Effects of high hydrostatic pressure on the quality and functionality of protein isolates, concentrates, and hydrolysates derived from pulse legumes: A review

Effect of glycosylation modification on structure and properties of soy protein isolate: A review

Soybean protein isolate (SPI) is a highly functional protein source used in various food applications, such as emulsion, gelatin, and food packaging. However, its commercial application may be limited due to its poor mechanical properties, barrier properties, and high water sensitivity. Studies have shown that modifying SPI through glycosylation can enhance its functional properties and biological activities, resulting in better application performance. This paper reviews the recent studies on glycosylation modification of SPI, including its quantification method, structural improvements, and enhancement of its functional properties, such as solubility, gelation, emulsifying, and foaming. The review also discusses how glycosylation affects the bioactivity of SPI, such as its antioxidant and antibacterial activity. This review aims to provide a reference for further research on glycosylation modification and lay a foundation for applying SPI in various fields.

Exploration of Calocybe indica mushroom phenolic acid-kidney bean protein complex: Functional properties, amino acid profiles, in-vitro digestibility, and application in vegan product development

The study evaluates the interaction between Calocybe indica mushroom polyphenols (phenolic acid) and kidney bean protein (KBPM), aiming to enhance vegan food quality. The mushrooms exhibited a carbohydrate content of 3.65%, an antioxidant activity of 55.04 ± 0.17%, and a phenolic content of 4.86 mg GAE/g. Caffeic and cinnamic acids were identified through high-pressure liquid chromatography. Various concentrations of KBPM were tested at phenolic acid concentrations of 0.025, 0.050, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, and 1%, among these, KBPM 0.2 demonstrated the highest binding efficiency of 99.40 ± 0.05%. Notably, this complex improved the protein's functional properties, such as solubility by 11.43%, water and oil holding capacities by 10.62% and 22.04%, and emulsion capacity and stability by 3.69% and 5.83%, respectively, compared to the native protein. The protein-phenolic acid complex also enhanced thermal stability, surface charge, amino acid content, and reduced particle size compared to native protein. These enhancements also improved protein digestibility and sensory attributes in a fruit-based smoothie.

Compatibility of pulse protein in the formulation of plant based yogurt: a review of nutri-functional properties and processing impact

With the increased environmental concerns and health awareness among consumers, there has been a notable interest in plant-based dairy alternatives. The plant-based yogurt market has experienced rapid expansion in recent years. Due to challenges related to cultivation, higher cost of production and lower protein content researchers have explored the viability of pulse-based yogurt which has arisen as an economically and nutritionally abundant solution. This review aims to examine the feasibility of utilizing pulse protein for yogurt production. The nutritional, antinutritional, and functional characteristics of various pulses were discussed in detail, alongside the modifications in these properties during the various stages of yogurt manufacturing. The review also sheds light on pivotal findings from existing literature and outlines challenges associated with the production of pulse-based yogurt. Pulses have emerged as promising base materials for yogurt manufacturing due to their favorable nutritional and functional characteristics. Further, the fermentation process can effectively reduce antinutritional components and enhance digestibility. Nonetheless, variations in sensorial and rheological properties were noted when different types of pulses were employed. This issue can be addressed by employing suitable combinations to achieve the desired properties in pulse-based yogurt.

Non-animal protein hydrolysates from agro-industrial wastes: A prospect of alternative inputs for cultured meat

In light of the growing demand for alternative protein sources, laboratory-grown meat has been proposed as a potential solution to the challenges posed by conventional meat production. Cultured meat does not require animal slaughter and uses sustainable production methods, contributing to animal welfare, human health, and environmental sustainability. However, some challenges still need to be addressed in cultured meat production, such as the use of fetal bovine serum for medium supplementation. This ingredient has limited availability, increases production costs, and raises ethical concerns. This review explores the potential of non-animal protein hydrolysates derived from agro-industrial wastes as substitutes for critical components of fetal bovine serum in cultured meat production. Despite the lack of standardization of hydrolysate composition, the potential benefits of this alternative protein source may outweigh its disadvantages. Future research holds promise for increasing the accessibility of cultured meat.

