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Olivier FAB, Bang KW, Zarate E, Kinzurik M, Chudakova D, Ganley ARD, Villas-Boas SG. Aerial warfare: An inducible production of volatile bioactive metabolites in a novel species of Scytinostroma sp. Fungal Genet Biol 2021; 158:103646. [PMID: 34826598 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2021.103646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may provide fungi an advantage over other competing microorganisms. As these defensive metabolites are often produced in response to microbial competitors, they are easily overlooked in axenic cultures. We used media supplemented with spent medium from Candida albicans to induce the expression of a broad-spectrum antimicrobial response in a previously uncharacterised white-rot fungus, Scytinostroma sp. Crude extractions of Scytinostroma sp. metabolites were found to be cytotoxic to fibroblast cells and antimicrobial to filamentous fungi, yeasts and Gram-positive bacteria. Volatile antimicrobial activity was observed for Scytinostroma sp. cultures and metabolite extracts using antimicrobial assays in bi-compartmentalised plates. Culture headspace analysis using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) revealed a pronounced shift in Scytinostroma sp. VOCs when cultured on media supplemented with C. albicans spent medium. We observed a significant increase in the levels of 45 identified VOCs, including 7 metabolites with reported antimicrobial activity. Using preparative HPLC combined with GC-MS, we determined that isovelleral is likely to be the main broad-spectrum antimicrobial metabolite produced by Scytinostroma sp. Isovelleral is a sesquiterpene dialdehyde with both antibiotic and antifeedant properties, previously detected in fruit bodies of other Basidiomycetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Françios A B Olivier
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, 3A Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand.
| | - Kyung W Bang
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, 3A Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand.
| | - Erica Zarate
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, 3A Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand.
| | - Matias Kinzurik
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, 3A Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand.
| | - Daria Chudakova
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, 3A Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand.
| | - Austen R D Ganley
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, 3A Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand.
| | - Silas G Villas-Boas
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, 3A Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand; Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), 5 rue Bommel, Z.A.E. Robert Steichen, L-4940 Hautcharage, Luxembourg.
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Shin HS, Lee HJ, Pyo MC, Ryu D, Lee KW. Ochratoxin A-Induced Hepatotoxicity through Phase I and Phase II Reactions Regulated by AhR in Liver Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E377. [PMID: 31261931 PMCID: PMC6669489 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11070377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a widespread mycotoxin produced by several species of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. OTA exists in a variety of foods, including rice, oats, and coffee and is hepatotoxic, with a similar mode of action as aflatoxin B1. The precise mechanism of cytotoxicity is not yet known, but oxidative damage is suspected to contribute to its cytotoxic effects. In this study, human hepatocyte HepG2 cells were treated with various concentrations of OTA (5-500 nM) for 48 h. OTA triggered oxidative stress as demonstrated by glutathione depletion and increased reactive oxygen species, malondialdehyde level, and nitric oxide production. Apoptosis was observed with 500 nM OTA treatment. OTA increased both the mRNA and protein expression of phase I and II enzymes. The same results were observed in an in vivo study using ICR mice. Furthermore, the relationship between phase I and II enzymes was demonstrated by the knockdown of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) with siRNA. Taken together, our results show that OTA induces oxidative stress through the phase I reaction regulated by AhR and induces apoptosis, and that the phase II reaction is activated by Nrf2 in the presence of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Soo Shin
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea
| | - Hyun Jung Lee
- School of Food Science, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, Moscow, MS 2312, USA
| | - Min Cheol Pyo
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea
| | - Dojin Ryu
- School of Food Science, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, Moscow, MS 2312, USA
| | - Kwang-Won Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea.
