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Zhang B, Zhao J, Kang D, Wang Z, Xu L, Zheng R, Liu A. Flubendazole suppresses VEGF-induced angiogenesis in HUVECs and exerts antitumor effects in PC-3 cells. Chem Biol Drug Des 2024; 103:e14503. [PMID: 38480495 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.14503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
Flubendazole, an FDA-approved anthelmintic, has been predicted to show strong VEGFR2 inhibitory activity in silico screening combined with in vitro experimental validation, and it has shown anti-cancer effects on some human cancer cell lines, but little is known about the anti-angiogenesis effects and anti-prostate cancer effects. In this study, we analyzed the binding modes and kinetic analysis of flubendazole with VEGFR2 and first demonstrated that flubendazole suppressed VEGF-stimulated cell proliferation, wound-healing migration, cell invasion and tube formation of HUVEC cells, and decreased the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and serine/threonine kinase Akt, which are the downstream proteins of VEGFR2 that are important for cell growth. What's more, our results showed that flubendazole decreased PC-3 cell viability and proliferation ability, and suppressed PC-3 cell wound healing migration and invasion across a Matrigel-coated Transwell membrane in a concentration-dependent manner. The antiproliferative effects of flubendazole were due to induction of G2-M phase cell cycle arrest in PC-3 cells with decreasing expression of the Cyclin D1 and induction of cell apoptosis with the number of apoptotic cells increased after flubendazole treatment. These results indicated that flubendazole could exert anti-angiogenic and anticancer effects by inhibiting cell cycle and inducing cell apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baoyue Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Department of Pharmacy, Qilu Hospital (Qingdao), Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Jun Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - De Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Zhe Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Lvjie Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - RuiFang Zheng
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Uighur Medicines, Xinjiang Institute of Materia Medica, Urumchi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Ailin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
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O'Meara CH, Jafri Z, Khachigian LM. Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors, Small-Molecule Immunotherapies and the Emerging Role of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Therapeutic Strategies for Head and Neck Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11695. [PMID: 37511453 PMCID: PMC10380483 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy has revolutionized the treatment of many cancer types, including head and neck cancers (HNC). When checkpoint and partner proteins bind, these send an "off" signal to T cells, which prevents the immune system from destroying tumor cells. However, in HNC, and indeed many other cancers, more people do not respond and/or suffer from toxic effects than those who do respond. Hence, newer, more effective approaches are needed. The challenge to durable therapy lies in a deeper understanding of the complex interactions between immune cells, tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment. This will help develop therapies that promote lasting tumorlysis by overcoming T-cell exhaustion. Here we explore the strengths and limitations of current ICI therapy in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). We also review emerging small-molecule immunotherapies and the growing promise of neutrophil extracellular traps in controlling tumor progression and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor H O'Meara
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, NSW 2031, Australia
| | - Zuhayr Jafri
- Vascular Biology and Translational Research, School of Biomedical Sciences, UNSW Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Levon M Khachigian
- Vascular Biology and Translational Research, School of Biomedical Sciences, UNSW Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
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3
