The prevalence of aflatoxins in commercial baby food products: A global systematic review, meta-analysis, and risk assessment study

Is the milk we drink safe from elevated concentrations of prioritised heavy metals/metalloids? - A global systematic review and meta-analysis followed by a cursory risk assessment reporting

Milk has been globally recognised as a comprehensive and vital food source for centuries. However, the presence of heavy metals and metalloids (metal(loid)s) in milk is a global problem. As metal(loid)s are present in the soil due to natural geogenic and various anthropogenic activities, these metal(loid)s are bio-transferred into animal feed, which further results in the presence of metal(loid)s in milk due to bio transfer/accumulation. This systematic review collated information from published literature between 2000 and 2021. It focused on the global issue of metal(loid)s in milk, posing potential health risks. These contaminants enter the food chain through the bio-transfer/accumulation process from soil to animal feed to milk. The key metal(loid)s examined are arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd). A meta-analysis of 66 selected papers revealed the widespread presence of these contaminants in milk samples globally, with Pb being the most studied (43 %). This research estimated metal(loid)s levels or concentrations as 12.71 (95 % Confidence Interval (CI) = 0.16-25.26), 16.09 (95 % CI = 4.31-27.70), 197.04 (95 % CI = 75.28-318.18), 31.67 (95 % CI = 20.14-43.20) μg/kg (ppb) for As, Hg, Pb, and Cd, respectively using Stata™. The metal(loid) concentrations in milk were within the threshold limits other than Pb and Cd. Some studies in America, Africa, and Asia reported elevated Pb and Cd concentrations, raising health concerns. The simulated Risk Quotients (RQ) and Integrated Risk Quotient (IRQ) values generally remain above one, indicating potential human health risks. Notably, the IRQ value increases with more metal(loid)s consideration. Subgroup analysis indicates low-fat milk contains higher metal(loid)s concentrations. While metal(loid)s concentrations in milk largely comply with safety limits, some regions exhibit concerning concentrations. Therefore, continued surveillance to address potential health risks associated with metal(loid)s in milk is necessary to ensure dairy products' safety.

AFB1 Toxicity in Human Food and Animal Feed Consumption: A Review of Experimental Treatments and Preventive Measures

AIMS

The current review aims to outline and summarize the latest research on aflatoxin, with research studies describing natural, herbal and chemical compound applications in animal (pig) models and in vitro cellular studies. Aflatoxin, a carcinogenic toxin metabolite, is produced by Aspergillus flavus in humid environments, posing a threat to human health and crop production. The current treatment involves the prevention of exposure to aflatoxin and counteracting its harmful toxic effects, enabling survival and research studies on an antidote for aflatoxin.

OBJECTIVES

To summarize current research prospects and to outline the influence of aflatoxin on animal forage in farm production, food and crop processing. The research application of remedies to treat aflatoxin is undergoing development to pinpoint biochemical pathways responsible for aflatoxin effects transmission and actions of treatment.

SIGNIFICANCE

To underline the environmental stress of aflatoxin on meat and dairy products; to describe clinical syndromes associated with aflatoxicosis on human health that are counteracted with proposed treatment and preventive interventions. To understand how to improve the health of farm animals with feed conditions.

Evaluation of Aflatoxins Occurrence and Exposure in Cereal-Based Baby Foods: An Update Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The first stages of human life, which include the fetal period, infancy, and early childhood, are the most critical for human growth and development. This is the most vulnerable phase to health challenges due to the immature immune system and rapid development. Mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisins, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol are secondary metabolites secreted by various fungal species, primarily Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria. Aflatoxins are one of the major mycotoxins produced in cereals and cereal-based foods by several species of Aspergillus, mainly Aspergillus flavus. In this context, this review provides a brief overview of the occurrence, exposure, legal regulations, and health effects of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1) in cereal-based baby foods and breast milk.

RECENT FINDINGS

Human aflatoxin exposure in utero and through breast milk, infant formulas, cereals, and cereal-based foods has been linked to various health consequences, including adverse birth outcomes, impaired growth and development, immune system suppression, and hepatic dysfunction. Recent evidence suggests that especially infants and children are more susceptible to aflatoxins due to their lower body weight, lowered capacity to detoxify harmful substances, more restrictive diet, immature metabolism and elimination, and faster rates of growth and development. It is essential for both food safety and infant and child health that aflatoxins in cereal and cereal-based products are precisely detected, detoxified, and managed.