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Induction of CYP1A1 increases gefitinib-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in A549 cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2017; 44:36-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Gayathri L, Karthikeyan BS, Rajalakshmi M, Dhanasekaran D, Li AP, Akbarsha MA. Metabolism-dependent cytotoxicity of citrinin and ochratoxin A alone and in combination as assessed adopting integrated discrete multiple organ co-culture (IdMOC). Toxicol In Vitro 2017; 46:166-177. [PMID: 28951292 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Revised: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Citrinin (CTN) and ochratoxin A (OTA) can be present as co-contaminants in cereals, foods and feed commodities, and can affect human health. Metabolism-dependent toxicity of these two mycotoxins, separately as well as in combination, is not yet understood. To fill this gap we adopted integrated discrete multiple organ co-culture (IdMOC) technique, which obviates animal experiments from the perspectives of species difference as well as animal welfare concerns. IdMOC facilitates co-culture of a metabolically competent cell (HepG2) and a metabolically incompetent cell (3T3) that are physically separated but provides for extracellular product(s) from one cell to interact with the other. After ascertaining that HepG2 is metabolically competent and 3T3 is not, adopting luciferin-IPA metabolism assay, CTN and OTA were tested separately and in combination in the co-culture set-up, when both proved to be metabolism-dependent cytotoxic agents. Hepatocytes metabolize CTN into a diffusible product that is cytotoxic to 3T3 cells but the cytotoxicity of OTA appears to be limited to the hepatocytes, i.e., local acting. As a combination at a concentration of 20% of IC50 of each, CTN forms a reactive metabolite that diffuses out of HepG2 to cause cytotoxicity to 3T3 cells synergistically with OTA parent molecule. The CYP isoenzymes involved in the metabolism OTA and CTN were identified adopting in silico methods which indicated that OTA and CTN can bind CYP proteins at specific sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loganathan Gayathri
- Department of Microbiology, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli 620024, India; Mahatma Gandhi-Doerenkamp Center, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli 620024, India
| | | | - Manikkam Rajalakshmi
- Department of Zoology, Holy Cross College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli 620024, India
| | | | - Albert P Li
- In Vitro ADMET Laboratories LLC, 9221 Rumsey Road, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
| | - Mohammad A Akbarsha
- Mahatma Gandhi-Doerenkamp Center, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli 620024, India; Nanobiotechnology and Molecular Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Food Science and Agriculture, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia.
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González-Arias CA, Marín S, Rojas-García AE, Sanchis V, Ramos AJ. UPLC-MS/MS analysis of ochratoxin A metabolites produced by Caco-2 and HepG2 cells in a co-culture system. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 109:333-340. [PMID: 28888735 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Ochatoxin A (OTA) is one of the most important mycotoxins based on its toxicity. The oral route is the main gateway of entry of OTA into the human body, and specialized epithelial cells constitute the first barrier. The present study investigated the in vitro cytotoxic effect of OTA (5, 15 and 45 μM) and production of OTA metabolities in Caco-2 and HepG2 cells using a co-culture Transwell System to mimic the passage through the intestinal epithelium and hepatic metabolism. The results derived from MTS cell viability assays and transepithelial electrical resistance measurements showed that OTA was slightly cytotoxic at the lowest concentration at 3 h, but significant toxicity was observed at all concentrations at 24 h. OTA metabolites generated in this co-culture were ochratoxin B (OTB), OTA methyl ester, OTA ethyl ester and the OTA glutathione conjugate (OTA-GSH). OTA methyl ester was the major metabolite found in both Caco-2 and HepG2 cells after all treatments. Our results showed that OTA can cause cell damage through several mechanisms and that the OTA exposure time is more important that the dosage in in vitro studies. OTA methyl ester is proposed as an OTA exposure biomarker, although future studies should be conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyndia A González-Arias
- Food Technology Department, Lleida University, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain; Laboratorio de Contaminación y Toxicología Ambiental, Secretaría de Investigación y Posgrado, Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit, Ciudad de la Cultura S/N, Tepic, Nayarit C.P. 63155, Mexico
| | - Sonia Marín
- Food Technology Department, Lleida University, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
| | - Aurora E Rojas-García
- Laboratorio de Contaminación y Toxicología Ambiental, Secretaría de Investigación y Posgrado, Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit, Ciudad de la Cultura S/N, Tepic, Nayarit C.P. 63155, Mexico
| | - Vicente Sanchis
- Food Technology Department, Lleida University, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
| | - Antonio J Ramos
- Food Technology Department, Lleida University, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain.
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Gamma irradiation effects on ochratoxin A: Degradation, cytotoxicity and application in food. Food Chem 2017; 240:463-471. [PMID: 28946299 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.07.136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the main mycotoxins that can be found in food. The use of gamma radiation is a technique for preserving food that may exert some effects on mycotoxins. OTA was irradiated in its dry form, in aqueous and in methanolic solutions, and in wheat flour, grape juice and wine. Additionally, the toxicity of OTA irradiated in water was tested. In aqueous solutions, more than 90% of the OTA was degraded by γ-radiation doses ≥2.5kGy, and a 2-fold reduction in OTA cytotoxicity was observed. In food matrices, the elimination of OTA by γ-radiation was found more difficult, as radiation doses of 30kGy eliminate at most 24% of the OTA. Higher moisture content of food matrices did not substantially increase OTA elimination. It is concluded that OTA is very sensitive to irradiation in water solutions but resistant in its dry form and in food matrices.
