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Hargitai R, Parráková L, Szatmári T, Monfort-Lanzas P, Galbiati V, Audouze K, Jornod F, Staal YCM, Burla S, Chary A, Gutleb AC, Lumniczky K, Vandebriel RJ, Gostner JM. Chemical respiratory sensitization-Current status of mechanistic understanding, knowledge gaps and possible identification methods of sensitizers. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2024; 6:1331803. [PMID: 39135743 PMCID: PMC11317441 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2024.1331803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Respiratory sensitization is a complex immunological process eventually leading to hypersensitivity following re-exposure to the chemical. A frequent consequence is occupational asthma, which may occur after long latency periods. Although chemical-induced respiratory hypersensitivity has been known for decades, there are currently no comprehensive and validated approaches available for the prospective identification of chemicals that induce respiratory sensitization, while the expectations of new approach methodologies (NAMs) are high. A great hope is that due to a better understanding of the molecular key events, new methods can be developed now. However, this is a big challenge due to the different chemical classes to which respiratory sensitizers belong, as well as because of the complexity of the response and the late manifestation of symptoms. In this review article, the current information on respiratory sensitization related processes is summarized by introducing it in the available adverse outcome pathway (AOP) concept. Potentially useful models for prediction are discussed. Knowledge gaps and gaps of regulatory concern are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Hargitai
- Unit of Radiation Medicine, Department of Radiobiology and Radiohygiene, National Centre for Public Health and Pharmacy (NCPHP), Budapest, Hungary
| | - Lucia Parráková
- Biochemical Immunotoxicology Group, Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Innsbruck (MUI), Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Tünde Szatmári
- Unit of Radiation Medicine, Department of Radiobiology and Radiohygiene, National Centre for Public Health and Pharmacy (NCPHP), Budapest, Hungary
| | - Pablo Monfort-Lanzas
- Biochemical Immunotoxicology Group, Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Innsbruck (MUI), Innsbruck, Austria
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Medical University of Innsbruck (MUI), Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Valentina Galbiati
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences “Rodolfo Paoletti”, Università Degli Studi di Milano (UNIMI), Milano, Italy
| | | | | | - Yvonne C. M. Staal
- Centre for Health Protection, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Sabina Burla
- Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Aline Chary
- Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Arno C. Gutleb
- Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Katalin Lumniczky
- Unit of Radiation Medicine, Department of Radiobiology and Radiohygiene, National Centre for Public Health and Pharmacy (NCPHP), Budapest, Hungary
| | - Rob J. Vandebriel
- Centre for Health Protection, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Johanna M. Gostner
- Biochemical Immunotoxicology Group, Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Innsbruck (MUI), Innsbruck, Austria
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2
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Gibb M, Liu JY, Sayes CM. The transcriptomic signature of respiratory sensitizers using an alveolar model. Cell Biol Toxicol 2024; 40:21. [PMID: 38584208 PMCID: PMC10999393 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-024-09860-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Environmental contaminants are ubiquitous in the air we breathe and can potentially cause adverse immunological outcomes such as respiratory sensitization, a type of immune-driven allergic response in the lungs. Wood dust, latex, pet dander, oils, fragrances, paints, and glues have all been implicated as possible respiratory sensitizers. With the increased incidence of exposure to chemical mixtures and the rapid production of novel materials, it is paramount that testing regimes accounting for sensitization are incorporated into development cycles. However, no validated assay exists that is universally accepted to measure a substance's respiratory sensitizing potential. The lungs comprise various cell types and regions where sensitization can occur, with the gas-exchange interface being especially important due to implications for overall lung function. As such, an assay that can mimic the alveolar compartment and assess sensitization would be an important advance for inhalation toxicology. Some such models are under development, but in-depth transcriptomic analyses have yet to be reported. Understanding the transcriptome after sensitizer exposure would greatly advance hazard assessment and sustainability. We tested two known sensitizers (i.e., isophorone diisocyanate and ethylenediamine) and two known non-sensitizers (i.e., chlorobenzene and dimethylformamide). RNA sequencing was performed in our in vitro alveolar model, consisting of a 3D co-culture of epithelial, macrophage, and dendritic cells. Sensitizers were readily distinguishable from non-sensitizers by principal component analysis. However, few differentially regulated genes were common across all pair-wise comparisons (i.e., upregulation of genes SOX9, UACA, CCDC88A, FOSL1, KIF20B). While the model utilized in this study can differentiate the sensitizers from the non-sensitizers tested, further studies will be required to robustly identify critical pathways inducing respiratory sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Gibb
- Institute of Biomedical Studies (BMS), Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798-7266, USA
| | - James Y Liu
- Department of Environmental Science (ENV), Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX, 76798-7266, USA
| | - Christie M Sayes
- Institute of Biomedical Studies (BMS), Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798-7266, USA.