Conjugation of gum Arabic and lentil protein hydrolysates through Maillard reaction: Antioxidant activity, volatile compounds, functional and sensory properties

Lentil protein hydrolysates (LPH) and lentil protein hydrolysates cross-linked (LPHC) were grafted with gum Arabic (GA) through a wet Maillard reaction at 100°C for 2 h and called MLPH and MLPHC. The samples were assessed for absorption, degree of grafting (DG), surface hydrophobicity, antioxidant activity, molecular weight (MW) profile, chemical alteration, volatile compounds, functional and sensory properties. Results showed that Maillard grafting led to increase in absorption and DG (maximum value: MLPHC), and led to the reduction of the surface hydrophobicity and antioxidant activity (minimum value: MLPHC). MW profiles indicated that MLPH and MLPHC formed new bands at MW >250 kDa. Regarding the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Maillard conjugation led to the occurrence of peaks at 1759 and 1765 cm-1, while the intensities of amide I bands at 1637 and 1659 cm-1 and amide II bands at 1498 and 1495 cm-1 were decreased. Hydrolysis, cross-linking, and especially Maillard grafting provided well-balanced content of volatile components. Indeed, the proportions of alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, and acids were changed, thereby, the inherent grassy and planty tastes were diminished while new umami taste was developed. Maillard grafting led to significant improvement of functional properties, while MLPH and MLPHC indicated the highest emulsifying activity at pH 10.0 (73.76 and 70.12 m2/g, respectively) and stability (369.64 and 288.22 min), foaming capacity (88.57% and 142.86%) and stability (60.57% and 72%). Sensory analysis has demonstrated that umami taste was highly developed in MLPH and MLPHC, which can be well considered as meat proteins and flavor enhancers such as monosodium glutamate (MSG).

The Application of High-Hydrostatic-Pressure Processing to Improve the Quality of Baked Products: A Review

The current trend in the food industry is towards "clean label" products with high sensory and nutritional quality. However, the inclusion of nutrient-rich ingredients in recipes often leads to sensory deficiencies in baked goods. To meet these requirements, physically modified flours are receiving more and more attention from bakery product developers. There are various findings in the literature on high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) technology, which can be used to modify various matrices so that they can be used as ingredients in the baking industry. HHP treatments can change the functionality of starches and proteins due to cold gelatinization and protein unfolding. As a result, the resulting ingredients are more suitable for nutrient-rich bakery formulations. This review describes the information available in the literature on HHP treatment conditions for ingredients used in the production of bakery products and analyses the changes in the techno-functional properties of these matrices, in particular their ability to act as structuring agents. The impact of HHP-treated ingredients on the quality of dough and bakery products and the effects on some nutritional properties of the treated matrices have been also analysed. The findings presented in this paper could be of particular interest to the bakery industry as they could be very useful in promoting the industrial application of HHP technology.

Pulse Protein Isolates as Competitive Food Ingredients: Origin, Composition, Functionalities, and the State-of-the-Art Manufacturing

The ever-increasing world population and environmental stress are leading to surging demand for nutrient-rich food products with cleaner labeling and improved sustainability. Plant proteins, accordingly, are gaining enormous popularity compared with counterpart animal proteins in the food industry. While conventional plant protein sources, such as wheat and soy, cause concerns about their allergenicity, peas, beans, chickpeas, lentils, and other pulses are becoming important staples owing to their agronomic and nutritional benefits. However, the utilization of pulse proteins is still limited due to unclear pulse protein characteristics and the challenges of characterizing them from extensively diverse varieties within pulse crops. To address these challenges, the origins and compositions of pulse crops were first introduced, while an overarching description of pulse protein physiochemical properties, e.g., interfacial properties, aggregation behavior, solubility, etc., are presented. For further enhanced functionalities, appropriate modifications (including chemical, physical, and enzymatic treatment) are necessary. Among them, non-covalent complexation and enzymatic strategies are especially preferable during the value-added processing of clean-label pulse proteins for specific focus. This comprehensive review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the interrelationships between the composition, structure, functional characteristics, and advanced modification strategies of pulse proteins, which is a pillar of high-performance pulse protein in future food manufacturing.