Microbiological hazards in infant and toddler food in China: A comprehensive study between 2004 and 2022

Infant and toddler food (ITF), including powdered infant and follow-up formula (PIFF) and complementary food (CF), provides the majority of early-life nutrients for young children. As infants and toddlers are more vulnerable to foodborne diseases, the safety concern of ITF is the ultimate priority. However, nationwide surveillance for the presence of hazards, specifically microbiological hazards, in the Chinese ITF is partially known, posing a significant knowledge gap for risk ranking. Most importantly, the related regional surveys were largely published in Chinese, making the data unavailable for global sharing. To bridge these gaps, we screened 5,306 publications and conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis for microbiological hazards using 129 qualified studies. The four most reported microbiological hazards in ITF were Bacillus cereus (13.4 %), Cronobacter (4.8 %), Staphylococcus aureus (1.3 %), and Salmonella (1.1 %). B. cereus is a risk factor in ITF, specifically in PIFF, cereals, and ready-to-eat food. The prevalence of B. cereus was high in Northern and Southern China, while the prevalence of Cronobacter was high in Central China. Cronobacter is a microbiological hazard, specifically in PIFF, with a prevalence of 3.0 %. Interestingly, the prevalence dynamics of Cronobacter and B. cereus in ITF were rising and stable, respectively, whereas the prevalence of S. aureus and Salmonella decreased over time. Together, our analysis will promote the global sharing of these critical findings and may guide future policy making.

The concentration and prevalence of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in cheese: a global systematic review and meta-analysis

The present study aimed to systematically review the concentration of different PTEs, including Arsenic (As), Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb), and Cadmium (Cd) in cheese among some databases between 2000 and 2021 (from 57 included studies). Estimated concentrations of 160.78 (95% CI = 119.24-202.28), 15.68 (95% CI = 11.88-19.48), 16.94 (95% CI = 13.29-20.59), and 2.47 (95% CI = 1.70-3.23) µg/kg were calculated for As, Pb, Cd, and Hg, respectively. Most of the studies for PTEs are related to Pb, about 40% of the studies, compared to As, which has fewer studies. The results showed that As and Hg concentrations were lower than the Codex Alimentarius Commission standard limits. Nevertheless, Cd and Pb concentrations were higher than the standard limit values. Results showed that cheese making, the ripening period, fat content, and texture are influential factors in a high level of Pb and Cd in cheese samples.

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Campylobacter Species Contamination in Poultry, Meat, and Processing Environments in South Korea

Campylobacter spp. constitute a significant global threat as a leading cause of foodborne illnesses, with poultry meat as a prominent reservoir for these pathogens. South Korea is known for its diverse poultry consumption habits, and continuous outbreaks make it a matter of concern to perform a meta-analysis to identify the primary source of contamination. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess and compare the prevalence of Campylobacter in various poultry and meat types while also considering the importance of environmental factors in South Korea. The meta-analysis revealed that duck meat exhibited the highest prevalence of Campylobacter, with a pooled estimate of 70.46% (95% CI: 42.80% to 88.38%), followed by chicken meat at a pooled prevalence of 36.17% (95% CI: 26.44% to 47.91%). Additionally, our analysis highlighted the predominance of C. jejuni and C. coli in South Korea. These findings underscore the importance of implementing rigorous food safety measures and establishing robust surveillance programs in the poultry industry to mitigate the risk of Campylobacter-related foodborne illnesses associated with meat consumption in South Korea.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of pollutants in environmental media

Environmental pollutants are ubiquitous in our environmental media, resulting in detrimental impacts on both humans and the environment. An evidence-based review, particularly a systematic review and meta-analysis, performs a crucial function in assessing the pollution status of pollutants in environmental media at national and global scales. We selected and thoroughly investigated 76 papers focusing on systematic reviews and meta-analyses of contaminants in environmental media. The need to broaden the scope of studies was observed with an increase in the total number of publications, and there were greater focuses on food safety, water pollution, biological pollution, and environmental risks. Furthermore, this review outlined the fundamental procedures involved in a systematic review and meta-analysis, including literature searching, screening of articles, study quality analysis, data extraction and synthesis, and meta-analysis. A meta-analysis typically comprises fixed- and/or random-effects meta-analysis, identifying and measuring heterogeneity, sensitivity analysis, publication bias, subgroup analysis, and meta-regression. We specifically explored the application of meta-analysis to assess the presence of contaminants in environmental media based on two different pollutant categories, namely, non-biological and biological pollutants. The mean value is commonly utilized to assess the pooled concentration of non-biological pollutants, while the prevalence serves as the effect size of biological pollutants. Additionally, we summarized the innovative applications, frequent misuses, and problems encountered in systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Finally, we proposed several suggestions for future research endeavors.

