Efficient isolation, biophysical characterisation and molecular composition of extracellular vesicles secreted by primary and immortalised cells of reproductive origin

First isolation and characterization of caprine oviduct fluid extracellular vesicles

Oviduct fluid extracellular vesicles (oEV) are essential for periconceptional events. The presence of EV has already been identified in the oviduct fluid (OF) from mammalian species, except in caprine. Therefore, this study aimed to isolate and characterize the caprine oEV (coEV). Initially, in Experiment 1, coEV were isolated from the OF of either each animal individually or from a pool of three animals. In experiment 2, coEV were isolated during the follicular or luteal phases of the estrous cycle. The coEV were characterized by size distribution, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential using dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis, as well as, by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dot blotting (DB). Our results indicated that the physicochemical characteristics of the coEV were similar (P > 0.05), regardless of the isolation method (individual or pool). However, coEV collected during the luteal phase were larger (P < 0.05) than those during the follicular phase. The TEM showed spherical and cup-shaped particles, characteristic of exosomes. The DB revealed the presence of exosomal proteins involved in the biogenesis of coEV. In conclusion, it is possible to isolate and characterize coEV from a single caprine female and the estrous cycle phase influences the vesicles average size and PDI.

Breaking the silence: The role of extracellular vesicles in unraveling the diagnosis and treatment of endometriosis

Cell-to-cell communication is believed to be facilitated by membrane-bound vesicles called extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are released by cells. Protein, lipids, and nucleic acids are major cargo of EVs and are transported in these vesicles. Depending on the parent and recipient cell types, they can affect a wide variety of biological processes in the tissues to which they are delivered. EVs are essential for embryo implantation and endometriosis, and they are located in the uterine cavities of different species, where they promote blastocyst and endometrial preparation for implantation. This review focuses on what is currently understood regarding pathologic and diagnostic characteristics, and the potential therapeutic value of EVs in the context of endometriosis, where they can be used for drug delivery and targeted therapy due to their ability to carry bioactive molecules to specific cells or tissues. The findings of this review highlight the potential for a wide range of clinical applications that involve endometrial EVs in the areas of treatment, such as surgical and pharmacological, diagnostic biomarker development, and drug delivery systems, all with the ultimate goal of improving pregnancy success rates.

Characteristics of size-exclusion chromatography enriched porcine follicular fluid extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound nanoparticles that are released by different cell types and play a crucial role in the intercellular communication. They carry various biomolecular compounds such as DNA, RNA, proteins, and lipids. Given that EVs are a new element of the communication within the ovarian follicle, extensive research is needed to optimize method of their isolation. The aim of the study was to assess size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) as a tool for effective EVs isolation from porcine ovarian follicular fluid. The characterization of EVs was performed by nanoparticle tracking analysis, transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, mass spectrometry and Western blot. We determined EVs concentration, size distribution, zeta potential, morphology, purity, and marker proteins. Our results show that SEC is an effective method for isolation of EVs from porcine follicular fluid. They displayed predominantly exosome properties with sufficient purity and possibility for further functional analyses, including proteomics.

Isolation of Extracellular Vesicles from Human Follicular Fluid: Size-Exclusion Chromatography versus Ultracentrifugation

Follicular fluid (FF) is the microenvironment where a growing oocyte develops. Intrafollicular communication ensures oocyte competence and is carried out through paracrine signaling, the exchange of molecules via gap junctions, and the trafficking of extracellular vesicles (EVs). The study of FF-derived EVs is important for both translational and fundamental research in the female reproductive field. This study aimed to compare the efficacy and purity of two EV isolation methods: size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and ultracentrifugation (UC). EVs isolated using SEC and UC were compared regarding their size and concentration using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA); protein contamination was assessed with microBCA; specific EV markers were detected with Western blot, and EV morphology was studied with transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Our results show that although both techniques isolated small EVs, a significantly increased yield in particle number was clear with UC compared with SEC. On the other hand, SEC generated purer EVs with fewer protein contaminants and aggregates. In conclusion, the selection of the most suited approach to isolate EVs must be conducted considering the degree of recovery, purity, and downstream application of the isolated EVs.

miR-17-5p in bovine oviductal fluid affects embryo development

This study identified microRNAs (miRNAs) in bovine oviductal fluids (OFs) and examined the effect of miR-17-5p in OFs on embryonic development to the blastocyst stage. Small RNA-seq of extracellular vesicles of OFs revealed 242 miRNAs. Additionally, analyzing expressions of randomly selected OF-miRNAs with RT-qPCR in the culture medium of oviductal epithelial cells indicated that the abundance of miRNAs in OFs increased during the luteal phase. miR-17-5p mimic-treated eight-cell-stage zona pellucida-free embryos showed improved embryonic development to the blastocyst stage. The effect of the miR-17-5p mimic was confirmed using a dual-luciferase assay and immunostaining. In addition, RNA-seq of the miR-17-5p mimic- or control-treated embryos revealed differentially expressed genes (DEGs), suggesting possible pathways that overlapped with the in silico-predicted pathways for miR-17-5p targeting genes. Furthermore, ingenuity pathway analysis of DEG predicted miR-17 to be a significant upstream regulator. Our results suggest that miR-17-5p in OFs regulates embryonic development in bovines.