- Department of Environmental Science (ENV), Baylor University, One Bear Place #97266, Waco, TX, 76798-7266, USA.
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3
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Gibb M, Sayes CM. An In Vitro Alveolar Model Allows for the Rapid Assessment of Particles for Respiratory Sensitization Potential. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10104. [PMID: 37373252 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Dust, both industrial and household, contains particulates that can reach the most distal aspects of the lung. Silica and nickel compounds are two such particulates and have known profiles of poor health outcomes. While silica is well-characterized, nickel compounds still need to be fully understood for their potential to cause long-term immune responses in the lungs. To assess these hazards and decrease animal numbers used in testing, investigations that lead to verifiable in vitro methods are needed. To understand the implications of these two compounds reaching the distal aspect of the lungs, the alveoli, an architecturally relevant alveolar model consisting of epithelial cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells in a maintained submerged system, was utilized for high throughput testing. Exposures include crystalline silica (SiO2) and nickel oxide (NiO). The endpoints measured included mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and cytostructural changes assessed via confocal laser scanning microscopy; cell morphology evaluated via scanning electron microscopy; biochemical reactions assessed via protein arrays; transcriptome assessed via gene arrays, and cell surface activation markers evaluated via flow cytometry. The results showed that, compared to untreated cultures, NiO increased markers for dendritic cell activation, trafficking, and antigen presentation; oxidative stress and cytoskeletal changes, and gene and cytokine expression of neutrophil and other leukocyte chemoattractants. The chemokines and cytokines CCL3, CCL7, CXCL5, IL-6, and IL-8 were identified as potential biomarkers of respiratory sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Gibb
- Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
| | - Christie M Sayes
- Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
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4
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An in vitro alveolar model allows for the rapid assessment of chemical respiratory sensitization with modifiable biomarker endpoints. Chem Biol Interact 2022; 368:110232. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.110232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Gądarowska D, Kalka J, Daniel-Wójcik A, Mrzyk I. Alternative Methods for Skin-Sensitization Assessment. TOXICS 2022; 10:740. [PMID: 36548573 PMCID: PMC9783525 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10120740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Skin sensitization is a term used to refer to the regulatory hazard known as allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) in humans or contact hypersensitivity in rodents, an important health endpoint considered in chemical hazard and risk assessments. Information on skin sensitization potential is required in various regulatory frameworks, such as the Directive of the European Parliament and the Council on Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals (REACH). The identification of skin-sensitizing chemicals previously required the use of animal testing, which is now being replaced by alternative methods. Alternative methods in the field of skin sensitization are based on the measurement or prediction of key events (KE), i.e., (i) the molecular triggering event, i.e., the covalent binding of electrophilic substances to nucleophilic centers in skin proteins; (ii) the activation of keratinocytes; (iii) the activation of dendritic cells; (iv) the proliferation of T cells. This review article focuses on the current state of knowledge regarding the methods corresponding to each of the key events in skin sensitization and considers the latest trends in the development and modification of these methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominika Gądarowska
- The Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
- Łukasiewicz Research Network—Institute of Industrial Organic Chemistry Branch Pszczyna, Doświadczalna 27, 43-200 Pszczyna, Poland
| | - Joanna Kalka
- The Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Anna Daniel-Wójcik
- Łukasiewicz Research Network—Institute of Industrial Organic Chemistry Branch Pszczyna, Doświadczalna 27, 43-200 Pszczyna, Poland
| | - Inga Mrzyk
- Łukasiewicz Research Network—Institute of Industrial Organic Chemistry Branch Pszczyna, Doświadczalna 27, 43-200 Pszczyna, Poland
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Prasse C. Reactivity-directed analysis - a novel approach for the identification of toxic organic electrophiles in drinking water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2021; 23:48-65. [PMID: 33432313 DOI: 10.1039/d0em00471e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Drinking water consumption results in exposure to complex mixtures of organic chemicals, including natural and anthropogenic chemicals and compounds formed during drinking water treatment such as disinfection by-products. The complexity of drinking water contaminant mixtures has hindered efforts to assess associated health impacts. Existing approaches focus primarily on individual chemicals and/or the evaluation of mixtures, without providing information about the chemicals causing the toxic effect. Thus, there is a need for the development of novel strategies to evaluate chemical mixtures and provide insights into the species responsible for the observed toxic effects. This critical review introduces the application of a novel approach called Reactivity-Directed Analysis (RDA) to assess and identify organic electrophiles, the largest group of known environmental toxicants. In contrast to existing in vivo and in vitro approaches, RDA utilizes in chemico methodologies that investigate the reaction of organic electrophiles with nucleophilic biomolecules, including proteins and DNA. This review summarizes the existing knowledge about the presence of electrophiles in drinking water, with a particular focus on their formation in oxidative treatment systems with ozone, advanced oxidation processes, and UV light, as well as disinfectants such as chlorine, chloramines and chlorine dioxide. This summary is followed by an overview of existing RDA approaches and their application for the assessment of aqueous environmental matrices, with an emphasis on drinking water. RDA can be applied beyond drinking water, however, to evaluate source waters and wastewater for human and environmental health risks. Finally, future research demands for the detection and identification of electrophiles in drinking water via RDA are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Prasse
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Whiting School of Engineering and Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles St, Baltimore, MD-21318, USA.