Review, meta-analysis and carcinogenic risk assessment of aflatoxin M1 in different types of milks in Iran

REVIEWS

Despite in recent decades, several studies on the concentration of aflatoxins M1(AFM1) in various milks have been studied, as we know, no systematic review, meta-analysis and carcinogenic risk assessment study was conducted in Iran till now.

OBJECTIVES

In this study, a systematic review was conducted to collect, meta-analysis and carcinogenic risk assessment of the quantitative data regarding the prevalence and concentration of AFM1 in several types of milk produced in Iran.

CONTENT

In our study, the concentration and prevalence of AFM1 in different types of milk (Raw, pasteurized, and UHT) from 113 original articles in Iran using searching the Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct and Google Scholar (in Persian and English) databases from 2002 to august 2021 were collected. The concentration of AFM1 was meta-analyzed using the random effect model (REM) based on type of milk (raw, pasteurized and UHT) subgroups and Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) approach was used to assess safety risks and investigate carcinogenic effects of AFM1 using Crystal-Ball software (Version 11.1.3, Oracle, Inc., USA).

SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK

The 113 original article (In English and Persian) were included in this review. Meta-analysis indicated lower and upper of AFM1 in subgroups of raw, pasteurized and UHT milk in Iran was 9, 720, 2.7, 230.2, 19.23, and 221.6 ng/kg respectively. The Point estimate for carcinogenic risk of AFM1 showed as result of age increasing, the carcinogenic risk of Aflatoxin M 1 decreases and concentration of Aflatoxin M1 (ng/liter), plays the most effective role in carcinogenic risk of AFM1.

CONCLUSION

The presence of AFM1 in milk and its products due to its high toxicity and carcinogenic properties is a public health concern that the results show that the risk of carcinogenesis is higher at younger ages (less than 20 years). As a result, there is a strong association between consumption of raw milk, pasteurized milk and UHT and the risk of cancer in children and adults in Iran.

Aflatoxin detection technologies: recent advances and future prospects

Aflatoxins have posed serious threat to food safety and human health. Therefore, it is important to detect aflatoxins in samples rapidly and accurately. In this review, various technologies to detect aflatoxins in food are discussed, including conventional ones such as thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), colloidal gold immunochromatographic assay (GICA), radioimmunoassay (RIA), fluorescence spectroscopy (FS), as well as emerging ones (e.g., biosensors, molecular imprinting technology, surface plasmon resonance). Critical challenges of these technologies include high cost, complex processing procedures and long processing time, low stability, low repeatability, low accuracy, poor portability, and so on. Critical discussion is provided on the trade-off relationship between detection speed and detection accuracy, as well as the application scenario and sustainability of different technologies. Especially, the prospect of combining different technologies is discussed. Future research is necessary to develop more convenient, more accurate, faster, and cost-effective technologies to detect aflatoxins.

Inhibition of aflatoxins on UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs)

Aflatoxins have been recognized as the most harmful mycotoxins leading to various toxic effects. The present study aims to determine the inhibition behavior of aflatoxins on the activity of the important phase II metabolizing enzymes, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs), based on in vitro incubation system of recombinant human UGTs-catalyzed glucuronidation of 4-methylumbelliferone (4-MU). 100 μM AFB1 and AFG1 exhibited extensive inhibition towards UGT isoforms especially UGT1A7 and UGT1A8, with the inhibition ratios to be 71.38%, 72.95% and 72.79% for AFB1 to UGT1A7, AFB1 to UGT1A8 and AFG1 to UGT1A8, respectively. Molecular docking results showed that hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic contacts of the particular structure consisting of double furan ring with double bond contributed to the interaction of aflatoxins and UGTs. Kinetics analysis, including inhibition types and kinetics parameters (K_i), and in vitro-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) indicated that there might be a medium possibility of inhibition on UGTs by aflatoxins in vivo. In conclusion, the present study indicated that aflatoxins could possibly disturb endogenous metabolism by inhibiting the activity of UGTs so as to exhibit toxic effects.