Extraction methods and nutritional characterization of protein concentrates obtained from bean, chickpea, and corn discard grains

Protein concentrates obtained from discarded grain flours of white chickpea Sinaloa (Cicer arietinum) (CC), "Azufrazin" bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) (BC), and white corn (Zea mays) (MC), were characterized biochemically through bromatological analyses (protein, lipid, fiber, moisture, ashes, and nitrogen free extract), HPLC techniques (amino acids content), and spectrophotometry (anti-nutrients: phytic acid, trypsin inhibitors, and saponins). The percentage of protein obtained from CC, BC, and MC was 71.23, 81.10, and 55.69%, respectively. Most peptides in the BC and CC flours had a molecular weight of <1.35 kDa, meanwhile, MC peptides were heavier (1.35 to 17 kDa). The amino acids (AA) profile of flours and protein concentrates were similar; however, all the protein concentrates showed an increased AA accumulation (300 to -400%) compared with their flours. The protein concentrates from BC registered the highest AA accumulation (77.4 g of AA/100 g of protein concentrates). Except for the phytic acid in CC and trypsin inhibitor in CC and MC, respectively, the rest of the protein concentrates exhibited higher amounts of the anti-nutrients compared with their flours; however, these levels do not exceed the reported toxicity for some animals, mainly when used in combination with other ingredients for feed formulations. It is concluded that CC and BC protein concentrates showed better nutritional characteristics than MC (level of protein, size of peptides, and AA profile). After biochemical characterization, protein concentrates derived from by-products have nutritional potential for the animal feed industry.

Fermented Whey Ewe's Milk-Based Fruit Smoothies: Bio-Recycling and Enrichment of Phenolic Compounds and Improvement of Protein Digestibility and Antioxidant Activity

This study aimed to recycle whey milk by-products (protein source) in fruit smoothies (phenolic compounds source) through started-assisted fermentation and delivering sustainable and healthy food formulations capable of providing nutrients that are unavailable due to an unbalanced diet or incorrect eating habits. Five lactic acid bacteria strains were selected as best starters for smoothie production based on the complementarity of pro-technological (kinetics of growth and acidification) traits, exopolysaccharides and phenolics release, and antioxidant activity enhancement. Compared to raw whey milk-based fruit smoothies (Raw_WFS), fermentation led to distinct profiles of sugars (glucose, fructose, mannitol, and sucrose), organic acids (lactic acid and acetic acid), ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds (gallic acid, 3-hydroxybenzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, hydrocaffeic acid, quercetin, epicatechin, procyanidin B2, and ellagic acid) and especially anthocyanins (cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, peonidin, petunidin 3-glucoside). Protein and phenolics interaction enhanced the release of anthocyanins, notably under the action of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum. The same bacterial strains outperformed other species in terms of protein digestibility and quality. With variations among starters culture, bio-converted metabolites were most likely responsible for the increase antioxidant scavenging capacity (DPPH, ABTS, and lipid peroxidation) and the modifications in organoleptic properties (aroma and flavor).

Developments in Plant Proteins Production for Meat and Fish Analogues

In recent years, there have been significant developments in plant proteins production for meat and fish analogues. Some of the key developments include the use of new plant protein sources such as soy, legumes, grains, potatoes, and seaweed, as well as insect proteins, leaf proteins, mushrooms, and microbial proteins. Furthermore, to improve the technological and functional properties of plant proteins, they can be subjected to traditional and unconventional treatments such as chemical (glycosylation, deamidation, phosphorylation, and acylation), physical (pulsed electric fields, ultrasound, high hydrostatic pressure, dynamic high-pressure treatment, and cold plasma), and biological (fermentation and enzymatic modification). To obtain the high quality and the desired texture of the food product, other ingredients besides proteins, such as water, fat, flavors, binders, dyes, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, also have to be used. The final product can be significantly influenced by the matrix composition, variety of ingredients, and water content, with the type of ingredients playing a role in either enhancing or constraining the desired texture of the food. There are several types of technologies used for meat and fish analogues production, including extrusion, shear cell technology, spinning, 3D printing, and others. Overall, the technologies used for meat and fish analogues production are constantly evolving as new innovations are developed and existing methods are improved. These developments have led to the creation of plant-based products that have a similar texture, taste, and nutritional profile to meat and fish, making them more appealing to consumers seeking alternatives to animal-based products.

