Structure–function relationships to guide rational design and fabrication of particulate food delivery systems

Development, characterization, and evaluation of the antioxidant activity of nanocarriers based on surfactant swollen micelles that encapsulate essential oils

This work aimed to compare the performance of two relatively underexplored methods for the swollen micelles (SMs) production as nanocarriers for essential oils (EOs). Origanum vulgare and Thymus vulgaris EOs were examined. The first method (SMs-1), involved a self-assembly process, while the second one (SMs-2), employed titration operation of an emulsion into a surfactant solution for SMs formation. Tween 80 and ethanol were used as surfactant and co-surfactant, respectively. The solubilization kinetics and the saturation concentration of EOs were determined. Particle size (measured by DLS) and encapsulation efficiency (EE) were the control parameters assessed, along with the EOs-loaded SMs' stability during 30 days of storage. Additionally, the EOs-loaded SMs' morphology was analyzed using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Finally, the antioxidant activity through the ABTS+ radical scavenging and the reducing power of EOs encapsulated in SMs was determined. The results showed that the solubilization of EOs in SMs was a rapid process with high EE. EOs-loaded SMs-2 systems exhibited greater colloidal stability and higher EE compared to EOs-loaded SMs-1 systems, showing smaller and more homogeneous particle sizes. Moreover, EOs-loaded SMs-2 systems maintained constant EE throughout the storage period. AFM imaging confirmed the rounded and heterogeneous morphology of EOs-loaded SMs-1 and the smaller, more homogeneous, and spherical morphology of EOs-loaded SMs-2. EOs-loaded SMs-2 showed high ABTS+ radical scavenging and reducing power when encapsulated in SMs. In conclusion, the SMs-2 method emerged as an effective approach for producing efficient nanocarriers for EOs, signifying a promising path for future developments in antioxidant delivery systems.

Processed foods: From their emergence to resilient technologies

Humans need food processing assuring food safety, quality, and functionality to sustain their life. The ongoing debates regarding food processing require rational and scientific data about food processing and processed foods. This study deals with the importance, origins, and history of processing, defining processes and discussing existing food classification systems and provides recommendations for future food process development. Descriptions and comparisons of technologies for food preservation, their resource efficiency, and beneficial aspects in relation to traditional processing are summarized. Possibilities for pretreatments or combination application and related potentials are provided. A consumer-oriented paradigm change is presented using the potential of resilient technologies for food product improvements rather than the traditional adaptation of raw materials to existing processes. Means for food science and technology research toward dietary changes by transparent, gentle, and resource-efficient processes for consumers food preference, acceptance, and needs are provided.

Triggered and controlled release of bioactives in food applications

Bioactive compounds (e.g., nutraceuticals, micronutrients, antimicrobial, antioxidant) are added to food products and formulations to enhance sensorial/nutritional attributes and/or shelf-life. Many of these bioactives are susceptible to degradation when exposed to environmental and processing factors. Others involve in undesirable interactions with food constituents. Encapsulation is a useful tool for addressing these issues through various stabilization mechanisms. Besides protection, another important requirement of encapsulation is to design a carrier that predictably releases the encapsulated bioactive at the target site to elicit its intended functionality. To this end, controlled release carrier systems derived from interactive materials have been developed and commercially exploited to meet the requirements of various applications. This chapter provides an overview on basic controlled and triggered release concepts relevant to food and active packaging applications. Different approaches to encapsulate bioactive compounds and their mode of release are presented, from simple blending with a compatible matrix to complex multiphase carrier systems. To further elucidate the mass transport processes, selected diffusion and empirical release kinetic models are presented, along with their brief historical significance. Finally, interactive carriers that are responsive to moisture, pH, thermal and chemical stimuli are presented to illustrate how these triggered release mechanisms can be useful for food applications.

Benefits, toxicity and current market of cannabidiol in edibles

The commercialization of products with cannabidiol (CBD) has undergone a significant increase. These products can be presented in different forms such as baked goods, gummies or beverages (such as kombucha, beer or teas, among others) using wide concentrations ranges. The use of CBD in edibles favors its consumption, for medicinal users, during the work week, avoid its possible social stigma and facilitates its transport. These products can be purchased on store shelves and online. There is a large number of specialized studies, in which the possible advantages of CBD consumption are described in the preclinical and clinical trials. It is also necessary to recognize the existence of other works revealing that the excessive consumption of CBD could have some repercussions on health. In this review, it is analyzed the composition and properties of Cannabis sativa L., the health benefits of cannabinoids (focusing on CBD), its consumption, its possible toxicological effects, a brief exposition of the extraction process, and a collection of different products that contain CBD in its composition.