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Ndreu L, Erber LN, Törnqvist M, Tretyakova NY, Karlsson I. Characterizing Adduct Formation of Electrophilic Skin Allergens with Human Serum Albumin and Hemoglobin. Chem Res Toxicol 2020; 33:2623-2636. [PMID: 32875789 PMCID: PMC7582624 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Skin
(contact) allergy, the most predominant form of immunotoxicity
in humans, is caused by small electrophilic compounds (haptens) that
modify endogenous proteins. Approximately 20% of the general population
in the Western world is affected by contact allergy. Although the
importance of the hapten–protein conjugates is well established
in the initiation of the immunological reaction, not much progress
has been made regarding identification of these conjugates in vivo or exploration of their potential as diagnostic
tools. In this study, the human serum albumin (HSA) and human hemoglobin
(Hb) adductome for three representative contact allergens with different
chemical properties, 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNCB), 1,2-epoxy-3-phenoxypropane
(PGE), and 2-bromo-2-(bromomethyl)glutaronitrile (MDBGN), were studied.
Plasma and red blood cell lysate were used as a source for HSA and
Hb, respectively. The Direct Peptide Reactivity Assay was used to
investigate adduct formation of MDBGN with nucleophilic moieties and
revealed that MDGBN is converted to 2-methylenepentanedinitrile in
the presence of sulfhydryl groups prior to adduct formation. Following
incubation of HSA and Hb with haptens, an Orbitrap Q Exactive high-resolution
mass spectrometer was used to perform an initial untargeted analysis
to screen for adduct formation, followed by confirmation by targeted
Parallel Reaction Monitoring analysis. Although a subset of adducted
sites was confirmed by targeted analysis, only some of the adducted
peptides showed an increase in the relative amount of the adducted
peptide with an increased concentration of hapten. In total, seven
adduct sites for HSA and eight for Hb were confirmed for DNCB and
PGE. These sites are believed to be the most reactive. Further, three
of the HSA sites (Cys34, Cys62, and Lys190) and six of the Hb sites (subunit α: Val1, His45, His72; subunit β: Cys93, His97, and Cys112) were haptenated already
at the lowest level of hapten to protein molar ratio (0.1:1), indicating
that these sites are the most likely to be modified in vivo. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that the adductome
of Hb has been studied in the context of contact allergens. Identification
of the most reactive sites of abundant proteins, such as HSA and Hb,
is the first step toward identification of contact allergy biomarkers
that can be used for biomonitoring and to develop better diagnostic
tools based on a blood sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Ndreu
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Luke N Erber
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and the College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States.,Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Margareta Törnqvist
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Natalia Y Tretyakova
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and the College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States.,Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Isabella Karlsson
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
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8
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Hemming JDC, Hosford M, Shafer MM. Application of the direct peptide reactivity assay (DPRA) to inorganic compounds: a case study of platinum species. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2019; 8:802-814. [PMID: 32153767 DOI: 10.1039/c9tx00242a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The in chemico Direct Peptide Reactivity Assay (DPRA) was developed as a non-animal, relatively high throughput, screening tool for skin sensitization potential. Although the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) for respiratory sensitization remains to be fully elucidated, it is recognized that the molecular initiation event for both skin and respiratory sensitization to low molecular weight chemicals involves haptenation with proteins. The DPRA examines the reactivity of a test compound to two model peptides (containing either cysteine or lysine) and consequently is able to screen for both skin and respiratory sensitization potential. The DPRA was primarily developed for and validated with organic compounds and assessment of the applicability of the assay to metal compounds has received only limited attention. This paper reports the successful application of the DPRA to a series of platinum compounds, including hexachloroplatinate and tetrachloroplatinate salts, which are some of the most potent chemical respiratory sensitizers known. Eleven platinum compounds were evaluated using the DPRA protocol as detailed by Lalko et al., with only minor modification. Two palladium compounds with structures similar to that of the platinum species studied and cobalt chloride were additionally tested for comparison. The hexachloroplatinate and tetrachloroplatinate salts showed exceptionally high reactivity with the cysteine peptide (EC15 values of 1.4 and 14 μM, respectively). However, for platinum compounds (e.g. hydrogen hexahydroxyplatinate and tetraammineplatinum) where clinical and epidemiological evidence indicates limited sensitization potential, the cysteine DPRA showed only minor or no reactivity (EC15 values of 24 600 and >30 000 μM, respectively). The outcomes of the lysine peptide assays were less robust and where EC15 was measurable, values were substantially higher than the corresponding results from the cysteine assay. This work supports the value of in chemico peptide reactivity as a metric for assessment of platinum sensitization potential and therefore in screening of new platinum compounds for low or absent sensitization potential. Additional studies are required to determine whether the DPRA may be successfully applied to other metals. We provide details on method modifications and precautions important to the success of the DPRA in the assessment of metal reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyn D C Hemming
- Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene , School of Medicine & Public Health , University of Wisconsin-Madison , 2601 Agricultural Drive , Madison , WI 53718 , USA .