Relation of amino acid composition, hydrophobicity, and molecular weight with antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and antioxidant properties of mixtures of corn gluten and soy protein hydrolysates

New mixed Alcalase-hydrolysates were developed using corn gluten meal (CP) and soy protein (SP) hydrolysates, namely CPH, SPH, SPH30:CPH70, SPH70:CPH30, and SPH50:CPH50. Amino acid profile, surface hydrophobicity (H ₀), molecular weight (MW) distribution, antioxidant activity, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), α-amylase, and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities, and functional characteristics of hydrolysates were determined. Hydrolysis changed the amount of hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acid composition and significantly increased the H ₀ values of hydrolysates, especially for CPH. The DPPH radical scavenging activity (RSA) was higher for CPH, SPH30:CPH70, and SPH50:CPH50 than SPH and SPH70:CPH30. Moreover, SPH, SPH70:CPH30, and SPH50:CPH50 showed lower MW than CPH, and this correlated with the higher hydrophilicity, and ABTS and hydroxyl RSA values obtained for SPH and the mixed hydrolysates with predominantly SPH. SPH70:CPH30 exhibited higher ACE, α-glucosidase, and α-amylase inhibitory activities among all samples due to its specific peptides with high capacity to interact with amino acid residues located at the enzyme active site and also low binding energy. At 15% degree of hydrolysis, both SPH and CPH showed enhanced solubility at pH 4.0, 7.0 and 9.0, emulsifying activity, and foaming capacity. Taken together, SPH70:CPH30 displayed strong antioxidant, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic attributes, emulsifying activity and stability indexes, and foaming capacity and foaming stability, making it a promising multifunctional ingredient for the development of functional food products.

Vegetable proteins as encapsulating agents: Recent updates and future perspectives

The use of proteinaceous material is desired as it forms a protective gelation around the active core, making it safe through temperature, pH, and O₂ in the stomach and intestinal environment. During the boom of functional food utilization in this era of advancement in drug delivery systems, there is a dire need to find more protein sources that could be explored for the potential of being used as encapsulation materials, especially vegetable proteins. This review covers certain examples which need to be explored to form an encapsulation coating material, including soybeans (conglycinin and glycinin), peas (vicilin and convicilin), sunflower (helianthins and albumins), legumes (glutenins and albumins), and proteins from oats, rice, and wheat. This review covers recent interventions exploring the mentioned vegetable protein encapsulation and imminent projections in the shifting paradigm from conventional process to environmentally friendly green process technologies and the sensitivity of methods used for encapsulation. Vegetable proteins are easily biodegradable and so are the procedures of spray drying and coacervation, which have been discussed to prepare the desired encapsulated functional food. Coacervation processes are yet more promising in the case of particle size formation ranging from nano to several hundred microns. The present review emphasizes the significance of using vegetable proteins as capsule material, as well as the specificity of encapsulation methods in relation to vegetable protein sensitivity and the purpose of encapsulation accompanying recent interventions.

Multifunctional bioactive properties of hydrolysates from colocynth (Citrullus colocynthis) seeds derived proteins: Characterization and biological properties

Citrullus colocynthis (Colocynth) has gained a great deal of interest in their applications as indigenous nutraceutical and as a functional food ingredient. The intact colocynth seed protein was enzymatically hydrolyzed using proteolytic enzymes (alcalase, bromelain, and chymotrypsin) at different time intervals of 3, 6, and 9 h. The highest degree of hydrolysis (87.82%) was observed in chymotrypsin derived colocynth seed protein hydrolysates (CSPH) for 9 h. The CSPHs was further investigated through in-vitro assay to explore its potential biological activity such as antioxidant, inhibition of enzymatic marker related to diabetes (DPP-IV, α-glucosidase and α-amylase) and hyperlipidaemia (cholesteryl esterase and pancreatic lipase). Chymotrypsin hydrolysate showed the strongest DPPH (65.7 mM TEAC) and ABTS (525.2 mM TEAC) radical scavenging activity after 6 h of hydrolysis. Moreover, chymotrypsin-treated CSPH for 6 h inhibited cholesteryl esterase (IC₅₀ = 13.68 μg/mL) and pancreatic lipase (IC₅₀ = 14.12 μg/mL) significantly when compared to native protein. Whereas, bromelain and alcalase treated hydrolysate for 6 h effectively inhibited α-glucosidase and α-amylase at an inhibitory concentration of IC₅₀ = 13.27 μg/mL and of IC₅₀ = 17 μg/mL. Overall, the findings indicated that protein hydrolysates exhibited superior biological activity than intact colocynth seed proteins isolate (CSPI) and could be a sustainable source of bioactive peptides.