DMA Study of the Molecular Structure of Porcine Fat in-Water Emulsions Stabilised by Potato Starch

The aim of the study was to determine how the molecular structure of porcine fat-in-water type emulsions stabilised with potato starch affected their rheomechanical properties. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and instrumental analysis of the texture were the method used in experiments. Starch gels with concentrations corresponding to the water starch concentration of the examined emulsions were used as control systems. The analysis of the starch and starch-fat systems showed that the values characterising their rheomechanical and textural properties reflected the spatial reaction of the amylose matrix to dynamic mechanical interactions. Changes in their values resulted from conformational changes in the structure of segments and nodes of the lattice, conditioned by the concentration of starch and the presence of fat. As a result of these changes, starch-fat emulsions are distinguished by greater densities of network segments and nearly two times greater functionalities of nodes than starch gels. The instrumental analysis of the texture showed that the values of the texture parameters in the starch gels were greater than in the starch-fat emulsions. The high values of the correlation coefficients (R~0.9) between the texture determinants and the rheological parameters proved that there was a strong correlation between the textural properties of the tested systems and their rheomechanical properties.

Formulation Development of a Food-Graded Curcumin-Loaded Medium Chain Triglycerides-Encapsulated Kappa Carrageenan (CUR-MCT-KC) Gel Bead Based Oral Delivery Formulation

In recent years, curcumin has been a major research endeavor in food and biopharmaceutical industries owing to its miscellaneous health benefits. There is an increasing amount of research ongoing in the development of an ideal curcumin delivery system to resolve its limitations and further enhance its solubility, bioavailability and bioactivity. The emergence of food-graded materials and natural polymers has elicited new research interests into enhanced pharmaceutical delivery due to their unique properties as delivery carriers. The current study is to develop a natural and food-graded drug carrier with food-derived MCT oil and a seaweed-extracted polymer called k-carrageenan for oral delivery of curcumin with improved solubility, high gastric resistance, and high encapsulation of curcumin. The application of k-carrageenan as a structuring agent that gelatinizes o/w emulsion is rarely reported and there is so far no MCT-KC system established for the delivery of hydrophobic/lipophilic molecules. This article reports the synthesis and a series of in vitro bio-physicochemical studies to examine the performance of CUR-MCT-KC as an oral delivery system. The solubility of CUR was increased significantly using MCT with a good encapsulation efficiency of 73.98 ± 1.57% and a loading capacity of 1.32 ± 0.03 mg CUR/mL MCT. CUR was successfully loaded in MCT-KC, which was confirmed using FTIR and SEM with good storage and thermal stability. Dissolution study indicated that the solubility of CUR was enhanced two-fold using heated MCT oil as compared to naked or unformulated CUR. In vitro release study revealed that encapsulated CUR was protected from premature burst under simulated gastric environment and released drastically in simulated intestinal condition. The CUR release was active at intestinal pH with the cumulative release of >90% CUR after 5 h incubation, which is the desired outcome for CUR absorption under human intestinal conditions. A similar release profile was also obtained when CUR was replaced with beta-carotene molecules. Hence, the reported findings demonstrate the potencies of MCT-KC as a promising delivery carrier for hydrophobic candidates such as CUR.

Texture-Modified Food for Dysphagic Patients: A Comprehensive Review

Food texture is a major food quality parameter. The physicochemical properties of food changes when processed in households or industries, resulting in modified textures. A better understanding of these properties is important for the sensory and textural characteristics of foods that target consumers of all ages, from children to the elderly, especially when food product development is considered for dysphagia. Texture modifications in foods suitable for dysphagic patients will grow as the numbers of elderly citizens increase. Dysphagia management should ensure that texture-modified (TM) food is nutritious and easy to swallow. This review addresses how texture and rheology can be assessed in the food industry by placing particular emphasis on dysphagia. It also discusses how the structure of TM food depends not only on food ingredients, such as hydrocolloids, emulsifiers, and thickening and gelling agents, but also on the applied processing methods, including microencapsulation, microgels as delivery systems, and 3D printing. In addition, we address how to modify texture for individuals with dysphagia in all age groups, and highlight different strategies to develop appropriate food products for dysphagic patients.