| | - Mark Hosford
- International Platinum Group Metals Association , Schiess-Staett-Strasse 30 , 80339 Munich , Germany
| | - Martin M Shafer
- Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene , School of Medicine & Public Health , University of Wisconsin-Madison , 2601 Agricultural Drive , Madison , WI 53718 , USA . .,Environmental Chemistry and Technology Program , University of Wisconsin-Madison , 660 N. Park St. , Madison , WI 53706 , USA
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9
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de Ávila RI, Lindstedt M, Valadares MC. The 21st Century movement within the area of skin sensitization assessment: From the animal context towards current human-relevant in vitro solutions. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2019; 108:104445. [PMID: 31430506 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2019.104445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In a regulatory context, skin sensitization hazard and risk evaluations of manufactured products and their ingredients (e.g. cosmetics) are mandatory in several regions. Great efforts have been made within the field of 21st Century Toxicology to provide non-animal testing approaches to assess the skin allergy potential of materials (e.g. chemicals, mixtures, nanomaterials, particles). Mechanistic understanding of skin sensitization process through the adverse outcome pathway (AOP) has promoted the development of in vitro methods, demonstrating accuracies superior to the traditional animal testing. These in vitro testing approaches are based on one of the four AOP key events (KE) of skin sensitization: formation of immunogenic hapten-protein complexes (KE-1 or the molecular initiating event, MIE), inflammatory keratinocyte responses (KE-2), dendritic cell activation (KE-3), and T-lymphocyte activation and proliferation (KE-4). This update provides an overview of the historically used in vivo methods as well as the current in chemico and in cell methods with and without OECD guideline designations to analyze the progress towards human-relevant in vitro test methods for safety assessment of the skin allergenicity potential of materials. Here our focus is to review 96 in vitro testing approaches directed to the KEs of the skin sensitization AOP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato Ivan de Ávila
- Laboratory of Education and Research in In Vitro Toxicology (Tox In), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás State, Brazil
| | - Malin Lindstedt
- Department of Immunotechnology, Medicon Village, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Marize Campos Valadares
- Laboratory of Education and Research in In Vitro Toxicology (Tox In), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás State, Brazil.
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A highly sensitive and selective high pressure liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC/MS-MS) method for the direct peptide reactivity assay (DPRA). J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2018; 94:1-15. [PMID: 30099091 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2018.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
While the HPLC/UV (high performance liquid chromatography coupled with ultra-violet spectrometry)-based DPRA (Direct Peptide Reactivity Assay) identifies dermal sensitizers with approximately 80% accuracy, the low selectivity and sensitivity of the HPLC/UV-based DPRA poses challenges to accurately identify the sensitization potential of certain chemicals. In this study, a high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC/MS-MS)-based DPRA was developed and validated according to the test guideline (OECD TG 442C). The final results were compared with the results from the traditional HPLC/UV-based guideline DPRA. This HPLC/MS-MS-based DPRA demonstrated similar performance compared to HPLC/UV-based DPRA using known dermal sensitizers and non-sensitizers according to the test guideline (OECD TG 442C). Following the validation, a challenge set of chemicals with either overlapping retention time with peptides, or higher hydrophobicity or chemicals potentially forming non-covalent interactions with peptides were assessed for dermal sensitization potential using both methods and the results were compared to existing in vivo data. The HPLC/MS-MS-based DPRA correctly predicted these chemicals as sensitizers or non-sensitizers; however, the HPLC/UV-based DPRA resulted in false-positive predictions for hydrophobic substances, chemicals with UV peaks overlapping with those of the peptide(s), and compounds that non-covalently interact with the peptides. These findings demonstrate the broader applicability and better sensitivity and selectivity of the LC/MS-MS-based DPRA over the traditional HPLC/UV-based guideline DPRA.