Legume Protein Extracts: The Relevance of Physical Processing in the Context of Structural, Techno-Functional and Nutritional Aspects of Food Development

Legumes are sustainable protein-rich crops with numerous industrial food applications, which give them the potential of a functional food ingredient. Legume proteins have appreciable techno-functional properties (e.g., emulsification, foaming, water absorption), which could be affected along with its digestibility during processing. Extraction and isolation of legumes’ protein content makes their use more efficient; however, exposure to the conditions of further use (such as temperature and pressure) results in, and significantly increases, changes in the structural, and therefore functional and nutritional, properties. The present review focuses on the quality of legume protein concentrates and their changes under the influence of different physical processing treatments and highlights the effect of processing techniques on the structural, functional, and some of the nutritional, properties of legume proteins.

Effect of high hydrostatic pressure processing on the structure, functionality, and nutritional properties of food proteins: A review

Proteins are important food ingredients that possess both functional and nutritional properties. High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) is an emerging nonthermal food processing technology that has been subject to great advancements in the last two decades. It is well established that pressure can induce changes in protein folding and oligomerization, and consequently, HHP has the potential to modify the desired protein properties. In this review article, the research progress over the last 15 years regarding the effect of HHP on protein structures, as well as the applications of HHP in modifying protein functionalities (i.e., solubility, water/oil holding capacity, emulsification, foaming and gelation) and nutritional properties (i.e., digestibility and bioactivity) are systematically discussed. Protein unfolding generally occurs during HHP treatment, which can result in increased conformational flexibility and the exposure of interior residues. Through the optimization of HHP and environmental conditions, a balance in protein hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity may be obtained, and therefore, the desired protein functionality can be improved. Moreover, after HHP treatment, there might be greater accessibility of the interior residues to digestive enzymes or the altered conformation of specific active sites, which may lead to modified nutritional properties. However, the practical applications of HHP in developing functional protein ingredients are underutilized and require more research concerning the impact of other food components or additives during HHP treatment. Furthermore, possible negative impacts on nutritional properties of proteins and other compounds must be also considered.

Bioactive and health-promoting properties of enzymatic hydrolysates of legume proteins: a review

This study comprehensively reviewed the effect of controlled enzymatic hydrolysis on the bioactivity of pulse protein hydrolysates (PPHs). Proteolysis results in the partial structural unfolding of pulse proteins with an increase in buried hydrophobic groups of peptide sequences. The use of PPHs in a dose-dependent manner can enhance free radical scavenging and improve antioxidant activities regarding inhibition of lipid oxidation, ferric reducing power, metal ion chelation, and β-carotene bleaching inhibition. Ultrafiltered peptide fractions with low molecular weights imparted angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory effects during in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion and in vivo conditions. Ultrasonication, high-pressure pretreatments, and glycosylation as post-treatments can improve the antiradical, antioxidant, and ACE inhibitory activities of PPHs. The electrostatic attachment of pulse peptides to microbial cells can inhibit the growth and activity of bacteria and fungi. Bioactive pulse peptides can reduce serum cholesterol and triglycerides, and inhibit the formation of adipocyte lipid storage, allergenic factors, inflammatory markers, and arterial thrombus without cytotoxicity. The combination of germination and enzymatic hydrolysis can significantly increase the protein digestibility and bioavailability of essential amino acids. Moreover, the utilization and enrichment of bakery and meat products with functional PPHs ensure quality, safety, and health aspects of food products.