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Ochratoxin A: Molecular Interactions, Mechanisms of Toxicity and Prevention at the Molecular Level. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:111. [PMID: 27092524 PMCID: PMC4848637 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8040111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Revised: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a widely-spread mycotoxin all over the world causing major health risks. The focus of the present review is on the molecular and cellular interactions of OTA. In order to get better insight into the mechanism of its toxicity and on the several attempts made for prevention or attenuation of its toxic action, a detailed description is given on chemistry and toxicokinetics of this mycotoxin. The mode of action of OTA is not clearly understood yet, and seems to be very complex. Inhibition of protein synthesis and energy production, induction of oxidative stress, DNA adduct formation, as well as apoptosis/necrosis and cell cycle arrest are possibly involved in its toxic action. Since OTA binds very strongly to human and animal albumin, a major emphasis is done regarding OTA-albumin interaction. Displacement of OTA from albumin by drugs and by natural flavonoids are discussed in detail, hypothesizing their potentially beneficial effect in order to prevent or attenuate the OTA-induced toxic consequences.
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Selenium alleviates porcine nephrotoxicity of ochratoxin A by improving selenoenzyme expression in vitro. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0119808. [PMID: 25803869 PMCID: PMC4372527 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0119808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 01/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA), a mycotoxin, is a potent nephrotoxin in humans and animals. Selenium (Se) is an essential micronutrient for humans and animals, and plays a key role in antioxidant defense. To date, little is known about the effect of Se on OTA-induced nephrotoxicity. In this study, the protective effects of selenomethionine against OTA-induced nephrotoxicity were investigated using the porcine kidney 15 (PK15) cells as a model. The results showed that OTA induced nephrotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner. Se at 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 μM had significant protective effects against OTA-induced nephrotoxicity. Furthermore, selenomethionine enhanced the activity and mRNA and protein expression of glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPx1), mRNA expression of GPx4, and mRNA expression of thioredoxin reductase 1 in the presence and absence of OTA. Among them, promoting effect of selenomethionine on GPx1 was maximal. Knock-down of GPx1 by using a GPx1-specific siRNA eliminated the protective effects of selenomethionine against OTA-induced nephrotoxicity. The results suggest that selenomethionine alleviates OTA-induced nephrotoxicity by improving selenoenzyme expression in PK15 cells. Therefore, selenomethionine supplementation may be an attractive strategy for protecting humans and animals from the risk of kidney damage induced by OTA.
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Mor F, Kilic MA, Ozmen O, Yilmaz M, Eker I, Uran K. The effects of orchidectomy on toxicological responses to dietary ochratoxin A in Wistar rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 66:267-75. [PMID: 24813088 DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2014.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Revised: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 04/15/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) causes pathological lesions in the organs of animals. Males are more sensitive to OTA exposure than females but the reasons for this are unknown. The objective of this study was to explore the role of testosterone in male rats with OTA-related pathogenesis. To test the effect of testosterone on OTA toxicity, the testes of a group of rats were surgically removed. Male and female rats (approximately 300 and 200 g) were fed with OTA-contaminated feed (initially approximately 300 μg kg(-1) b.w. per day) for 24 weeks. The organs of all the animals were collected and their organ lesion pathology, caspase-3 expression, OTA plasma and organ concentrations and total plasma testosterone concentrations were evaluated. OTA treatment created serious lesions in the kidney, liver and testes of rats. The major histopathological changes in the kidney and liver were karyomegaly, hemorrhages and vacuolization. In the testes, there was a marked decrease in the amount of spermatozoon. The degrees of organ lesion were evaluated and the castrated males had the lowest kidney and liver lesion scores, indicating that testosterone reduction in males dramatically reduces OTA-related organ damage. The plasma OTA levels for the intact males, the castrated and the females were 6.34, 8.42 and 12.5 μg ml(-1), respectively. In conclusion, despite the similar plasma OTA levels of the intact and castrated males, OTA is less toxic in the castrated males. Therefore, the well-known gender specific toxicity of OTA seems to be related to the testosterone levels of rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firdevs Mor
- Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 15030 Burdur, Turkey.
| | - Mehmet A Kilic
- Akdeniz University, Science Faculty, Department of Biology, Molecular Biology Section, 07058 Antalya, Turkey.
| | - Ozlem Ozmen
- Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Pathology, 15030 Burdur, Turkey.
| | - Mesut Yilmaz
- Akdeniz University, Science Faculty, Department of Biology, Molecular Biology Section, 07058 Antalya, Turkey; Akdeniz University, Faculty of Aquaculture, Department of Fishery, 07058 Antalya, Turkey.