Antifungal Effect of Autochthonous Aromatic Plant Extracts on Two Mycotoxigenic Strains of Aspergillus flavus

This study identified the compounds obtained from four native Dehesa plants, which were holm oak, elm, blackberry and white rockrose, and evaluated their ability to inhibit the growth and production of aflatoxins B₁ and B₂ of two strains of mycotoxigenic Aspergillus flavus. For this purpose, phenolic compounds present in the leaves and flowers of the plants were extracted and identified, and subsequently, the effect on the growth of A. flavus, aflatoxin production and the expression of a gene related to its synthesis were studied. Cistus albidus was the plant with the highest concentration of phenolic compounds, followed by Quercus ilex. Phenolic acids and flavonoids were mainly identified, and there was great variability among plant extracts in terms of the type and quantity of compounds. Concentrated and diluted extracts were used for each individual plant. The influence on mold growth was not very significant for any of the extracts. However, those obtained from plants of the genus Quercus ilex, followed by Ulmus sp., were very useful for inhibiting the production of aflatoxin B₁ and B₂ produced by the two strains of A. flavus. Expression studies of the gene involved in the aflatoxin synthesis pathway did not prove to be effective. The results indicated that using these new natural antifungal compounds from the Dehesa for aflatoxin production inhibition would be desirable, promoting respect for the environment by avoiding the use of chemical fungicides. However, further studies are needed to determine whether the specific phenolic compounds responsible for the antifungal activity of Quercus ilex and Ulmus sp. produce the antifungal activity in pure form, as well as to verify the action mechanism of these compounds.

One sample multi-point calibration curve as a novel approach for quantitative LC-MS analysis: the quantitation of six aflatoxins in milk and oat-based milk as an example

Preparing of calibration curves are critical steps for accurate quantitative LC-MS bioanalysis. Traditional multi-sample external calibration curve (MSCC) is labor-intensive and prone to error. In this study, a novel strategy of one sample multi-point calibration curve (OSCC) using multiple isotopologue reaction monitoring (MIRM) was proposed and validated using LC-MS for the quantitation of six aflatoxins in milk and oat-based milk samples. The developed MIRM-OSCC methodology is comprehensively validated and the results indicated that the established method exhibits good performance in selectivity, sensitivity, accuracy and precision. Furthermore, the OSCC could realize sample dilution by monitoring the MIRM channel with less intensity for samples beyond the upper limit of quantification, without the need of sample dilution, which improves the assay throughput. Considering the advantages of excluding the MSCC preparation and sample dilution in OSCC, this strategy can be widely applied in various fields such as drugs, food safety and environmental analysis.

Human Breast Milk Contamination with Aflatoxins, Impact on Children's Health, and Possible Control Means: A Review

Aflatoxins are natural toxicants produced mainly by species of the Aspergillus genus, which contaminate virtually all feeds and foods. Apart from their deleterious health effects on humans and animals, they can be secreted unmodified or carried over into the milk of lactating females, thereby posing health risks to suckling babies. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is the major and most toxic aflatoxin type after aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). It contaminates human breast milk upon direct ingestion from dairy products or by carry-over from the parent molecule (AFB1), which is hydroxylated in the liver and possibly in the mammary glands by cytochrome oxidase enzymes and then excreted into breast milk as AFM1 during lactation via the mammary alveolar epithelial cells. This puts suckling infants and children fed on this milk at a high risk, especially that their detoxifying activities are still weak at this age essentially due to immature liver as the main organ responsible for the detoxification of xenobiotics. The occurrence of AFM1 at toxic levels in human breast milk and associated health conditions in nursing children is well documented, with developing countries being the most affected. Different studies have demonstrated that contamination of human breast milk with AFM1 represents a real public health issue, which should be promptly and properly addressed to reduce its incidence. To this end, different actions have been suggested, including a wider and proper implementation of regulatory measures, not only for breast milk but also for foods and feeds as the upstream sources for breast milk contamination with AFM1. The promotion of awareness of lactating mothers through the organization of training sessions and mass media disclosures before and after parturition is of a paramount importance for the success of any action. This is especially relevant that there are no possible control measures to ensure compliance of lactating mothers to specific regulatory measures, which can yet be appropriate for the expansion of breast milk banks in industrialized countries and emergence of breast milk sellers. This review attempted to revisit the public health issues raised by mother milk contamination with AFM1, which remains undermined despite the numerous relevant publications highlighting the needs to tackle its incidence as a protective measure for the children physical and mental health.