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11
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Dal Negro G, Eskes C, Belz S, Bertein C, Chlebus M, Corvaro M, Corvi R, Dhalluin S, Halder M, Harvey J, Hermann M, Hoffmann-Dörr S, Kilian K, Lambrigts D, Laroche C, Louhimies S, Mahony C, Manou I, McNamee P, Prieto P, Reid K, Roggen E, Schutte K, Stirling C, Uhlrich S, Weissenhorn R, Whelan M. One science-driven approach for the regulatory implementation of alternative methods: A multi-sector perspective. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 99:33-49. [PMID: 30098372 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2018.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 08/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
EU regulations call for the use of alternative methods to animal testing. During the last decade, an increasing number of alternative approaches have been formally adopted. In parallel, new 3Rs-relevant technologies and mechanistic approaches have increasingly contributed to hazard identification and risk assessment evolution. In this changing landscape, an EPAA meeting reviewed the challenges that different industry sectors face in the implementation of alternative methods following a science-driven approach. Although clear progress was acknowledged in animal testing reduction and refinement thanks to an integration of scientifically robust approaches, the following challenges were identified: i) further characterization of toxicity pathways; ii) development of assays covering current scientific gaps, iii) better characterization of links between in vitro readouts and outcome in the target species; iv) better definition of alternative method applicability domains, and v) appropriate implementation of the available approaches. For areas having regulatory adopted alternative methods (e.g., vaccine batch testing), harmonised acceptance across geographical regions was considered critical for broader application. Overall, the main constraints to the application of non-animal alternatives are the still existing gaps in scientific knowledge and technological limitations. The science-driven identification of most appropriate methods is key for furthering a multi-sectorial decrease in animal testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianni Dal Negro
- GlaxoSmithKline, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, United Kingdom
| | - Chantra Eskes
- SeCAM Services and Consultation on Alternative Methods, Via Campagnora 1, 6983, Magliaso, Switzerland.
| | - Susanne Belz
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Via E. Fermi 2749, 21017, Ispra, Italy
| | | | - Magda Chlebus
- European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA), Rue du Trône 108, 1050, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Marco Corvaro
- ECPA - the European Crop Protection Association, 6 Avenue E. Van Nieuwenhuyse, 1160, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Raffaella Corvi
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Via E. Fermi 2749, 21017, Ispra, Italy
| | - Stephane Dhalluin
- L'Oréal Research & Innovation, 9 rue Pierre Dreyfus, 92110, Clichy, France
| | - Marlies Halder
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Via E. Fermi 2749, 21017, Ispra, Italy
| | - Jim Harvey
- GlaxoSmithKline, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, United Kingdom
| | - Martina Hermann
- Henkel AG & Co. KGaA, Henkelstr. 67, 40589, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | | | - Karin Kilian
- European Commission, Directorate General for the Environment (DG ENV), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Denis Lambrigts
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, 20 Avenue Fleming, 1300, Wavre, Belgium
| | - Charles Laroche
- European Partnership for Alternative Approaches to Animal Testing (EPAA), Av. Herrmann-Debroux 40, 1160, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Susanna Louhimies
- European Commission, Directorate General for the Environment (DG ENV), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Catherine Mahony
- The Procter & Gamble Company, Whitehall Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9NW, United Kingdom
| | - Irene Manou
- European Partnership for Alternative Approaches to Animal Testing (EPAA), Av. Herrmann-Debroux 40, 1160, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Pauline McNamee
- The Procter & Gamble Company, Whitehall Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9NW, United Kingdom
| | - Pilar Prieto
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Via E. Fermi 2749, 21017, Ispra, Italy
| | - Kirsty Reid
- European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA), Rue du Trône 108, 1050, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Erwin Roggen
- 3Rs Management and Consulting, Asavænget 14, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Katrin Schutte
- European Commission, Directorate General for the Environment (DG ENV), Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Sylvie Uhlrich
- Sanofi Pasteur, 1541 Av. Marcel Merieux, 69280, Marcy l'Etoile, France
| | - Renate Weissenhorn
- European Commission, Directorate General for Internal Market, Industry, Enterpreneurship and SME, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Maurice Whelan