| | - Ilknur Eker
- Akdeniz University, Science Faculty, Department of Chemistry, 07058 Antalya, Turkey
| | - Kemal Uran
- Akdeniz University, Science Faculty, Department of Biology, Molecular Biology Section, 07058 Antalya, Turkey; Ministry of Agriculture, State Food Safety Laboratory, Antalya, Turkey
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Urinary ochratoxin A and ochratoxin alpha in pregnant women. Food Chem Toxicol 2012; 50:4487-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2012] [Revised: 08/10/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Human skin penetration of selected model mycotoxins. Toxicology 2012; 301:21-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2012.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2012] [Revised: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 06/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Campagna-Slater V, Pottel J, Therrien E, Cantin LD, Moitessier N. Development of a computational tool to rival experts in the prediction of sites of metabolism of xenobiotics by p450s. J Chem Inf Model 2012; 52:2471-83. [PMID: 22916680 DOI: 10.1021/ci3003073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The metabolism of xenobiotics--and more specifically drugs--in the liver is a critical process controlling their half-life. Although there exist experimental methods, which measure the metabolic stability of xenobiotics and identify their metabolites, developing higher throughput predictive methods is an avenue of research. It is expected that predicting the chemical nature of the metabolites would be an asset for designing safer drugs and/or drugs with modulated half-lives. We have developed IMPACTS (In-silico Metabolism Prediction by Activated Cytochromes and Transition States), a computational tool combining docking to metabolic enzymes, transition state modeling, and rule-based substrate reactivity prediction to predict the site of metabolism (SoM) of xenobiotics. Its application to sets of CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4 substrates and comparison to experts' predictions demonstrates its accuracy and significance. IMPACTS identified an experimentally observed SoM in the top 2 predicted sites for 77% of the substrates, while the accuracy of biotransformation experts' prediction was 65%. Application of IMPACTS to external sets and comparison of its accuracy to those of eleven other methods further validated the method implemented in IMPACTS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Campagna-Slater
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St W, Montreal, QC H3A 0B8, Canada
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WANG XICHUN, ZHANG HAIBIN, LIU HAIMING, HE CHENGHUA, ZHANG AIHUA, MA JINRONG, MA YANNA, WU WENDA, ZHENG HAO. AN IMMUNOARRAY FOR THE SIMULTANEOUS DETECTION OF TWO MYCOTOXINS, OCHRATOXIN A AND FUMONISIN B1. J Food Saf 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-4565.2011.00314.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Determination of ochratoxin A in eggs and target tissues of experimentally drugged hens using HPLC–FLD. Food Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.11.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Akdemir C, Ulker OC, Basaran A, Ozkaya S, Karakaya A. Estimation of ochratoxin A in some Turkish populations: An analysis in urine as a simple, sensitive and reliable biomarker. Food Chem Toxicol 2010; 48:877-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2009.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2009] [Revised: 12/16/2009] [Accepted: 12/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Bozzo G, Ceci E, Pinto P, Bonerba E, Martella V, Terio E, Tantillo G. Ochratoxin A in avicultural meat production: chemical and histological effects. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2009. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2008.1076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxins are fungal secondary metabolites that may contaminate various foods and beverages. Ochratoxins may undergo bio-concentration in some animal tissues/organs and reach concentrations in meat products that are not acceptable for human consumption. The intake of ochratoxins by humans may result in typical syndromes (nephrotoxicity, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity and immunotoxicity) and has been associated with Balkan Endemic Nephropathy. In this study we evaluated the effects and the dynamics of accumulation of ochratoxin A in the organs and tissues after prolonged exposure (40 days) in broilers through their productive cycle. Cytological and histological examinations revealed severe alterations in the hepatic and renal tissues only in animals fed with high dosages (200 µg/kg) of ochratoxin A. But the toxin was detected at levels of 0.78-2.15 µg/kg at day 10 in the tissues of animals that were given feed containing 100 µg/kg, a dosage of ochratoxin A admitted by the current EU recommendation and Italian legislation, and that did not display gross or histo-pathological lesions. Consumption of ochratoxin A-contaminated avian meat, containing such ochratoxin concentrations, could pose a health risk for some human categories. Intensification of surveillance for fungal toxins in animal feeds is advisable in order to understand and prevent this risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. Bozzo
- Dipartimento di Sanità e Benessere degli Animali, Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Strada Prov. per Casamassima Km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy
| | - E. Ceci
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica e Zootecnia, Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Strada Prov. per Casamassima Km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy
| | - P. Pinto