Lactic Acid Bacteria as Potential Agents for Biocontrol of Aflatoxigenic and Ochratoxigenic Fungi

Aflatoxins (AF) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are fungal metabolites that have carcinogenic, teratogenic, embryotoxic, genotoxic, neurotoxic, and immunosuppressive effects in humans and animals. The increased consumption of plant-based foods and environmental conditions associated with climate change have intensified the risk of mycotoxin intoxication. This study aimed to investigate the abilities of eleven selected LAB strains to reduce/inhibit the growth of Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus welwitschiae, Aspergillus steynii, Aspergillus westerdijkiae, and Penicillium verrucosum and AF and OTA production under different temperature regiments. Data were treated by ANOVA, and machine learning (ML) models able to predict the growth inhibition percentage were built, and their performance was compared. All factors LAB strain, fungal species, and temperature significantly affected fungal growth and mycotoxin production. The fungal growth inhibition range was 0-100%. Overall, the most sensitive fungi to LAB treatments were P. verrucosum and A. steynii, while the least sensitive were A. niger and A. welwitschiae. The LAB strains with the highest antifungal activity were Pediococcus pentosaceus (strains S11sMM and M9MM5b). The reduction range for AF was 19.0% (aflatoxin B1)-60.8% (aflatoxin B2) and for OTA, 7.3-100%, depending on the bacterial and fungal strains and temperatures. The LAB strains with the highest anti-AF activity were the three strains of P. pentosaceus and Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp. dextranicum (T2MM3), and those with the highest anti-OTA activity were Leuconostoc paracasei ssp. paracasei (3T3R1) and L. mesenteroides ssp. dextranicum (T2MM3). The best ML methods in predicting fungal growth inhibition were multilayer perceptron neural networks, followed by random forest. Due to anti-fungal and anti-mycotoxin capacity, the LABs strains used in this study could be good candidates as biocontrol agents against aflatoxigenic and ochratoxigenic fungi and AFL and OTA accumulation.

Risk Assessment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma with Aflatoxin B1 Exposure in Edible Oils

Contamination of edible oils with aflatoxins (AFs) is a universal issue due to the detrimental effects of aflatoxins on human health and the fact that edible oils are a major source of fungal growth, particularly storage fungi (Aspergillus sp.). The objective of this study was to assess aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in edible oil used in fried food in order to determine the risk of cancer from AFB1 exposure through cooked food using the FAO/WHO’s and EFSA’s margin of exposure (MOE) quantitative liver cancer risk approaches. Using Mycosep 226 columns and HPLC-FLD, 100 samples of cooking oils (soybean, canola, and sunflower oil) from different food points were analyzed for contamination with aflatoxins. Of all the samples tested, 89% were positive for total aflatoxins and AFB1, with 65% indicating AF concentrations beyond permitted levels. Canola oil was found to contain higher levels of AFB1 and AFs than soybean and sunflower oil. Almost 71 percent of canola oil samples (range of 54.4–281.1 µg/kg) were contaminated with AF levels higher than the proposed limits of the European Union (20 µg/kg). The consumption of canola oil samples used in fried foods had MOE values that were significantly lower as compared to sunflower and soybean oils, indicating that risk reduction is feasible. Additionally, compared to soybean and sunflower oil, canola oil exhibited a greater threat of liver cancer cases linked to AFB1 exposure (17.13 per 100,000 males over 35 and 10.93 per 100,000 females over 35). Using a quantitative liver cancer approach, health risk valuation demonstrated that males and females over the age of 35 are at significant risk of developing liver cancer. The health risk assessment exposed that the males and female over the age of 35 are at considerable risk of liver cancer by using a quantitative liver cancer approach. The innovation of this study lies in the fact that no such study is reported related to liver cancer risk evaluation accompanied with AFB1 exposure from consumed edible oil. As a result, a national strategy must be developed to solve this problem so that edible oil products are subjected to severe regulatory examination.

Metal-organic frameworks with peroxidase-like activity for efficient removal of aflatoxin B1

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), a naturally produced toxin existing in major food crops, is highly toxic and carcinogenic to human and animals. In this study, a reusable material, Pd@PCN-222 with great adsorption performance and peroxidase-like activity was synthesized for the removal of AFB₁. Pd@PCN-222 exhibited great adsorption performance owing to hierarchical porous structure. Pd@PCN-222 also could catalyze the AFB₁ in the presence of H₂O₂ due to the Fe-tetrakis (4-carboxyphenyl) porphyrin and Pd as effective peroxidase active site, which improved the removal efficiency of AFB₁. Pd@PCN-222 was applied for the removal of AFB₁ with a removal rate of 96.52% in 2 h. Owing to the advantages of high removal efficiency and reusability, Pd@PCN-222 had great application potential in AFB₁ removal.