Recent application of protein hydrolysates in food texture modification

The demand for clean labels has increased the importance of natural texture modifying ingredients. Proteins are unique compounds that can impart unique textural and structural changes in food. However, lack of solubility and extensive aggregability of proteins have increased the demand for enzymatically hydrolyzed proteins, to impart functional and structural modifications to food products. The review elaborates the recent application of various proteins, protein hydrolysates, and their role in texture modification. The impact of protein hydrolysates interaction with other food macromolecules, the effect of pretreatments, and dependence of various protein functionalities on textural and structural modification of food products with controlled enzymatic hydrolysis are explained in detail. Many researchers have acknowledged the positive effect of enzymatically hydrolyzed proteins on texture modification over natural protein. With enzymatic hydrolysis, various textural properties including foaming, gelling, emulsifying, water holding capacity have been effectively improved. It is evident that each protein is unique and imparts exceptional structural changes to different food products. Thus, selection of protein requires a fundamental understanding of its structure-substrate property relation. For wider applicability in the industrial sector, more studies on interactions at the molecular level, dosage, functionality changes, and sensorial attributes of protein hydrolysates in food systems are required.

Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Pulse Proteins as a Tool to Improve Techno-Functional Properties

Pulse proteins are being increasingly investigated as nutritious and functional ingredients which could provide alternatives to animal proteins; however, pulse protein ingredients do not always meet the functionality requirements necessary for various applications. Consequently, enzymatic hydrolysis can be employed as a means of improving functional properties such as solubility, emulsifying, foaming, and gelling properties. This review aims to examine the current literature regarding modification of these properties with enzymatic hydrolysis. The effects of enzymatic hydrolysis on the functionality of pulse proteins generally varies considerably based on the enzyme, substrate, processing steps such as heat treatment, degree of hydrolysis, and pH. Differences in protease specificity as well as protein structure allow for a wide variety of peptide mixtures to be generated, with varying hydrophobic and electrostatic properties. Typically, the most significant improvements are seen when the original protein ingredient has poor initial functionality. Solubility is usually improved in the mildly acidic range, which may also correspond with improved foaming and emulsifying properties. More work should be carried out on the potential of enzymatic hydrolysis to modify gelation properties of pulse proteins, as the literature is currently lacking. Overall, careful selection of proteases and control of hydrolysis will be necessary to maximize the potential of enzymatic hydrolysis as a tool to improve pulse protein functionality and broaden the range of potential applications.

Application of emerging technologies to obtain legume protein isolates with improved techno-functional properties and health effects

Current demand of consumers for healthy and sustainable food products has led the industry to search for different sources of plant protein isolates and concentrates. Legumes represent an excellent nonanimal protein source with high-protein content. Legume species are distributed in a wide range of ecological conditions, including regions with drought conditions, making them a sustainable crop in a context of global warming. However, their use as human food is limited by the presence of antinutritional factors, such as protease inhibitors, lectins, phytates, and alkaloids, which have adverse nutritional effects. Antitechnological factors, such as fiber, tannins, and lipids, can affect the purity and protein extraction yield. Although most are removed or reduced during alkaline solubilization and isoelectric precipitation processes, some remain in the resulting protein isolates. Selection of appropriate legume genotypes and different emerging and sustainable facilitating technologies, such as high-power ultrasound, pulsed electric fields, high hydrostatic pressure, microwave, and supercritical fluids, can be applied to increase the removal of unwanted compounds. Some technologies can be used to increase protein yield. The technologies can also modify protein structure to improve digestibility, reduce allergenicity, and tune technological properties. This review summarizes recent findings regarding the use of emerging technologies to obtain high-purity protein isolates and the effects on techno-functional properties and health.

Legume Proteins and Peptides as Compounds in Nutraceuticals: A Structural Basis for Dietary Health Effects

In the current climate of food security, quality aspects of legume crops have primary market economic and health impact. Legume proteins and peptides have been discovered to have a role far beyond supplying amino acids for growth and maintenance of body tissues. Several proteins (enzymatic inhibitors, lectins, storage globulins) and peptides derived from them (lunasin, hydrophobic peptides) have shown anticarcinogenic, hypocholesterolemic, glucose-lowering, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and immunostimulant properties. Further understanding of how structural features of legume proteins affect in vivo digestion and production of bioactive sequences represents a key step in the valorization of nutraceutical potentiality of legume proteins and peptides derived from them. In this work, the relationship between structure and bioavailability of protein and peptides are reviewed and discussed.