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Via E. Fermi 2749, 21017, Ispra, Italy
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12
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Respiratory sensitization: toxicological point of view on the available assays. Arch Toxicol 2017; 92:803-822. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-2088-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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13
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Current status of alternative methods for assessing immunotoxicity: A chemical industry perspective. CURRENT OPINION IN TOXICOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cotox.2017.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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14
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Dik S, Rorije E, Schwillens P, van Loveren H, Ezendam J. Can the Direct Peptide Reactivity Assay Be Used for the Identification of Respiratory Sensitization Potential of Chemicals? Toxicol Sci 2016; 153:361-71. [PMID: 27473337 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Prospective identification of low molecular weight respiratory sensitizers is difficult due to the current lack of adequate test methods. The direct peptide reactivity assay (DPRA) seems to be a promising method to determine the sensitization potential of chemicals because it determines the intrinsic characteristic of sensitizers to bind to proteins. It is already applied in the field of skin sensitization, and adaptation to respiratory sensitization has started recently. This article further evaluates the ability of the DPRA to predict the respiratory sensitization potential of chemicals. In addition, the added value of applying High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)-MS and measurements after 20 minutes and 24 hours of incubation was evaluated. Eighteen respiratory sensitizers (10 haptens, 3 prehaptens, and 5 prohaptens) and 14 nonsensitizers were tested with 2-model peptides. Based on peptide depletion, a prediction model was proposed for the identification of (respiratory) sensitizers. Application of mass spectrometry and measurements at 2 time-points increased prediction accuracy of the assay by resolving discordant results. The prediction model correctly identified all haptens and prehaptens as sensitizers. The 5 prohaptens were not identified as sensitizers, most likely due to lack of metabolic activity in the DPRA. All but 1 nonsensitizer was correctly predicted. The model, therefore, shows an accuracy of 78% for the tested dataset. Unfortunately, this assay cannot be used to distinguish respiratory from skin sensitizers. To make this distinction, the DPRA needs to be combined with other test methods that are able to identify respiratory sensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sander Dik
- *Centre for Health Protection Department of Toxicogenomics, Maastricht University, Maastricht 6200 MD, The Netherlands
| | - Emiel Rorije
- Centre for Safety of Substances and Products, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven 3720 BA, The Netherlands
| | | | - Henk van Loveren
- *Centre for Health Protection Department of Toxicogenomics, Maastricht University, Maastricht 6200 MD, The Netherlands
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Developing a framework for assessing chemical respiratory sensitization: A workshop report. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2016; 80:295-309. [PMID: 27396307 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2016.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory tract sensitization can have significant acute and chronic health implications. While induction of respiratory sensitization is widely recognized for some chemicals, validated standard methods or frameworks for identifying and characterizing the hazard are not available. A workshop on assessment of respiratory sensitization was held to discuss the current state of science for identification and characterization of respiratory sensitizer hazard, identify information facilitating development of validated standard methods and frameworks, and consider the regulatory and practical risk management needs. Participants agreed on a predominant Th2 immunological mechanism and several steps in respiratory sensitization. Some overlapping cellular events in respiratory and skin sensitization are well understood, but full mechanism(s) remain unavailable. Progress on non-animal approaches to skin sensitization testing, ranging from in vitro systems, -omics, in silico profiling, and structural profiling were acknowledged. Addressing both induction and elicitation phases remains challenging. Participants identified lack of a unifying dose metric as increasing the difficulty of interpreting dosimetry across exposures. A number of research needs were identified, including an agreed list of respiratory sensitizers and other asthmagens, distinguishing between adverse effects from immune-mediated versus non-immunological mechanisms. A number of themes emerged from the discussion regarding future testing strategies, particularly the need for a tiered framework respiratory sensitizer assessment. These workshop present a basis for moving towards a weight-of-evidence assessment.