Yeast cells for encapsulation of bioactive compounds in food products: A review

Nowadays bioactive compounds have gained great attention in food and drug industries owing to their health aspects as well as antimicrobial and antioxidant attributes. Nevertheless, their bioavailability, bioactivity, and stability can be affected in different conditions and during storage. In addition, some bioactive compounds have undesirable flavor that restrict their application especially at high dosage in food products. Therefore, food industry needs to find novel techniques to overcome these problems. Microencapsulation is a technique, which can fulfill the mentioned requirements. Also, there are many wall materials for use in encapsulation procedure such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and various kinds of polymers. The utilization of food-grade and safe carriers have attracted great interest for encapsulation of food ingredients. Yeast cells are known as a novel carrier for microencapsulation of bioactive compounds with benefits such as controlled release, protection of core substances without a significant effect on sensory properties of food products. Saccharomyces cerevisiae was abundantly used as a suitable carrier for food ingredients. Whole cells as well as cell particles like cell wall and plasma membrane can act as a wall material in encapsulation process. Compared to other wall materials, yeast cells are biodegradable, have better protection for bioactive compounds and the process of microencapsulation by them is relatively simple. The encapsulation efficiency can be improved by applying some pretreatments of yeast cells. In this article, the potential application of yeast cells as an encapsulating material for encapsulation of bioactive compounds is reviewed.

Preparation, optimization, and in-vitro characterization of α-tocopherol-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs)

Objective: The main scope of present investigation was preparation and physicochemical characterization of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) loaded by α-tocopherol acetate (ATA).Methods: ATA-loaded nanoparticles were prepared by solvent injection-homogenization technique using stearic acid as the solid lipid, phosphatidylcholine as the stabilizer and finally coated by chitosan with the aim of increasing z-potential and also having a more stable nano-formulation. Then, characterization of SLNs has been conducted using dynamic light scattering (DLS), zeta potential measurement, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).Results: Nanoparticles with average sizes of 175 ± 15 nm and zeta potential of +35 ± 2.5 mV were obtained. An excellent drug entrapment efficiency of 90.58 ± 1.38% was obtained with a no-burst slow release up to about 10 days tested. The final plateau of release of ATA from nanoparticulate system within 216 h was 61.13 ± 0.13% which was approached in about 150 h. Physical stability studies showed that the ATA nano-formulation remained stable with slight increase in mean particle size and polydispersity index over a 3-month period in refrigerated temperature. Considering both FTIR and DSC analysis, it can be concluded that there is no new band formation between materials and ATA in our nano-formulation. Particle sizes obtained using AFM images are in a good agreement to those established from the DLS analysis.Conclusion: These data showed a promising delivery system for vitamin E based on SLN platform.

Nanoparticles fabricated from bulk solid lipids: Preparation, properties, and potential food applications

Unlike conventional emulsions, solid lipids are used to prepare solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) with crystalline structures and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) with imperfect crystals or amorphous structures to encapsulate various bioactive compounds significant to food applications. The solid lipid matrix can stabilize particle structures and control release properties of the encapsulated compounds that may not be possible for emulsions with liquid droplets. In this review, common approaches of preparing SLNs and NLCs are first presented, followed by parameters used to study lipid particles, including dimensional, morphological, charge, thermal, and crystalline properties. The structures of SLNs and NLCs with respect to the release mechanisms of encapsulated compounds are discussed in the context of lipid and emulsifier chemistry and preparation conditions. Lastly, possible applications of SLNs and NLCs in food systems are discussed.