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica e Zootecnia, Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Strada Prov. per Casamassima Km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy
| | - E. Bonerba
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica e Zootecnia, Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Strada Prov. per Casamassima Km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy
| | - V. Martella
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica e Zootecnia, Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Strada Prov. per Casamassima Km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy
| | - E. Terio
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica e Zootecnia, Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Strada Prov. per Casamassima Km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy
| | - G. Tantillo
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica e Zootecnia, Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Strada Prov. per Casamassima Km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy
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Abdel-Wahhab MA, Abdel-Azim SH, El-Nekeety AA. Inula crithmoides extract protects against ochratoxin A-induced oxidative stress, clastogenic and mutagenic alterations in male rats. Toxicon 2008; 52:566-73. [PMID: 18694774 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2008] [Revised: 05/10/2008] [Accepted: 07/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin often found in cereals and agricultural products. There is unequivocal evidence of renal carcinogenicity of OTA in male rats, although the mechanism of action is unknown. Several reports suggest that exposure to OTA resulted in oxidative stress, genotoxicity and DNA damage. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to evaluate the protective effects of aqueous extract of Inula crithmoides growing in Egypt against OTA-induced mutagenicity and oxidative stress. Forty male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four groups and treated for 15 days as follows: control group and the groups treated with OTA (3 mg/kg b.w), I. crithmoides extract alone (370 mg/kg b.w) and OTA+I. crithmoides extract. Blood and tissue samples were collected for different biochemical analyses. Bone marrow micronucleus test and blood for random amplified polymorphism DNA-PCR (RAPD-PCR) method were performed to assess the antigenotoxic effect of the extract. The results indicated that OTA induced toxicological effects typical to those reported in the literature and increased the frequencies of MnPCEs in bone marrow. The RAPD-PCR analysis revealed the appearance of new bands in DNA resulting from genetic alteration. The extract alone was safe and succeeded in counteracting the oxidative stress and protect against the cytotoxicity resulting from OTA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mosaad A Abdel-Wahhab
- Food Toxicology and Contaminants Department, National Research Centre, El-Tahrir Street, Dokki, Cairo 12622, Egypt.
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Molecular and cellular effects of food contaminants and secondary plant components and their plausible interactions at the intestinal level. Food Chem Toxicol 2008; 46:813-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2007] [Revised: 10/25/2007] [Accepted: 12/03/2007] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Pfohl-Leszkowicz A, Manderville RA. Ochratoxin A: An overview on toxicity and carcinogenicity in animals and humans. Mol Nutr Food Res 2007; 51:61-99. [PMID: 17195275 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200600137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 687] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a ubiquitous mycotoxin produced by fungi of improperly stored food products. OTA is nephrotoxic and is suspected of being the main etiological agent responsible for human Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN) and associated urinary tract tumours. Striking similarities between OTA-induced porcine nephropathy in pigs and BEN in humans are observed. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified OTA as a possible human carcinogen (group 2B). Currently, the mode of carcinogenic action by OTA is unknown. OTA is genotoxic following oxidative metabolism. This activity is thought to play a central role in OTA-mediated carcinogenesis and may be divided into direct (covalent DNA adduction) and indirect (oxidative DNA damage) mechanisms of action. Evidence for a direct mode of genotoxicity has been derived from the sensitive 32P-postlabelling assay. OTA facilitates guanine-specific DNA adducts in vitro and in rat and pig kidney orally dosed, one adduct comigrates with a synthetic carbon (C)-bonded C8-dG OTA adduct standard. In this paper, our current understanding of OTA toxicity and carcinogenicity are reviewed. The available evidence suggests that OTA is a genotoxic carcinogen by induction of oxidative DNA lesions coupled with direct DNA adducts via quinone formation. This mechanism of action should be used to establish acceptable intake levels of OTA from human food sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annie Pfohl-Leszkowicz
- Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, UMR CNRS/INPT/UPS 5503, INP/ENSA Toulouse, Auzeville-Tolosane, France