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Graff BT, Palanivel C, Jenkins CB, Baranowska-Kortylewicz J, Yan Y. Benzimidazole carbamate induces cytotoxicity in breast cancer cells via two distinct cell death mechanisms. Cell Death Discov 2023; 9:162. [PMID: 37179350 PMCID: PMC10183037 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-023-01454-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Metastatic breast cancer (mBC) is responsible for >90% of breast cancer-related deaths. Microtubule-targeting agents (MTAs) are the front-line treatment for mBC. However, the effectiveness of MTAs is frequently limited by the primary or acquired resistance. Furthermore, recurrent mBC derived from cancer cells that survived MTA treatment are typically more chemoresistant. The overall response rates for the second- and third-line MTAs in mBC patients previously treated with MTAs are 12-35%. Thus, there is an ongoing search for novel MTAs with a distinct mode of action that can circumvent chemoresistance mechanisms. Our results show that methyl N-(6-benzoyl-1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)carbamate (BCar), a microtubule-disrupting anthelmintic that binds to the colchicine binding site separate from the binding sites of clinically used MTAs, has the potential to treat MTA-resistant mBC. We have comprehensively evaluated the cellular effects of BCar in a panel of human breast cancer (BC) cell lines and normal breast cells. BCar effects on the clonogenic survival, cell cycle, apoptosis, autophagy, senescence, and mitotic catastrophe were measured. Approximately 25% of BCs harbor mutant p53. For this reason, the p53 status was included as a variable. The results show that BC cells are >10x more sensitive to BCar than normal mammary epithelial cells (HME). p53-mutant BC cells are significantly more sensitive to BCar treatment than p53 wild-type BC cells. Furthermore, BCar appears to kill BC cells primarily via either p53-dependent apoptosis or p53-independent mitotic catastrophe. When compared to docetaxel and vincristine, two clinical MTAs, BCar is fairly innocuous in HME cells, providing a much wider therapeutic window than docetaxel and vincristine. Together, the results strongly support the notion that BCar-based therapeutics may serve as a new line of MTAs for mBC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan T Graff
- Department of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine University of Nebraska Medical Center Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Chitra Palanivel
- Department of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine University of Nebraska Medical Center Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Christopher B Jenkins
- Department of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine University of Nebraska Medical Center Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Janina Baranowska-Kortylewicz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy University of Nebraska Medical Center Omaha, Nebraska, USA.
| | - Ying Yan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine University of Nebraska Medical Center Omaha, Nebraska, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine University of Nebraska Medical Center Omaha, Nebraska, USA.
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4
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Newly Synthesized Melphalan Analogs Induce DNA Damage and Mitotic Catastrophe in Hematological Malignant Cancer Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232214258. [PMID: 36430734 PMCID: PMC9693175 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232214258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Myeloablative therapy with highdoses of the cytostatic drug melphalan (MEL) in preparation for hematopoietic cell transplantation is the standard of care for multiple myeloma (MM) patients. Melphalan is a bifunctional alkylating agent that covalently binds to nucleophilic sites in the DNA and effective in the treatment, but unfortunately has limited therapeutic benefit. Therefore, new approaches are urgently needed for patients who are resistant to existing standard treatment with MEL. Regulating the pharmacological activity of drug molecules by modifying their structure is one method for improving their effectiveness. The purpose of this work was to analyze the physicochemical and biological properties of newly synthesized melphalan derivatives (EE-MEL, EM-MEL, EM-MOR-MEL, EM-I-MEL, EM-T-MEL) obtained through the esterification of the carboxyl group and the replacement of the the amino group with an amidine group. Compounds were selected based on our previous studies for their improved anticancer properties in comparison with the original drug. For this, we first evaluated the physicochemical properties using the circular dichroism technique, then analyzed the zeta potential and the hydrodynamic diameters of the particles. Then, the in vitro biological properties of the analogs were tested on multiple myeloma (RPMI8226), acute monocytic leukemia (THP1), and promyelocytic leukemia (HL60) cells as model systems for hematological malignant cells. DNA damage was assessed by immunostaining γH2AX, cell cycle distribution changes by propidium iodide (PI) staining, and cell death by the activation of caspase 2. We proved that the newly synthesized derivatives, in particular EM-MOR-MEL and EM-T-MEL, affected the B-DNA conformation, thus increasing the DNA damage. As a result of the DNA changes, the cell cycle was arrested in the S and G2/M phases. The cell death occurred by activating a mitotic catastrophe. Our investigations suggest that the analogs EM-MOR-MEL and EM-T-MEL have better anti-cancer activity in multiple myeloma cells than the currently used melphalan.