α-Ketoglutaric Acid-Modified Carbonate Apatite Enhances Cellular Uptake and Cytotoxicity of a Raf- Kinase Inhibitor in Breast Cancer Cells through Inhibition of MAPK and PI-3 Kinase Pathways

AZ628 is a hydrophobic Raf-kinase inhibitor (rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma) currently in clinical trial of various cancer. The physicochemical properties of hydrophobic drugs that affect the drug-particle interactions and cause aggregation of drugs and particles might be the key aspect to impede effective drug delivery. Retaining smaller particle size is the prerequisite to overcome the opsonization and improve cytotoxicity in the targeted region. Carbonate apatite (CA), an attractive biodegradable vector, has been used to carry both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs and release the payloads inside the cells following endocytosis. We incorporated AZ628 into CA and also modified it with α-ketoglutaric acid (α-KA) for reducing particle growth kinetics and increasing total surface area to improve the delivery of AZ628 by enhancing cellular uptake by breast cancer cells. AZ628-loaded nanoparticles of CA and α-KA-modified CA (α-KAMCA) were synthesized and evaluated in MCF-7 and 4T1 cell lines by measuring cytotoxicity and cellular uptake analysis. HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) assay was performed to quantify the binding affinity of the nanocarriers towards the drug. Western blot analysis was done to see the activation and expression levels of Akt, MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) pathways and Caspase-3. Zetasizer was used to measure the particle size along with the surface charge. α-KAMCA showed almost 88% encapsulation efficacy for AZ628 with around 21% enhanced cellular uptake of the drug in two different breast cancer cell lines. These findings suggest that α-KAMCA could be a promising therapeutic tool to carry AZ628 for breast cancer treatment.

Konjac glucomannan octenyl succinate (KGOS) as an emulsifier for lipophilic bioactive nutrient encapsulation

BACKGROUND

Konjac glucomannan octenyl succinate (KGOS) has excellent emulsification properties and can potentially be used in the food industry as an emulsifier, stabilizer and microcapsule wall material. In the present study, the in vitro digestion properties and emulsification capability and stability of KGOS were studied to evaluate the transport and encapsulation characteristics of KGOS with insoluble bioactive nutrients.

RESULTS

Confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) suggested that oil droplets could be encapsulated by KGOS into regular spheres. In vitro digestion properties showed that KGOS is effective for colon-targeted transport. β-Carotene was selected as a representative lipophilic bioactive compound to evaluate the emulsification characteristics of KGOS. The loading capacity of the 0.4 mg mL^-1 KGOS solution for β-carotene was 3.26%, and transmission electron microscopy suggested that the self-aggregate particles of KGOS/β-carotene (KGOSC) were more uniform than KGOS. With a composition of 0.03% β-carotene, 0.3% KGOS and 10% medium-chain triglycerides, the emulsification yield of the KGOSC nanoemulsion was more than 95%. After 30 days of storage, the particle size and polydispersity index of the KGOSC nanoemulsion were less than 5 nm and 0.5, respectively, and the sensitivity of KGOSC nanoemulsions to storage conditions decreased in the order temperature, oxygen and light.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study suggested that KGOS is a good potential emulsifier and stabilizer for lipophilic bioactive nutrient encapsulation. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Targeted Microbiome Intervention by Microencapsulated Delayed-Release Niacin Beneficially Affects Insulin Sensitivity in Humans

OBJECTIVE

Gut microbiota represent a potential novel target for future prediabetes and type 2 diabetes therapies. In that respect, niacin has been shown to beneficially affect the host-microbiome interaction in rodent models.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

We characterized more than 500 human subjects with different metabolic phenotypes regarding their niacin (nicotinic acid [NA] and nicotinamide [NAM]) status and their gut microbiome. In addition, NA and NAM delayed-release microcapsules were engineered and examined in vitro and in vivo in two human intervention studies (bioavailability study and proof-of-concept/safety study).

RESULTS

We found a reduced α-diversity and Bacteroidetes abundance in the microbiome of obese human subjects associated with a low dietary niacin intake. We therefore developed delayed-release microcapsules targeting the ileocolonic region to deliver increasing amounts of NA and NAM to the microbiome while preventing systemic resorption to avoid negative side effects (e.g., facial flushing). In vitro studies on these delayed-release microcapsules revealed stable conditions at pH 1.4, 4.5, and 6.8, followed by release of the compounds at pH 7.4, simulating the ileocolonic region. In humans in vivo, gut-targeted delayed-release NA but not NAM produced a significant increase in the abundance of Bacteroidetes. In the absence of systemic side effects, these favorable microbiome changes induced by microencapsulated delayed-release NA were associated with an improvement of biomarkers for systemic insulin sensitivity and metabolic inflammation.

CONCLUSION

Targeted microbiome intervention by delayed-release NA might represent a future therapeutic option for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes.