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16
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Peptide Reactivity of Isothiocyanates--Implications for Skin Allergy. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21203. [PMID: 26883070 PMCID: PMC4756319 DOI: 10.1038/srep21203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin allergy is a chronic condition that affects about 20% of the population of the western world. This disease is caused by small reactive compounds, haptens, able to penetrate into the epidermis and modify endogenous proteins, thereby triggering an immunogenic reaction. Phenyl isothiocyanate (PITC) and ethyl isothiocyanate (EITC) have been suggested to be responsible for allergic skin reactions to chloroprene rubber, the main constituent of wetsuits, orthopedic braces, and many types of sports gear. In the present work we have studied the reactivity of the isothiocyanates PITC, EITC, and tetramethylrhodamine-6-isothiocyanate (6-TRITC) toward peptides under aqueous conditions at physiological pH to gain information about the types of immunogenic complexes these compounds may form in the skin. We found that all three compounds reacted quickly with cysteine moieties. For PITC and 6-TRITC the cysteine adducts decomposed over time, while stable adducts with lysine were formed. These experimental findings were verified by DFT calculations. Our results may suggest that the latter are responsible for allergic reactions to isothiocyanates. The initial adduct formation with cysteine residues may still be of great importance as it prevents hydrolysis and facilitates the transport of isothiocyanates into epidermis where they can form stable immunogenic complexes with lysine-containing proteins.
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17
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A fluorescence high throughput screening method for the detection of reactive electrophiles as potential skin sensitizers. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2015; 289:177-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2015.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Revised: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Cochrane SA, Arts JHE, Ehnes C, Hindle S, Hollnagel HM, Poole A, Suto H, Kimber I. Thresholds in chemical respiratory sensitisation. Toxicology 2015; 333:179-194. [PMID: 25963507 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2015.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Revised: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
There is a continuing interest in determining whether it is possible to identify thresholds for chemical allergy. Here allergic sensitisation of the respiratory tract by chemicals is considered in this context. This is an important occupational health problem, being associated with rhinitis and asthma, and in addition provides toxicologists and risk assessors with a number of challenges. In common with all forms of allergic disease chemical respiratory allergy develops in two phases. In the first (induction) phase exposure to a chemical allergen (by an appropriate route of exposure) causes immunological priming and sensitisation of the respiratory tract. The second (elicitation) phase is triggered if a sensitised subject is exposed subsequently to the same chemical allergen via inhalation. A secondary immune response will be provoked in the respiratory tract resulting in inflammation and the signs and symptoms of a respiratory hypersensitivity reaction. In this article attention has focused on the identification of threshold values during the acquisition of sensitisation. Current mechanistic understanding of allergy is such that it can be assumed that the development of sensitisation (and also the elicitation of an allergic reaction) is a threshold phenomenon; there will be levels of exposure below which sensitisation will not be acquired. That is, all immune responses, including allergic sensitisation, have threshold requirement for the availability of antigen/allergen, below which a response will fail to develop. The issue addressed here is whether there are methods available or clinical/epidemiological data that permit the identification of such thresholds. This document reviews briefly relevant human studies of occupational asthma, and experimental models that have been developed (or are being developed) for the identification and characterisation of chemical respiratory allergens. The main conclusion drawn is that although there is evidence that the acquisition of sensitisation to chemical respiratory allergens is a dose-related phenomenon, and that thresholds exist, it is frequently difficult to define accurate numerical values for threshold exposure levels. Nevertheless, based on occupational exposure data it may sometimes be possible to derive levels of exposure in the workplace, which are safe. An additional observation is the lack currently of suitable experimental methods for both routine hazard characterisation and the measurement of thresholds, and that such methods are still some way off. Given the current trajectory of toxicology, and the move towards the use of non-animal in vitro and/or in silico) methods, there is a need to consider the development of alternative approaches for the identification and characterisation of respiratory sensitisation hazards, and for risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella A Cochrane
- Unilever Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire, Mk44 1LQ, UK.