Influence of Emerging Technologies on the Utilization of Plant Proteins

Protein from plant sources is claimed alternatives to animal sources in the human diet. Suitable protein sources need high protein digestibility and amino acid bioavailability. In terms of protein functionality and food applications, they also need high-quality attributes, such as solubility, gelling, water- and oil-holding capacities, emulsifying, and foaming. Thermal processing can improve the nutritional quality of plants with some disadvantages, like reducing the assimilation of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Emerging technologies-such as ultrasound, high-pressure, ohmic heating, microwave, pulsed electric field, cold plasma, and enzymatic processes-can overcome those disadvantages. Recent studies demonstrate their enormous potential to improve protein techno-functional properties, protein quality, and decrease protein allergenicity. However, the literature lacks a broader evaluation, including protein digestibility, industrial-scale optimization, and exploring applications to these alternative protein sources.

Current Progress in the Extraction, Functional Properties, Interaction with Polyphenols, and Application of Legume Protein

Legume protein can replace animal-derived protein because of its high protein content, low price, lack of cholesterol, complete amino acids, and requirements of vegetarianism. Legume protein has not only superior functional properties but also high biological activities. Therefore, it is widely used in the food industry. However, there are few studies on the comprehensive overview of legume protein. In this review, the extraction, functional properties, interaction with polyphenols, application of legume protein, and activities of their peptides were comprehensively reviewed. Legume proteins are mainly composed of globulin and albumin. The methods of protein extraction from legumes mainly include wet separation (alkali solution and acid precipitation, salt extraction, enzyme extraction, and ultrasonic-assisted extraction) and dry separation (electrostatic separation). Besides, various factors (heat, pH, and concentration) could significantly affect the functional properties of legume protein. Some potential modification technologies could further improve the functionality and quality of these proteins. Moreover, the application of legume protein and the effects of polyphenols on structural properties of legume-derived protein were concluded. Furthermore, the bioactivities of peptides from legume proteins were discussed. To improve the bioactivity, bioavailability, and commercial availability of legume-derived protein and peptides, future studies need to further explore new preparation methods and potential new activities of legume-derived proteins and active peptides. This review provides a real-time reference for further research on the application of legume protein in the food industry. In addition, this review provides a new reference for the development of legume-derived protein functional foods and potential therapeutic agents.

Effect of high hydrostatic pressure on the edible quality, health and safety attributes of plant-based foods represented by cereals and legumes: a review

Consumers today are increasingly willing to reduce their meat consumption and adopt plant-based alternatives in their diet. As a main source of plant-based foods, cereals and legumes (CLs) together could make up for all the essential nutrients that humans consume daily. However, the consumption of CLs and their derivatives is facing many challenges, such as the poor palatability of coarse grains and vegetarian meat, the presence of anti-nutritional factors, and allergenic proteins in CLs, and the vulnerability of plant-based foods to microbial contamination. Recently, high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) technology has been used to tailor the techno-functionality of plant proteins and induce cold gelatinization of starch in CLs to improve the edible quality of plant-based products. The nutritional value (e.g., the bioavailability of vitamins and minerals, reduction of anti-nutritional factors of legume proteins) and bio-functional properties (e.g., production of bioactive peptides, increasing the content of γ-aminobutyric acid) of CLs were significantly improved as affected by HHP. Moreover, the food safety of plant-based products could be significantly improved as well. HHP lowered the risk of microbial contamination through the inactivation of numerous microorganisms, spores, and enzymes in CLs and alleviated the allergy symptoms from consumption of plant-based foods.