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Song B, Park EY, Kim KJ, Ki SH. Repurposing of Benzimidazole Anthelmintic Drugs as Cancer Therapeutics. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14194601. [PMID: 36230527 PMCID: PMC9559625 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14194601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Although non-prescription anthelmintics are often used for cancer treatment, there is a lack of information regarding their anti-cancer effects in clinical settings. The aims of our review are to describe the possibilities and limitations of the anti-cancer effects of benzimidazole anthelmintics and to suggest ways to overcome these limitations. The results of the current review illustrate the potential development of anthelmintics as a useful strategy for cancer treatment based on much preclinical evidence. Furthermore, they suggest that more rigorous studies on whole anti-cancer pathways and development strategies, including formulations, could result in significantly enhanced anti-cancer effects of benzimidazoles as a repurposed cancer therapy in clinical settings. Abstract Benzimidazoles have shown significant promise for repurposing as a cancer therapy. The aims of this review are to investigate the possibilities and limitations of the anti-cancer effects of benzimidazole anthelmintics and to suggest ways to overcome these limitations. This review included studies on the anti-cancer effects of 11 benzimidazoles. Largely divided into three parts, i.e., preclinical anti-cancer effects, clinical anti-cancer effects, and pharmacokinetic properties, we examine the characteristics of each benzimidazole and attempt to elucidate its key properties. Although many studies have demonstrated the anti-cancer effects of benzimidazoles, there is limited evidence regarding their effects in clinical settings. This might be because the clinical trials conducted using benzimidazoles failed to restrict their participants with specific criteria including cancer entities, cancer stages, and genetic characteristics of the participants. In addition, these drugs have limitations including low bioavailability, which results in insufficient plasma concentration levels. Additional studies on whole anti-cancer pathways and development strategies, including formulations, could result significant enhancements of the anti-cancer effects of benzimidazoles in clinical situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bomi Song
- Graduate School of Clinical Pharmacy, Chosun University, Gwangju 61452, Korea
| | - Eun Young Park
- College of Pharmacy, Mokpo National University, Mokpo 58554, Korea
| | - Kwang Joon Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Mokpo National University, Mokpo 58554, Korea
- Correspondence: (K.J.K.); (S.H.K.); Tel.: +82-61-450-2334 (K.J.K.); +82-62-230-6639 (S.H.K.)
| | - Sung Hwan Ki
- Graduate School of Clinical Pharmacy, Chosun University, Gwangju 61452, Korea
- Correspondence: (K.J.K.); (S.H.K.); Tel.: +82-61-450-2334 (K.J.K.); +82-62-230-6639 (S.H.K.)
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Kumbhar P, Kole K, Yadav T, Bhavar A, Waghmare P, Bhokare R, Manjappa A, Jha NK, Chellappan DK, Shinde S, Singh SK, Dua K, Salawi A, Disouza J, Patravale V. Drug repurposing: An emerging strategy in alleviating skin cancer. Eur J Pharmacol 2022; 926:175031. [PMID: 35580707 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2022.175031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Skin cancer is one of the most common forms of cancer. Several million people are estimated to have affected with this condition worldwide. Skin cancer generally includes melanoma and non-melanoma with the former being the most dangerous. Chemotherapy has been one of the key therapeutic strategies employed in the treatment of skin cancer, especially in advanced stages of the disease. It could be also used as an adjuvant with other treatment modalities depending on the type of skin cancer. However, there are several shortfalls associated with the use of chemotherapy such as non-selectivity, tumour resistance, life-threatening toxicities, and the exorbitant cost of medicines. Furthermore, new drug discovery is a lengthy and costly process with minimal likelihood of success. Thus, drug repurposing (DR) has emerged as a new avenue where the drug approved formerly for the treatment of one disease can be used for the treatment of another disease like cancer. This approach is greatly beneficial over the de novo approach in terms of time and cost. Moreover, there is minimal risk of failure of repurposed therapeutics in clinical trials. There are a considerable number of studies that have reported on drugs repurposed for the treatment of skin cancer. Thus, the present manuscript offers a comprehensive overview of drugs that have been investigated as repurposing candidates for the efficient treatment of skin cancers mainly melanoma and its oncogenic subtypes, and non-melanoma. The prospects of repurposing phytochemicals against skin cancer are also discussed. Furthermore, repurposed drug delivery via topical route and repurposed drugs in clinical trials are briefed. Based on the findings from the reported studies discussed in this manuscript, drug repurposing emerges to be a promising approach and thus is expected to offer efficient treatment at a reasonable cost in devitalizing skin cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Popat Kumbhar