Extracellular vesicle research in reproductive science- Paving the way for clinical achievements

Mammalian conception involves a multitude of reciprocal interactions via a molecular dialogue between mother and conceptus. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are secreted membrane-encapsulated particles that mediate cell-to-cell communication in various contexts. EVs, which are present in seminal, follicular, oviductal, and endometrial fluids, as well as in embryo secretions, carry molecular constituents that impact gamete maturation, fertilization, early embryo development, and embryo-maternal communication. The distribution, concentration, and molecular cargo of EVs are regulated by steroid hormones and the health status of the tissue of origin, and thus are influenced by menstrual phase, stage of conception, and the presence of infertility-associated diseases. EVs have been recognized as a novel source of biomarkers and potential reproductive medicine therapeutics, particularly for assisted reproductive technology (ART). There are still many technological and scientific hindrances to be overcome before EVs can be used in clinical diagnostic and therapeutic ART applications. Issues to be resolved include the lack of standardized measurement protocols and an absence of absolute EV quantification technologies. Additionally, clinically suitable and robust EV isolation methods have yet to be developed. In this review, we provide an overview of EV-mediated interactions during the early stages of reproduction from gamete maturation to embryo implantation and then outline the technological progress that must be made for EV applications to be translated to clinical settings.

Biocompatible Nanomaterials as an Emerging Technology in Reproductive Health; a Focus on the Male

A growing body of research has confirmed that nanoparticle (NP) systems can enhance delivery of therapeutic and imaging agents as well as prevent potentially damaging systemic exposure to these agents by modifying the kinetics of their release. With a wide choice of NP materials possessing different properties and surface modification options with unique targeting agents, bespoke nanosystems have been developed for applications varying from cancer therapeutics and genetic modification to cell imaging. Although there remain many challenges for the clinical application of nanoparticles, including toxicity within the reproductive system, some of these may be overcome with the recent development of biodegradable nanoparticles that offer increased biocompatibility. In recognition of this potential, this review seeks to present recent NP research with a focus on the exciting possibilities posed by the application of biocompatible nanomaterials within the fields of male reproductive medicine, health, and research.

High content, quantitative AFM analysis of the scalable biomechanical properties of extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are studied extensively as natural biomolecular shuttles and for their diagnostic and therapeutic potential. This exponential rise in interest has highlighted the need for highly robust and reproducible approaches for EV characterisation. Here we optimise quantitative nanomechanical tools and demonstrate the advantages of EV population screening by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Our high-content informatics analytical tools are made available for use by the EV community for widespread, standardised determination of structural stability. Ultracentrifugation (UC) and sonication, the common mechanical techniques used for EV isolation and loading respectively, are used to demonstrate the utility of optimised PeakForce-Quantitative Nano Mechanics (PF-QNM) analysis. EVs produced at an industrial scale exhibited biochemical and biomechanical alterations after exposure to these common techniques. UC resulted in slight increases in physical dimensions, and decreased EV adhesion concurrent with a decrease in CD63 content. Sonicated EVs exhibited significantly reduced levels of CD81, a decrease in size, increased Young's modulus and decreased adhesive force. These biomechanical and biochemical changes highlight the effect of EV sample preparation techniques on critical properties linked to EV cellular uptake and biological function. PF-QNM offers significant additional information about the structural information of EVs following their purification and downstream processing, and the analytical tools will ensure consistency of analysis of AFM data by the EV community, as this technique continues to become more widely implemented.

Extracellular vesicles and domestic animal reproduction

Embryo implantation is a complex process in which significant changes occur continually in both the corpora lutea and in the endometrium of females and which varies depending on the embryonic, pre-implantation, or fetal stages. However, at all stages, correct maternal-embryonic communication is essential. In the last few years, a new intercellular communication tool, mediated by extracellular vesicles (EVs), has emerged. Many authors agree on the relevant role of EVs in correct communication between the mother and the embryo, as a fundamental system for the pregnancy to reach term and embryonic development to occur correctly. This review analyzes current information on known EVs, their main functions, and their role in implantation and embryonic development in domestic animals.