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Faucet-Marquis V, Pont F, Størmer FC, Rizk T, Castegnaro M, Pfohl-Leszkowicz A. Evidence of a new dechlorinated ochratoxin A derivative formed in opossum kidney cell cultures after pretreatment by modulators of glutathione pathways: correlation with DNA-adduct formation. Mol Nutr Food Res 2006; 50:530-42. [PMID: 16671059 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200500219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA), a nephrotoxic mycotoxin probably implicated in human Balkan endemic nephropathy and associated urothelial tumors, induces renal carcinomas in rodents and nephrotoxicity in pigs. OTA induces DNA-adduct formation, but the structure of the adducts and their role in nephrotoxicity and carcinogenicity have only partly been elucidated. In vivo, 2-mercaptoethane sulfonate (MESNA) protects rats against OTA-induced nephrotoxicity but not against carcinogenicity, indicating two different mechanisms leading to nephrotoxicity or carcinogenicity. To better understand how DNA-adduct could be generated, opossum kidney cells (OK) have been treated by OTA alone or in presence of several compounds such as MESNA or N-acetylcysteine (another agent that, like MESNA, reduces oxidative stress by increasing of free thiols in kidney), buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) (an inhibitor of glutathione-synthase), and alpha amino-3-chloro-4,5-dihydro-5-isoxazole acetic acid (ACIVICIN) (an inhibitor of gamma glutamyl transpeptidase). Cytotoxicity of OTA on OK cells was evaluated by applying the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. None of the listed agents diminished OTA cytotoxicity significantly; ACIVICIN even increases OTA cytotoxicity. In contrast, analysis of the HPLC profiles of OTA metabolites produced during these incubations indicated that the pattern, the quantity of metabolites, and the nature of the derivatives were modulated by these agents. Ochratoxin B (OTB), open-ring ochratoxin A (OP-OA), 4 hydroxylated OTA, 10 hydroxylated OTA, OTA without phenylalanine, OTB without phenylalanine, and a dechlorinated OTA metabolite could be identified by nano-ESI-IT-MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginie Faucet-Marquis
- Department BioSyM, Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, UMR CNRS/INPT/UPS5503, Auzeville-Tolosane, France
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Lebrun S, Golka K, Schulze H, Föllmann W. Glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms and ochratoxin A toxicity in primary human urothelial cells. Toxicology 2006; 224:81-90. [PMID: 16716482 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.04.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2006] [Revised: 03/20/2006] [Accepted: 04/14/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The mycotoxin ochratoxin A (OTA) is a worldwide contaminant of human food. OTA is genotoxic, immunotoxic, teratogenic and carcinogenic in rodents and can cause nephropathy in pigs. High amounts of OTA can cause nephropathy in humans. Moreover, evidence has been accumulated that OTA is a genotoxic carcinogen. Nevertheless, the mechanism that leads to OTA toxicity has not been fully resolved and it is discussed if a bioactivation of OTA is necessary or not. In this study the genotoxicity of OTA was investigated in primary human urothelial cells by means of alkaline single cell gel electrophoresis (Comet assay). Primary cultured human urothelial cells derived from tissue specimens of urological patients were incubated with 100 microM OTA for 3 h. In contrast to recently published results in MDCK cell lines, the cell cultures showed great interindividual differences in the extent of DNA damage. To evaluate these great interindividual differences the influence of the genotype of the isoenzymes of glutathione S-transferase (GST), namely GSTT1, GSTM1 and GSTP1 on the genotoxic potential of OTA was examined. The genotypes of these polymorphic enzymes were determined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the distributions of the genotypes were correlated with the extent of DNA damage. We found associations between the genotypes of the polymorphic GST isoenzymes and the extent of DNA damage between subgroups with and without OTA-related DNA damage. From these results we conclude that genetic predisposition has the potential to influence OTA genotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Lebrun
- Institut für Arbeitsphysiologie an der Universität Dortmund, Ardeystr. 67, D-44139 Dortmund, Germany
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Pfohl-Leszkowicz A, Castegnaro M. Further arguments in favour of direct covalent binding of Ochratoxin A (OTA) after metabolic biotransformation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 22 Suppl 1:75-87. [PMID: 16332625 DOI: 10.1080/02652030500309400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is nephrotoxic to all animal species, carcinogenic for rats and mice and probably implicated in human Balkan endemic nephropathy and the associated urothelial tract tumour. Controversial results concerning genotoxicity and biotransformation of OTA have been generated. By (32)P post-labelling technique, a dose- and time-dependent DNA adduct formation is observed in vivo and in vitro. Use of several inducers or inhibitors of biotransforming enzymes (including cytochrome P 450, cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase, glutathione-S-transferase), demonstrated that OTA is biotransformed into genotoxic derivatives damaging for DNA. Authentic C8dG-OTA standards have been synthesized by photo-oxidation. Both of them (C-C8 & O-C8) co-migrate on TLC with two adducts formed by in vitro incubation of OTA in the presence of kidney microsomes, and in vivo in kidney of pig or rodent fed OTA as well as in kidney and bladder tumour of humans exposed to OTA. Several OTA metabolites have been isolated from tissues or cells treated by OTA. The open ring lactone (OP-OTA) and quinone OTA (OTQ) are genotoxic.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Pfohl-Leszkowicz
- INP/ENSAT, UMR CNRS/INPT/UPS 5503, Department Bioprocess & Microbial Engineering, 1 Avenue Agrobiopole, Auzeville-Tolosane, France.