- Tatyasaheb Kore College of Pharmacy, Warananagar, Tal: Panhala, Dist: Kolhapur Maharashtra, 416113, India
| | - Kapil Kole
- Tatyasaheb Kore College of Pharmacy, Warananagar, Tal: Panhala, Dist: Kolhapur Maharashtra, 416113, India
| | - Tejashree Yadav
- Tatyasaheb Kore College of Pharmacy, Warananagar, Tal: Panhala, Dist: Kolhapur Maharashtra, 416113, India
| | - Ashwini Bhavar
- Tatyasaheb Kore College of Pharmacy, Warananagar, Tal: Panhala, Dist: Kolhapur Maharashtra, 416113, India
| | - Pramod Waghmare
- Tatyasaheb Kore College of Pharmacy, Warananagar, Tal: Panhala, Dist: Kolhapur Maharashtra, 416113, India
| | - Rajdeep Bhokare
- Tatyasaheb Kore College of Pharmacy, Warananagar, Tal: Panhala, Dist: Kolhapur Maharashtra, 416113, India
| | - Arehalli Manjappa
- Tatyasaheb Kore College of Pharmacy, Warananagar, Tal: Panhala, Dist: Kolhapur Maharashtra, 416113, India
| | - Niraj Kumar Jha
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering & Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida, 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India; Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied and Life Sciences (SALS), Uttaranchal University, Dehradun 248007, India
| | - Dinesh Kumar Chellappan
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Bukit Jalil, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Sunita Shinde
- Tatyasaheb Kore College of Pharmacy, Warananagar, Tal: Panhala, Dist: Kolhapur Maharashtra, 416113, India
| | - Sachin Kumar Singh
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, 144411, India; Faculty of Health, Australian Research Centre in Complementary and Integrative Medicine, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia
| | - Kamal Dua
- Faculty of Health, Australian Research Centre in Complementary and Integrative Medicine, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia; Discipline of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Health, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia; Uttaranchal Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, 248007, India
| | - Ahmad Salawi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - John Disouza
- Tatyasaheb Kore College of Pharmacy, Warananagar, Tal: Panhala, Dist: Kolhapur Maharashtra, 416113, India.
| | - Vandana Patravale
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, Maharashtra, 400019, India.
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7
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Poczta A, Krzeczyński P, Tobiasz J, Rogalska A, Gajek A, Marczak A. Synthesis and In Vitro Activity of Novel Melphalan Analogs in Hematological Malignancy Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031760. [PMID: 35163680 PMCID: PMC8836188 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the continuous developments in pharmacology and the high therapeutic effect of new treatment options for patients with hematological malignancies, these diseases remain a major health issue. Our study aimed to synthesize, analyze in silico, and determine the biological properties of new melphalan derivatives. We obtained three methyl esters of melphalan having in their structures amidine moieties substituted with thiomorpholine (EM-T-MEL), indoline (EM-I-MEL), or 4-(4-morpholinyl) piperidine (EM-MORPIP-MEL). These have not yet been described in the literature. The in vitro anticancer properties of the analogs were determined against THP1, HL60, and RPMI8226 cells. Melphalan derivatives were evaluated for cytotoxicity (resazurin viability assay), genotoxicity (alkaline comet assay), and their ability to induce apoptosis (Hoechst33342/propidium iodide double staining method; phosphatidylserine translocation; and caspase 3/7, 8, and 9 activity measurements). Changes in mitochondrial membrane potential were examined using the specific fluorescence probe JC-1 (5,5',6,6'-tetrachloro-1,1',3,3'-tetraethylbenzimidazol carbocyanine). The EM-T-MEL derivative had the highest biological activity, showing higher cytotoxic and genotoxic properties than the parent drug. Moreover, it showed a high ability to induce apoptosis in the tested cancer cells. This compound also had a beneficial effect in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). In conclusion, we verified and confirmed the hypothesis that chemical modifications of the melphalan structure improved its anticancer properties. The conducted study allowed the selection of the compound with the highest biological activity and provided a basis for chemical structure-biological activity analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastazja Poczta
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 141/143 Pomorska Street, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (A.R.); (A.G.); (A.M.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Piotr Krzeczyński
- Department of Pharmacy, Cosmetic Chemistry and Biotechnology, Team of Chemistry, Łukasiewicz Research Network—Industrial Chemistry Institute, 8 Rydygiera Street, 01-793 Warsaw, Poland; (P.K.); (J.T.)