Isolation and Characterization of Equine Uterine Extracellular Vesicles: A Comparative Methodological Study

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been identified in the uterine fluid in different species and have been pointed as key players in the embryo-maternal dialogue, maternal recognition of pregnancy and establishment of pregnancy. However, little is known about the uterine EVs in the mare. Therefore, the present study aimed at characterizing EVs from uterine lavage of cyclic mares by comparing five EVs isolation methods and the combination of them: (1) ultracentrifugation (UC); (2) concentration of lavage volume by Centricon ultrafiltration (CE); (3) the use of CE with different washing steps (phosphate-buffered saline with or without trehalose); (4) size-exclusion chromatography with iZON-qEV columns, and (5) a combination of the methods with best results based on EVs yield, purity, and protein cargo profiles. Transmission electron microscopy and Western blotting confirmed the isolation of EVs by all methods but with quantitative and qualitative differences. Mass spectrometry provided differences in protein profiles between methods, number of identified proteins, and protein classes. Our results indicate that the combination of CE/trehalose/iZON/UC is an optimal method to isolate equine uterine EVs with good yield and purity that can be applied in future studies to determine the role of equine uterine EVs in embryo-maternal interactions.

A polydopamine-based biomimetic multifunctional nanoplatform for multilayer imaging of cancer biomarkers carried by extracellular vesicles

Cancer-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) have attracted considerable attention for clinical diagnosis. However, a limiting factor in current EV assays is the ability to detect various EV cancer biomarkers expressed at different locations. Here, we report a biomimetic multifunctional nanoplatform for multilayer imaging of cancer biomarkers from the EV surface to the interior without complex pretreatment. Constructed from polydopamine-wrapped gold nanoparticles modified with multiple functional molecules, this nanoplatform can capture EVs from complex samples and target different EV cancer biomarkers for imaging analysis at the single-vesicle level. Combined with 96-well plates, this assay can distinguish cancer cell-derived EVs from normal ones in a high-throughput manner. Using serum samples, EVs from hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients can be distinguished from healthy controls. This convenient workflow represents a promising tool for EV-based cancer diagnosis.

Spermatozoa induce transcriptomic alterations in bovine oviductal epithelial cells prior to initial contact

The capability of spermatozoa to directly influence maternal gene expression is already established. Indeed, some of the changes induced by spermatozoa may have a direct functional importance in the pre-conceptional period. Although the mechanisms underlying these sperm-maternal interactions are not well characterized, it is possible that they could involve ligands that are released from the spermatozoa. This study therefore aimed to test whether physical contact between bovine spermatozoa and bovine oviductal epithelial cells (BOECs) is a prerequisite for spermatozoa-induced gene expression changes. We used two co-culture models: a contact co-culture model in which spermatozoa interact directly with BOECs, and a non-contact co-culture model in which an insert with the pore size of 0.4 μm was placed between spermatozoa and BOECs. Messenger RNA sequencing analysis of BOECs by RNA-seq revealed ten differentially expressed genes in contact system and 108 differentially expressed genes in the non-contact system after 10 h of co-culture. Retinol metabolism pathway and ovarian steroidogenesis pathway were significantly enriched in the non-contact co-culture system. Q-PCR analysis revealed that transcriptional responses can be rapid, with increased expression of four genes (DHRS3, CYP1B1, PTGS2, and ATF3) detectable within just 90 min of co-incubation, but with expression levels highly dependent on the type of co-culture system. The findings from our study demonstrate that direct contact with spermatozoa is not necessary to induce changes in gene expression of oviductal epithelial cells, suggesting that spermatozoa may be able to signal to maternal tissues in advance of their arrival.

Emerging Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Embryo-Maternal Communication throughout Implantation Processes

In ruminants, the establishment of proper conceptus–endometrial communication is essential for conceptus implantation and subsequent successful placentation. Accumulated evidence supports the idea that extracellular vesicles (EVs) present in uterine lumen are involved in conceptus–endometrial interactions during the preimplantation period. EVs make up a new field of intercellular communicators, which transport a variety of bioactive molecules, including soluble and membrane-bound proteins, lipids, DNA, and RNAs. EVs thus regulate gene expression and elicit biological effects including increased cell proliferation, migration, and adhesion in recipient cells. Uterine EVs are interactive and coordinate with ovarian progesterone (P4), trophectoderm-derived interferon tau (IFNT) and/or prostaglandins (PGs) in the physiological or pathological microenvironment. In this review, we will focus on intrauterine EVs in embryo–maternal interactions during the early stage of pregnancy, especially the implantation period in ruminant ungulates.