Aflatoxin Contamination, Its Impact and Management Strategies: An Updated Review

Aflatoxin, a type of mycotoxin, is mostly produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. It is responsible for the loss of billions of dollars to the world economy, by contaminating different crops such as cotton, groundnut, maize, and chilies, and causing immense effects on the health of humans and animals. More than eighteen different types of aflatoxins have been reported to date, and among them, aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 are the most prevalent and lethal. Early detection of fungal infection plays a key role in the control of aflatoxin contamination. Therefore, different methods, including culture, chromatographic techniques, and molecular assays, are used to determine aflatoxin contamination in crops and food products. Many countries have set a maximum limit of aflatoxin contamination (2-20 ppb) in their food and agriculture commodities for human or animal consumption, and the use of different methods to combat this menace is essential. Fungal infection mostly takes place during the pre- and post-harvest stage of crops, and most of the methods to control aflatoxin are employed for the latter phase. Studies have shown that if correct measures are adopted during the crop development phase, aflatoxin contamination can be reduced by a significant level. Currently, the use of bio-pesticides is the intervention employed in many countries, whereby atoxigenic strains competitively reduce the burden of toxigenic strains in the field, thereby helping to mitigate this problem. This updated review on aflatoxins sheds light on the sources of contamination, and the on occurrence, impact, detection techniques, and management strategies, with a special emphasis on bio-pesticides to control aflatoxins.

Hollow-Structured Microporous Organic Networks Adsorbents Enabled Specific and Sensitive Identification and Determination of Aflatoxins

Aflatoxin (AFT) contamination, commonly in foods and grains with extremely low content while high toxicity, has caused serious economic and health problems worldwide. Now researchers are making an effort to develop nanomaterials with remarkable adsorption capacity for the identification, determination and regulation of AFT. Herein, we constructed a novel hollow-structured microporous organic networks (HMONs) material. On the basis of Fe3O4@MOF@MON, hydrofluoric acid (HF) was introduced to remove the transferable metal organic framework (MOF) to give hollow MON structures. Compared to the original Fe3O4@MOF@MON, HMON showed improved surface area and typical hollow cavities, thus increasing the adsorption capacity. More importantly, AFT is a hydrophobic substance, and our constructed HMON had a higher water contact angle, greatly enhancing the adsorption affinity. From that, the solid phase extraction (SPE-HPLC) method developed based on HMONs was applied to analyze four kinds of actual samples, with satisfied recoveries of 85-98%. This work provided a specific and sensitive method for the identification and determination of AFT in the food matrix and demonstrated the great potential of HMONs in the field of the identification and control of mycotoxins.

Processing contaminants in wheat-based foods - a systematic review, meta-analysis and bibliometric analysis

Wheat is one of the main cereals grown around the world and is the basis for several foods such as bread, cakes and pasta. The consumption of these foods raises a concern with food safety, as toxic substances such as acrylamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are formed during their processing. To assess the occurrence of processing contaminants in wheat-based foods, a systematic search was carried out in four databases: PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and Scopus. Of the 1479 results, 28 were included for a meta-analysis. Most studies (69.7%) evaluated acrylamide in bread, cookies, and pasta, while PAHs (26.2%) were determined mainly in wheat grains and pasta. HMF was the least determined contaminant (4.1%), with only four studies on cookies included in the meta-analysis. The highest concentration was for acrylamide (136.29 µg·kg-1) followed by HMF (70.59 µg·kg-1) and PAHs (0.11 µg·kg-1). Acrylamide is the main processing contaminant researched, and no studies on the subject have been found in commercial samples in some regions of the world. This result shows a gap in the dates available about process contaminants in wheat-based foods and how the levels can change depending on the process parameters and the ingredients used.

Advances in the Total Synthesis of Aflatoxins

Aflatoxins, which are produced by Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus nomius, and Aspergillus parasiticus, are a group of pentacyclic natural products with difuran and coumarin skeletons. They mainly include aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, and M2. Biologically, aflatoxins are of concern to human health as they can be present as contaminants in food products. The unique skeletons of aflatoxins and their risk to human health have led to the publication of nine remarkable total syntheses (including three asymmetric syntheses) and ten formal total syntheses (including four asymmetric formal syntheses) of aflatoxins in the past 55 years. To better understand the mechanism of the biological activity of aflatoxins and their presence in samples from the food industry, this review summarizes progress in the total synthesis of aflatoxins.