A Review on the Extraction and Processing of Natural Source-Derived Proteins through Eco-Innovative Approaches

In addition to their nutritional and physiological role, proteins are recognized as the major compounds responsible for the rheological properties of food products and their stability during manufacture and storage. Furthermore, proteins have been shown to be source of bioactive peptides able to exert beneficial effects on human health. In recent years, scholarly interest has focused on the incorporation of high-quality proteins into the diet. This fact, together with the new trends of consumers directed to avoid the intake of animal proteins, has boosted the search for novel and sustainable protein sources and the development of suitable, cost-affordable, and environmentally friendly technologies to extract high concentrations of valuable proteins incorporated into food products and supplements. In this review, current data on emergent and promising methodologies applied for the extraction of proteins from natural sources are summarized. Moreover, the advantages and disadvantages of these novel methods, compared with conventional methods, are detailed. Additionally, this work describes the combination of these technologies with the enzymatic hydrolysis of extracted proteins as a powerful strategy for releasing bioactive peptides.

Plant Proteins for Future Foods: A Roadmap

Protein calories consumed by people all over the world approximate 15-20% of their energy intake. This makes protein a major nutritional imperative. Today, we are facing an unprecedented challenge to produce and distribute adequate protein to feed over nine billion people by 2050, in an environmentally sustainable and affordable way. Plant-based proteins present a promising solution to our nutritional needs due to their long history of crop use and cultivation, lower cost of production, and easy access in many parts of the world. However, plant proteins have comparatively poor functionality, defined as poor solubility, foaming, emulsifying, and gelling properties, limiting their use in food products. Relative to animal proteins, including dairy products, plant protein technology is still in its infancy. To bridge this gap, advances in plant protein ingredient development and the knowledge to construct plant-based foods are sorely needed. This review focuses on some salient features in the science and technology of plant proteins, providing the current state of the art and highlighting new research directions. It focuses on how manipulating plant protein structures during protein extraction, fractionation, and modification can considerably enhance protein functionality. To create novel plant-based foods, important considerations such as protein-polysaccharide interactions, the inclusion of plant protein-generated flavors, and some novel techniques to structure plant proteins are discussed. Finally, the attention to nutrition as a compass to navigate the plant protein roadmap is also considered.

Identification and characterization of the main peptides in pea protein isolates using ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and bioinformatics tools

Pea protein isolates are a source of high-quality plant proteins. However, from a sensory perspective, they are usually described as having strong beany and bitter notes, which arise from a complex mixture of volatiles, phytochemicals, and peptides. The aim of this study was to identify the main peptides in isolates and examine their correlations with sensory perceptions. Thus, 28 solutions containing different mixtures of pea protein fractions were assessed. Any peptides present were identified and characterized using ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. There were a total of 3,005 unique peptides representing various protein families; 1,640 and 275 peptides were correlated with broth and bitter attributes, respectively. In particular, 14 peptides with short sequences (<8 residues) were correlated with bitterness. These results show how key peptides in isolates may cause sensory perceptions.

Legume proteins are smart carriers to encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic bioactive compounds and probiotic bacteria: A review

Encapsulation is a promising technological process enabling the protection of bioactive compounds against harsh storage, processing, and gastrointestinal tract (GIT) conditions. Legume proteins (LPs) are unique carriers that can efficiently encapsulate these unstable and highly reactive ingredients. Stable LPs-based microcapsules loaded with active ingredients can thus develop to be embedded into processed functional foods. The recent advances in micro- and nanoencapsulation process of an extensive span of bioactive health-promoting probiotics and chemical compounds such as marine and plant fatty acid-rich oils, carotenoid pigments, vitamins, flavors, essential oils, phenolic and anthocyanin-rich extracts, iron, and phytase by LPs as single wall materials were highlighted. A technical summary of the use of single LP-based carriers in designing innovative delivery systems for natural bioactive molecules and probiotics was made. The encapsulation mechanisms, encapsulation efficiency, physicochemical and thermal stability, as well as the release and absorption behavior of bioactives were comprehensively discussed. Protein isolates and concentrates of soy and pea were the most common LPs to encapsulate nutraceuticals and probiotics. The microencapsulation of probiotics using LPs improved bacteria survivability, storage stability, and tolerance in the in vitro GIT conditions. Moreover, homogenization and high-pressure pretreatments as well as enzymatic cross-linking of LPs significantly modify their structure and functionality to better encapsulate the bioactive core materials. LPs can be attractive delivery devices for the controlled release and increased bioaccessibility of the main food-grade bioactives.