| | | | - Colin Ehnes
- BASF SE, GUP/PB - Z470, 67056 Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Stuart Hindle
- Dow Europe GmbH, Bachtobelstrasse 3, CH-8810 Horgen, Switzerland
| | - Heli M Hollnagel
- Dow Europe GmbH, Bachtobelstrasse 3, CH-8810 Horgen, Switzerland
| | - Alan Poole
- ECETOC, Avenue Van Nieuwenhuyse 2, Box 8, B-1160 Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Hidenori Suto
- Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd. Environmental Health Science Laboratory, 3-1-98 Kasugade-Naka, Konohana-Ku, Osaka 554-8558, Japan
| | - Ian Kimber
- University of Manchester, Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
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Yamamoto Y, Tahara H, Usami R, Kasahara T, Jimbo Y, Hioki T, Fujita M. A novelin chemicomethod to detect skin sensitizers in highly diluted reaction conditions. J Appl Toxicol 2015; 35:1348-60. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.3139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2014] [Revised: 02/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Yamamoto
- FUJIFILM Corporation; Safety Evaluation Centre; Kanagawa Japan
| | - Haruna Tahara
- FUJIFILM Corporation; Safety Evaluation Centre; Kanagawa Japan
| | - Ryota Usami
- FUJIFILM Corporation; Safety Evaluation Centre; Kanagawa Japan
| | | | - Yoshihiro Jimbo
- FUJIFILM Corporation; Synthetic Organic Chemistry Laboratories; Shizuoka Japan
| | - Takanori Hioki
- FUJIFILM Corporation; Safety Evaluation Centre; Kanagawa Japan
| | - Masaharu Fujita
- FUJIFILM Corporation; Safety Evaluation Centre; Kanagawa Japan
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20
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Roggen EL. In VitroApproaches for Detection of Chemical Sensitization. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2014; 115:32-40. [DOI: 10.1111/bcpt.12202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Mekenyan O, Patlewicz G, Kuseva C, Popova I, Mehmed A, Kotov S, Zhechev T, Pavlov T, Temelkov S, Roberts DW. A mechanistic approach to modeling respiratory sensitization. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:219-39. [PMID: 24422459 DOI: 10.1021/tx400345b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Chemical respiratory sensitization is an important occupational health problem which may lead to severely incapacitated human health, yet there are currently no validated or widely accepted models for identifying and characterizing the potential of a chemical to induce respiratory sensitization. This is in part due to the ongoing uncertainty about the immunological mechanisms through which respiratory sensitization may be acquired. Despite the lack of test method, regulations such as REACH still require an assessment of respiratory sensitization for risk assessment and/or for the purposes of classification and labeling. The REACH guidance describes an integrated evaluation strategy to characterize what information sources could be available to facilitate such an assessment. The components of this include a consideration of well-established structural alerts and existing data (whether it be derived from read-across, (quantitative) structure-activity relationships ((Q)SAR), in vivo studies etc.). There has been some progress in developing SARs as well as a handful of empirical QSARs. More recently, efforts have been focused on exploring whether the reaction chemistry mechanistic domains first characterized for skin sensitization are relevant for respiratory sensitization and to what extent modifications or refinements are needed to rationalize the differences between the two end points as far as their chemistry is concerned. This study has built upon the adverse outcome pathway (AOP) for skin sensitization that was developed and published by the OECD in 2012. We have structured a workflow to characterize the initiating events that are relevant in driving respiratory sensitization. OASIS pipeline technology was used to encode these events as components in a software platform to enable a prediction of respiratory sensitization potential to be made for new untested chemicals. This prediction platform could be useful in the assessment of respiratory sensitization potential or for grouping chemicals for subsequent read-across.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ovanes Mekenyan
- Laboratory of Mathematical Chemistry, University "Prof As Zlatarov" , 1 Yakim Street, Bourgas, Bulgaria
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Goebel C, Troutman J, Hennen J, Rothe H, Schlatter H, Gerberick GF, Blömeke B. Introduction of a methoxymethyl side chain into p-phenylenediamine attenuates its sensitizing potency and reduces the risk of allergy induction. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2013; 274:480-7. [PMID: 24333256 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2013.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Revised: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The strong sensitizing potencies of the most important primary intermediates of oxidative hair dyes, p-phenylenediamine (PPD) and p-toluylenediamine (PTD, i.e. 2-methyl-PPD) are well established. They are considered as the key sensitizers in hair dye allergic contact dermatitis. While modification of their molecular structure is expected to alter their sensitizing properties, it may also impair their color performance. With introduction of a methoxymethyl side chain we found the primary intermediate 2-methoxymethyl-p-phenylenediamine (ME-PPD) with excellent hair coloring performance but significantly reduced sensitizing properties compared to PPD and PTD: In vitro, ME-PPD showed an attenuated innate immune response when analyzed for its protein reactivity and dendritic cell activation potential. In vivo, the effective concentration of ME-PPD necessary to induce an immune response 3-fold above vehicle control (EC3 value) in the local lymph node assay (LLNA) was 4.3%, indicating a moderate skin sensitizing potency compared to values of 0.1 and 0.17% for PPD and PTD, respectively. Finally, assessing the skin sensitizing potency of ME-PPD under consumer hair dye usage conditions through a quantitative risk assessment (QRA) indicated an allergy induction risk negligible compared to PPD or PTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Goebel
- The Procter & Gamble Co., Central Product Safety and Communications, Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - John Troutman
- The Procter & Gamble Co., Central Product Safety, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Jenny Hennen
- Dept. of Environmental Toxicology, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Helga Rothe
- The Procter & Gamble Co., Central Product Safety and Communications, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Harald Schlatter
- The Procter & Gamble Co., Central Product Safety and Communications, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - G Frank Gerberick
- The Procter & Gamble Co., Central Product Safety, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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