Properties of microparticles from a whey protein isolate/alginate emulsion gel

Designing soft, palatable and nutritious texture-modified foods for the elderly is a challenge for food technologists. The aim of this work was to produce and characterize emulsion-gelled microparticles (EGM) made from whey protein isolate (WPI) and sodium alginate (NaAlg) that may be used to modify the rheology of liquid foods and as carriers of lipids and lipophilic nutrients and bioactives. Olive oil microdroplets became embedded in the WPI/NaAlg gel matrix in the form of an emulsion produced by ultrasound (US) or high-speed blending (HSB). Oil microdroplets were obtained by US and HSB, with an average equivalent diameter varying between 2.0-3.2 µm and 4.5-6.7 µm, respectively. Oil incorporation increased compression stress of bulk emulsion gels at small deformations compared to the no-oil microgel, but this effect was reversed at high strains. EGM were prepared by shear-induced size reduction. Rheological tests at 20 ℃ and 40 ℃ showed that US-EGM and HSB-EGM exhibited a predominant elastic behavior, with G' >  G″ throughout the frequency range. However, when HSB-EGM were heated at 60 ℃ their rheological behavior changed to a more fluid-like condition, but not that of US-EGM. Consequently, EGM have the properties needed to improve food texture for people with masticatory/swallowing dysfunctions or needing special nutrition.

Design of experiments for microencapsulation applications: A review

Microencapsulation techniques have been intensively explored by many research sectors such as pharmaceutical and food industries. Microencapsulation allows to protect the active ingredient from the external environment, mask undesired flavours, a possible controlled release of compounds among others. The purpose of this review is to provide a background of design of experiments in microencapsulation research context. Optimization processes are required for an accurate research in these fields and therefore, the right implementation of micro-sized techniques at industrial scale. This article critically reviews the use of the response surface methodologies in pharmaceutical and food microencapsulation research areas. A survey of optimization procedures in the literature, in the last few years is also presented.

Development of Food-Grade Curcumin Nanoemulsion and its Potential Application to Food Beverage System: Antioxidant Property and In Vitro Digestion

Curcumin nanoemulsions (Cur-NEs) were developed with various surfactant concentrations by using high pressure homogenization and finally applied to the commercial milk system. Characterization of Cur-NEs was performed by measuring the droplet size and polydispersity index value at different Tween 20 concentrations. The morphology of the Cur-NEs was observed by confocal laser scanning microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Antioxidant activity and in vitro digestion ability were tested using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt, pH-stat method, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances assays. Cur-NEs were found to be physically stable for 1 mo at room temperature. The surfactant concentration affects particle formation and droplet size. The mean droplet size decreased from 122 to 90 nm when surfactant concentration increased 3 times. Cur-NEs had shown an effective oxygen scavenging activity. Cur-NEs-fortified milk showed significantly lower lipid oxidation than control (unfortified) milk and milk containing curcumin-free nanoemulsions. These properties make Cur-NEs suitable systems for the beverage industry.

Water-in-oil microemulsions versus emulsions as carriers of hydroxytyrosol: an in vitro gastrointestinal lipolysis study using the pHstat technique

W/O microemulsions are digested at a lower rate than emulsions, mainly because their high contents in emulsifiers result in a strong inhibition of gastric lipolysis.

Encapsulation, protection, and release of hydrophilic active components: potential and limitations of colloidal delivery systems

There have been major advances in the development of edible colloidal delivery systems for hydrophobic bioactives in recent years. However, there are still many challenges associated with the development of effective delivery systems for hydrophilic bioactives. This review highlights the major challenges associated with developing colloidal delivery systems for hydrophilic bioactive components that can be utilized in foods, pharmaceuticals, and other products intended for oral ingestion. Special emphasis is given to the fundamental physicochemical phenomena associated with encapsulation, stabilization, and release of these bioactive components, such as solubility, partitioning, barriers, and mass transport processes. Delivery systems suitable for encapsulating hydrophilic bioactive components are then reviewed, including liposomes, multiple emulsions, solid fat particles, multiple emulsions, biopolymer particles, cubosomes, and biologically-derived systems. The advantages and limitations of each of these delivery systems are highlighted. This information should facilitate the rational selection of the most appropriate colloidal delivery systems for particular applications in the food and other industries.