| | - Joanna Tobiasz
- Department of Pharmacy, Cosmetic Chemistry and Biotechnology, Team of Chemistry, Łukasiewicz Research Network—Industrial Chemistry Institute, 8 Rydygiera Street, 01-793 Warsaw, Poland; (P.K.); (J.T.)
| | - Aneta Rogalska
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 141/143 Pomorska Street, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (A.R.); (A.G.); (A.M.)
| | - Arkadiusz Gajek
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 141/143 Pomorska Street, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (A.R.); (A.G.); (A.M.)
| | - Agnieszka Marczak
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 141/143 Pomorska Street, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (A.R.); (A.G.); (A.M.)
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8
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Chen C, Ding Y, Liu H, Sun M, Wang H, Wu D. Flubendazole Plays an Important Anti-Tumor Role in Different Types of Cancers. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23010519. [PMID: 35008943 PMCID: PMC8745596 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23010519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Flubendazole, belonging to benzimidazole, is a broad-spectrum insect repellent and has been repurposed as a promising anticancer drug. In recent years, many studies have shown that flubendazole plays an anti-tumor role in different types of cancers, including breast cancer, melanoma, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, and lung cancer. Although the anti-tumor mechanism of flubendazole has been studied, it has not been fully understood. In this review, we summarized the recent studies regarding the anti-tumor effects of flubendazole in different types of cancers and analyzed the related mechanisms, in order to provide the theoretical reference for further studies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoran Chen
- Institute of Nursing and Health, School of Nursing and Health, Henan University, Jinming Avenue, Kaifeng 475004, China; (C.C.); (Y.D.)
| | - Yueming Ding
- Institute of Nursing and Health, School of Nursing and Health, Henan University, Jinming Avenue, Kaifeng 475004, China; (C.C.); (Y.D.)
| | - Huiyang Liu
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Nuclear Protein Regulation, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, China;
| | - Mengyao Sun
- School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, China;
| | - Honggang Wang
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Nuclear Protein Regulation, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, China;
- Correspondence: (H.W.); (D.W.)
| | - Dongdong Wu
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Nuclear Protein Regulation, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, China;
- School of Stomatology, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, China
- Correspondence: (H.W.); (D.W.)
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9
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Khachigian LM. Emerging insights on functions of the anthelmintic flubendazole as a repurposed anticancer agent. Cancer Lett 2021; 522:57-62. [PMID: 34520820 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2021.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
While flubendazole has been used as a macrofilaricide in humans and animals for some 40 years, work in vitro and in preclinical models over the last decade has suggested its potential use as an anticancer agent. This article reviews recent studies in a range of tumor types indicating novel functions for flubendazole in its control of processes associated with tumor growth, spread and renewal including ferroptosis, autophagy, cancer stem-like cell killing and suppression of intratumoral myeloid-derived suppressor cell accumulation and programmed cell death protein 1. Flubendazole's potential use in clinical oncology will require further understanding of its mechanistic roles, range of inhibition of cancer types, capacity for adjunctive therapy and possible reformulation for enhanced solubility, bioavailability and potency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Levon M Khachigian
- Vascular Biology and Translational Research, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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10
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Xie X, Cai X, Tang Y, Jiang C, Zhou F, Yang L, Liu Z, Wang L, Zhao H, Zhao C, Huang X. Flubendazole Elicits Antitumor Effects by Inhibiting STAT3 and Activating Autophagy in Non-small Cell Lung Cancer. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:680600. [PMID: 34513827 PMCID: PMC8427440 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.680600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) is a major neoplastic disease with a high mortality worldwide; however, effective treatment of this disease remains a challenge. Flubendazole, a traditional anthelmintic drug, possesses potent antitumor properties; however, the detailed molecular mechanism of flubendazole activity in NSCLC needs to be further explored. In the present study, flubendazole was found to exhibit valid antitumor activity in vitro as well as in vivo. Flubendazole blocked phosphorylation of STAT3 in a dose- and time-dependent manner and regulated the transcription of STAT3 target genes encoding apoptotic proteins. Further, flubendazole inhibited STAT3 activation by inhibiting its phosphorylation and nuclear localization induced by interleukin-6 (IL-6). Notably, the autophagic flux of NSCLC cell lines was increased after flubendazole treatment. Furthermore, flubendazole downregulated the expression of BCL2, P62, and phosphorylated-mTOR, but it upregulated LC3-I/II and Beclin-1 expression, which are the main genes associated with autophagy. Collectively, these data contribute to elucidating the efficacy of flubendazole as an anticancer drug, demonstrating its potential as a therapeutic agent via its suppression of STAT3 activity and the activation of autophagy in NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaona Xie