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Simarro Doorten Y, Nijmeijer S, de Nijs-Tjon L, Fink-Gremmels J. Metabolism-mediated Ochratoxin A genotoxicity in the single-cell gel electrophoresis (Comet) assay. Food Chem Toxicol 2006; 44:261-70. [PMID: 16139406 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2005.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2005] [Accepted: 07/12/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The mycotoxin Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a contaminant of food and feed commodities in many countries. Long-term exposure to OTA in humans has been associated with an increased incidence of a progressive nephropathy (BEN). Bio-activation of OTA has been implicated in the OTA-mediated toxicity, although inconsistent results have been reported. The aim of the present study was to investigate the genotoxic potency of OTA and its metabolites in NIH/3T3 cells stably expressing the human cytochrome P450 iso-enzymes CYP2C9 and CYP3A4, by using the single-cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE/Comet) assay, which detects single strand DNA breaks. The obtained results confirm the hypothesis that biotransformation processes mediate OTA toxicity, and differences in response were observed in CYP2C9-hOR and CYP3A4-hOR expressing cells, respectively. Results showed that biotransformation of OTA increased the genotoxicity. Measurement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production showed that the OTA-induced ROS production corresponded to the OTA-induced genotoxicity in the used NIH/3T3 cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Simarro Doorten
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 16, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Ringot D, Chango A, Schneider YJ, Larondelle Y. Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of ochratoxin A, an update. Chem Biol Interact 2006; 159:18-46. [PMID: 16293235 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2005.10.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 298] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2005] [Revised: 10/14/2005] [Accepted: 10/14/2005] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by fungi of two genera: Penicillium and Aspergillus. OTA has been shown to be nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, teratogenic and immunotoxic to several species of animals and to cause kidney and liver tumours in mice and rats. Because of differences in the physiology of animal species, wide variations are seen in the toxicokinetic patterns of absorption, distribution and elimination of the toxin. Biotransformation of OTA has not been entirely elucidated. At present, data regarding OTA metabolism are controversial. Several metabolites have been characterized in vitro and/or in vivo, whereas other metabolites remain to be characterized. Several major mechanisms have been shown as involved in the toxicity of OTA: inhibition of protein synthesis, promotion of membrane peroxidation, disruption of calcium homeostasis, inhibition of mitochondrial respiration and DNA damage. The contribution of metabolites in OTA genotoxicity and carcinogenicity is still unclear. The genotoxic status of OTA is still controversial because contradictory results were obtained in various microbial and mammalian tests, notably regarding the formation of DNA adducts. More recent studies are focused on the OTA ability to disturb cellular signalling and regulation, to modulate physiological signals and thereby to influence cells viability and proliferation. The present paper offers an update on these different issues. In addition since humans and animals are likely to be simultaneously exposed to several mycotoxins, especially through their diet, the little information available on the combined effects of OTA and other mycotoxins has also been reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Ringot
- Institut Supérieur d'Agriculture de Beauvais, Rue Pierre Waguet, BP 30313, Beauvais, Cedex 60026, France.
