a cohort of imprinted genes linked to an abnormal fetal-overgrowth phenotype. Bovine ovarian and embryonic cells are acutely sensitive to methionine, but further experimentation is required to determine the significance of interspecific variation in BHMT expression.

Relation of the maximum temperature and relative humidity close to the insemination with the tropical milking criollo heifer's gestation in three seasons

The high climatic variability of hot climates of the intertropical zone reduces cattle fertility. In dairy cows in temperates zones, the THI has been used to evaluate the temperature and relative humidity (RH) joint effect in reproduction, but its use is not recommended in all geographic zones; in hot climates, the maximum temperature (Tmax) can provide more convenient information than THI. The objective of this study was to determine the artificial insemination (AI) service seasons and their joint effect with the maximum temperature and relative humidity of the previous seven days, the service day, and posterior seven days to the AI in the tropical milking criollo (LT) heifer's gestation. Climatic data was used to define three seasons: hot-dry (HD), hot-humid (HH), and fresh-dry (FD), and 313 artificial insemination services from 176 heifers were analyzed over fourteen years. The seasons were determined by cluster analysis. Gestation at first service (GF) was analyzed with a logistic regression model and global gestation (GG) with a mixed linear generalized model. The Tmax of previous seven days insemination [Formula: see text] - 0.20 ± 0.09 (p ≤ 0.02) in HD (p ≤ 0.02) and RH of seven days posterior insemination [Formula: see text]= - 0.08 ± 0.04 (p ≤ 0.04) in HD (p ≤ 0.01) affected GF. No effect of the Tmax and RH on the service day was observed (p > 0.05). The highest GG probabilities were higher than 0.70 in HH and FD, making those seasons the most suitable for inseminating LT heifers.

Effects of melatonin on the synthesis of estradiol and gene expression in pig granulosa cells

The interaction of granulosa cells (GCs) with oocytes is important to regulate follicle development. The exogenous melatonin promoting the maturation of oocytes by GCs has been approved in pig, however, the transcriptome profile and the functions of the genes regulated by melatonin in GCs have not yet to be fully characterized. In this study, we found melatonin could stimulate the synthesis of estradiol in pig GCs. The RNA-seq was used to explore the effects of melatonin on gene expression, a total of 89 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified. Gene ontology analysis showed DEGs which associated with regulation of cell proliferation, cell cycle, and anti-apoptosis were significantly enriched. The functions of two DEGs, NOTCH2 and FILIP1L, were studied in pig GCs. The results showed that NOTCH2 inhibited the synthesis of estradiol, but FILIP1L promoted the synthesis of estradiol. Furthermore, inhibiting NOTCH2 in granulosa cells cocultured with cumulus-oocyte-complexes had no obvious effect on the maturation of pig oocyte, but could upregulate the cleavage rate of oocyte. We proved that FILIP1L had no effect on the maturation and cleavage of pig oocytes. Our work deepens the understanding of melatonin's effects on GCs and oocyte. The DEGs we found will be beneficial to reveal mechanisms of melatonin acting on GCs and oocytes and design the pharmacological interventions.

Melatonin improves in vitro maturation and subsequent embryo development of caprine oocytes*

The aim of the present investigation was to study the effect of melatonin on in vitro maturation and subsequent embryo development of caprine oocytes. In experiment 1, 384 in vitro matured oocytes were selected and randomly divided in to two groups, viz. group 1 (control) wherein oocytes matured in maturation media without supplementation for 27 h in humidified atmosphere at 38.5°C with 5% CO2 in CO2 incubator while in group 2 oocytes matured in maturation media with 30 ng/ml melatonin supplementation. After 27 h of culture, nuclear maturation was observed in both groups using Hoechst dye. In experiment 2, 1,336 oocytes were randomly divided into two groups, viz. group 1 (641) wherein oocytes were matured in maturation media without melatonin while in group 2 (n=695) oocytes matured in maturation media with 30 ng/ml melatonin supplementation. After 27 h, oocytes of both groups were then subjected to in vitro fertilization.The rate of nuclear maturation in group 2 (30 ng/ml melatonin) was significantly higher than that of group 1 (control). Similarly, the cleavage rate and blastocyst formation from in vitro matured goat oocytes were significantly higher in group 2 than that of group 1. In conclusion, the result indicated that the supplementation of 30 ng/ml melatonin in maturation media improves the nuclear maturation and subsequent cleavage rates and blastocyst production from caprine oocytes.