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Xueding Cai
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yemeng Tang
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Chunhui Jiang
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Feng Zhou
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Lehe Yang
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Zhiguo Liu
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Liangxing Wang
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Haiyang Zhao
- The Institute of Life Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Chengguang Zhao
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Xiaoying Huang
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
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11
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Li YQ, Zheng Z, Liu QX, Lu X, Zhou D, Zhang J, Zheng H, Dai JG. Repositioning of Antiparasitic Drugs for Tumor Treatment. Front Oncol 2021; 11:670804. [PMID: 33996598 PMCID: PMC8117216 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.670804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug repositioning is a strategy for identifying new antitumor drugs; this strategy allows existing and approved clinical drugs to be innovatively repurposed to treat tumors. Based on the similarities between parasitic diseases and cancer, recent studies aimed to investigate the efficacy of existing antiparasitic drugs in cancer. In this review, we selected two antihelminthic drugs (macrolides and benzimidazoles) and two antiprotozoal drugs (artemisinin and its derivatives, and quinolines) and summarized the research progresses made to date on the role of these drugs in cancer. Overall, these drugs regulate tumor growth via multiple targets, pathways, and modes of action. These antiparasitic drugs are good candidates for comprehensive, in-depth analyses of tumor occurrence and development. In-depth studies may improve the current tumor diagnoses and treatment regimens. However, for clinical application, current investigations are still insufficient, warranting more comprehensive analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Qi Li
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Zhi Zheng
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Quan-Xing Liu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Xiao Lu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Dong Zhou
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Jiao Zhang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Hong Zheng
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Ji-Gang Dai
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
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12
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Florio R, Carradori S, Veschi S, Brocco D, Di Genni T, Cirilli R, Casulli A, Cama A, De Lellis L. Screening of Benzimidazole-Based Anthelmintics and Their Enantiomers as Repurposed Drug Candidates in Cancer Therapy. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14040372. [PMID: 33920661 PMCID: PMC8072969 DOI: 10.3390/ph14040372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Repurposing of approved non-antitumor drugs represents a promising and affordable strategy that may help to increase the repertoire of effective anticancer drugs. Benzimidazole-based anthelmintics are antiparasitic drugs commonly employed both in human and veterinary medicine. Benzimidazole compounds are being considered for drug repurposing due to antitumor activities displayed by some members of the family. In this study, we explored the effects of a large series of benzimidazole-based anthelmintics (and some enantiomerically pure forms of those containing a stereogenic center) on the viability of different tumor cell lines derived from paraganglioma, pancreatic and colorectal cancer. Flubendazole, parbendazole, oxibendazole, mebendazole, albendazole and fenbendazole showed the most consistent antiproliferative effects, displaying IC50 values in the low micromolar range, or even in the nanomolar range. In silico evaluation of their physicochemical, pharmacokinetics and medicinal chemistry properties also provided useful information related to the chemical structures and potential of these compounds. Furthermore, in view of the potential repurposing of these drugs in cancer therapy and considering that pharmaceutically active compounds may have different mechanisms of action, we performed an in silico target prediction to assess the polypharmacology of these benzimidazoles, which highlighted previously unknown cancer-relevant molecular targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalba Florio
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (D.B.); (T.D.G.); (L.D.L.)
| | - Simone Carradori
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (D.B.); (T.D.G.); (L.D.L.)