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Vignati L, Turlizzi E, Monaci S, Grossi P, Kanter RD, Monshouwer M. An in vitro approach to detect metabolite toxicity due to CYP3A4-dependent bioactivation of xenobiotics. Toxicology 2005; 216:154-67. [PMID: 16169652 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2005.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2005] [Revised: 08/03/2005] [Accepted: 08/03/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Many adverse drug reactions are caused by the cytochrome P450 (CYP) dependent activation of drugs into reactive metabolites. In order to reduce attrition due to metabolism-mediated toxicity and to improve safety of drug candidates, we developed two in vitro cell-based assays by combining an activating system (human CYP3A4) with target cells (HepG2 cells): in the first method we incubated microsomes containing cDNA-expressed CYP3A4 together with HepG2 cells; in the second approach HepG2 cells were transiently transfected with CYP3A4. In both assay systems, CYP3A4 catalyzed metabolism was found to be comparable to the high levels reported in hepatocytes. Both assay systems were used to study ten CYP3A4 substrates known for their potential to form metabolites that exhibit higher toxicity than the parent compounds. Several endpoints of toxicity were evaluated, and the measurement of MTT reduction and intracellular ATP levels were selected to assess cell viability. Results demonstrated that both assay systems are capable to metabolize the test compounds leading to increased toxicity, compared to their respective control systems. The co-incubation with the CYP3A4 inhibitor ketoconazole confirmed that the formation of reactive metabolites was CYP3A4 dependent. To further validate the functionality of the two assay systems, they were also used as a "detoxification system" using selected compounds that can be metabolized by CYP3A4 to metabolites less toxic than their parent compounds. These results show that both assay systems can be used to screen for metabolic activation, or de-activation, which may be useful as a rapid and relatively inexpensive in vitro assay for the prediction of CYP3A4 metabolism-mediated toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisella Vignati
- Department of Pre-Clinical Development, Nerviano Medical Sciences S.r.l., V.le Pasteur, 10, 20014, Nerviano, MI, Italy.
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Creppy EE, Moukha S, Bacha H, Carratu MR. How much should we involve genetic and environmental factors in the risk assessment of mycotoxins in humans? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2005; 2:186-93. [PMID: 16705817 PMCID: PMC3814714 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph2005010186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2004] [Accepted: 02/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Despite consented efforts in prevention, mycotoxins remain a problem of human health concern in several parts of the world including developed countries. Within the same range of toxins concentrations in the blood some people develop a disease while others do not. Could this inequality in front of mycotoxins effects be explained by environment factors and/or genetic predisposition? Among recent advances in environmental health research Correlation between chronic diseases and mycotoxins in humans deserves attention through several questions: Are genetic factors involved in disease causation of mycotoxins? How much are these factors currently taken into account for mycotoxins risk assessment and how much should we involve them? Answers are still to come. Genetic and environment factors deserve therefore more attention when dealing with regulatory limits, since among the general population, those who are at risk and will develop specific diseases are likely those bearing genetic predispositions. We have addressed these questions for the specific case of ochratoxin A in humans by investigating in Tunisia, county of Jelma, in four rural families forming a household of 21 persons all exposed to ochratoxin A in diet. Our results confirm that ochratoxin A induces chronic tubular nephropathy in humans and mainly point at those having the HLA haplotype A3, B27/35, DR7 to be more sensitive to the disease for quantitatively similar or lower exposure. Persons with such haplotype were found to bear chronic interstitial nephropathy with tubular karyomegalic cells while others were apparently healthy. Godin et al. (1996) in France have also found in sibling (a sister and her brother from urban area) that have similar HLA haplotype B35-patern, OTA-related renal tubulopathy with mild proteinuria including beta2-microglobulinuria. Several mechanisms are discussed that could be put ahead to explain how the HLA haplotype could lead to tubular cells lyses and renal failure. In the mean time it is urgent to search for mass screening biomarkers for mycotoxins in humans and related genetic factors to set-up more appropriate regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmond E Creppy
- Dept of Toxicology, University of Bordeaux 2, 146, rue Lóo-Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux, France.
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Abdel-Wahhab MA, Abdel-Galil MM, El-Lithey M. Melatonin counteracts oxidative stress in rats fed an ochratoxin A contaminated diet. J Pineal Res 2005; 38:130-5. [PMID: 15683468 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-079x.2004.00184.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The mycotoxin ochratoxin A (OTA) is a widespread contaminant in human and animal food products. It induces a wide range of toxic effects including lipid peroxidation through the generation of free radicals. The aim of this work was to evaluate the antioxidant effects of melatonin against OTA-induced oxidative stress in liver and kidney in rats. Treated animals were fed OTA-contaminated diet (3 mg/kg) for 15 days before, during and after melatonin administration (20 mg/kg bw). The results indicate that OTA caused severe effects typical to those reported in the literature for ochratoxicosis. Melatonin alone was effective in the improving food intake, body weight gain, serum total protein, albumin, the activities of alkaline phosphatase, G-glutamyl transferase and creatinine kinase and liver and kidney glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and malondialdehyde. Rats fed OTA-contaminated diet before, during or after melatonin administration showed a significant improvement in all tested parameters toward the normal values of the controls. This improvement was most pronounced in the group pretreated with melatonin. It is concluded that melatonin exhibits a preventive effect against OTA-induced oxidative stress through its role in the scavenging of free radicals and/or the prevention of lipid peroxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mosaad A Abdel-Wahhab
- Department of Food Toxicology and Contaminants, National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt.
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