Characterizing Extracellular Vesicles and Their Diverse RNA Contents

Cells release nanometer-scale, lipid bilayer-enclosed biomolecular packages (extracellular vesicles; EVs) into their surrounding environment. EVs are hypothesized to be intercellular communication agents that regulate physiological states by transporting biomolecules between near and distant cells. The research community has consistently advocated for the importance of RNA contents in EVs by demonstrating that: (1) EV-related RNA contents can be detected in a liquid biopsy, (2) disease states significantly alter EV-related RNA contents, and (3) sensitive and specific liquid biopsies can be implemented in precision medicine settings by measuring EV-derived RNA contents. Furthermore, EVs have medical potential beyond diagnostics. Both natural and engineered EVs are being investigated for therapeutic applications such as regenerative medicine and as drug delivery agents. This review focuses specifically on EV characterization, analysis of their RNA content, and their functional implications. The NIH extracellular RNA communication (ERC) program has catapulted human EV research from an RNA profiling standpoint by standardizing the pipeline for working with EV transcriptomics data, and creating a centralized database for the scientific community. There are currently thousands of RNA-sequencing profiles hosted on the Extracellular RNA Atlas alone (Murillo et al., 2019), encompassing a variety of human biofluid types and health conditions. While a number of significant discoveries have been made through these studies individually, integrative analyses of these data have thus far been limited. A primary focus of the ERC program over the next five years is to bring higher resolution tools to the EV research community so that investigators can isolate and analyze EV sub-populations, and ultimately single EVs sourced from discrete cell types, tissues, and complex biofluids. Higher resolution techniques will be essential for evaluating the roles of circulating EVs at a level which impacts clinical decision making. We expect that advances in microfluidic technologies will drive near-term innovation and discoveries about the diverse RNA contents of EVs. Long-term translation of EV-based RNA profiling into a mainstay medical diagnostic tool will depend upon identifying robust patterns of circulating genetic material that correlate with a change in health status.

Zeta Potential of Extracellular Vesicles: Toward Understanding the Attributes that Determine Colloidal Stability

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes and microvesicles (<200 nm), play a vital role in intercellular communication and carry a net negative surface charge under physiological conditions. Zeta potential (ZP) is a popular method to measure the surface potential of EVs, while used as an indicator of surface charge, and colloidal stability influenced by surface chemistry, bioconjugation, and the theoretical model applied. Here, we investigated the effects of such factors on ZP of well-characterized EVs derived from the human choriocarcinoma JAr cells. The EVs were suspended in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) of various phosphate ionic concentrations (0.01, 0.1, and 1 mM), with or without detergent (Tween-20), or in the presence (10 mM) of different salts (NaCl, KCl, CaCl₂, and AlCl₃) and at different pH values (4, 7, and 10) while the ZP was measured. The ZP changed inversely with the buffer concentration, while Tween-20 caused a significant (p < 0.05) lowering of the ZP. Moreover, the ZP was significantly (p < 0.05) less negative in the presence of ions with higher valency (Al³⁺/Ca²⁺) than in the presence of monovalent ones (Na⁺/K⁺). Besides, the ZP of EVs became less negative at acidic pH, and vice versa. The integrated data underpins the crucial role of physicochemical attributes that influence the colloidal stability of EVs.

Extracellular vesicles: Multi-signal messengers in the gametes/embryo-oviduct cross-talk

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as novel cell-to-cell communication mediators in physiological and pathological scenarios. Their ability to transfer their molecular cargo (RNAs, proteins and lipids) from one cell to another, in the vicinity or far from the cell of origin, together with their capacity of exerting a functional impact on the target cell make them valuable diagnostic tools as well as therapeutic vectors in a variety of diseases. In the reproductive field, there is a growing interest in the role of EVs in gamete/embryo-maternal communication and their potential implications in the reproductive success. In this review, we provide current knowledge of EVs secreted by the oviduct (oEVs) and embryos (eEVs), since both have been proposed as key players in the crucial two-way dialogue between the oviduct (lining epithelium and secretions) and the embryo that ensures successful pregnancy. Both oEVs and eEVs molecular cargos and their potential role as multi-signal messengers in the gametes/embryo-oviduct cross-talk and in the embryo-to-embryo communication in different species are also addressed. Eventually, a comparative analysis between oEVs and eEVs has been performed to shed some light on common and specific cargos responsible for their functions supporting the early reproductive events and as prime candidate molecules for improving fertility and assisted reproductive technologies outcomes.