- Correspondence: (S.C.); (A.C.)
| | - Serena Veschi
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (D.B.); (T.D.G.); (L.D.L.)
| | - Davide Brocco
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (D.B.); (T.D.G.); (L.D.L.)
| | - Teresa Di Genni
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (D.B.); (T.D.G.); (L.D.L.)
| | - Roberto Cirilli
- Centro Nazionale per il Controllo e la Valutazione dei Farmaci, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Adriano Casulli
- WHO Collaborating Centre for the Epidemiology, Detection and Control of Cystic and Alveolar Echinococcosis (in Animals and Humans), Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy;
- European Union Reference Laboratory for Parasites, Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Cama
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (D.B.); (T.D.G.); (L.D.L.)
- Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
- Correspondence: (S.C.); (A.C.)
| | - Laura De Lellis
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (D.B.); (T.D.G.); (L.D.L.)
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13
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Cortés H, Reyes-Hernández OD, Alcalá-Alcalá S, Bernal-Chávez SA, Caballero-Florán IH, González-Torres M, Sharifi-Rad J, González-Del Carmen M, Figueroa-González G, Leyva-Gómez G. Repurposing of Drug Candidates for Treatment of Skin Cancer. Front Oncol 2021; 10:605714. [PMID: 33489912 PMCID: PMC7821387 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.605714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin cancers are highly prevalent malignancies that affect millions of people worldwide. These include melanomas and nonmelanoma skin cancers. Melanomas are among the most dangerous cancers, while nonmelanoma skin cancers generally exhibit a more benign clinical pattern; however, they may sometimes be aggressive and metastatic. Melanomas typically appear in body regions exposed to the sun, although they may also appear in areas that do not usually get sun exposure. Thus, their development is multifactorial, comprising endogenous and exogenous risk factors. The management of skin cancer depends on the type; it is usually based on surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy. In this respect, oncological treatments have demonstrated some progress in the last years; however, current therapies still present various disadvantages such as little cell specificity, recurrent relapses, high toxicity, and increased costs. Furthermore, the pursuit of novel medications is expensive, and the authorization for their clinical utilization may take 10–15 years. Thus, repositioning of drugs previously approved and utilized for other diseases has emerged as an excellent alternative. In this mini-review, we aimed to provide an updated overview of drugs’ repurposing to treat skin cancer and discuss future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hernán Cortés
- Laboratorio de Medicina Genómica, Departamento de Genómica, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Octavio D Reyes-Hernández
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular del Cáncer, UMIEZ, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Zaragoza, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Sergio Alcalá-Alcalá
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Sergio A Bernal-Chávez
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Isaac H Caballero-Florán
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Maykel González-Torres
- CONACyT-Laboratorio de Biotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Javad Sharifi-Rad
- Phytochemistry Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Azuay, Cuenca, Ecuador
| | | | - Gabriela Figueroa-González
- Laboratorio de Farmacogenética, UMIEZ, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Zaragoza, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Gerardo Leyva-Gómez
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
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14
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Mary YS, Kumar VS, Mary YS, K. S. R, Thomas R. Detailed Quantum Mechanical Studies on Three Bioactive Benzimidazole Derivatives and Their Raman Enhancement on Adsorption over Graphene Sheets. Polycycl Aromat Compd 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10406638.2020.1852267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Y. Shyma Mary
- Department of Physics, Fatima Mata National College (Autonomous), Kollam, Kerala, India
| | - Veena S. Kumar
- Department of Physics, SN College, Kollam, Kerala, India
- Research Centre, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Y. Sheena Mary
- Department of Physics, Fatima Mata National College (Autonomous), Kollam, Kerala, India
| | - Resmi K. S.
- Department of Physics, Fatima Mata National College (Autonomous), Kollam, Kerala, India
| | - Renjith Thomas
- Department of Chemistry, St. Berchmans College (Autonomous), Changanassery, Kerala, India
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15
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Racoviceanu R, Trandafirescu C, Voicu M, Ghiulai R, Borcan F, Dehelean C, Watz C, Aigner Z, Ambrus R, Coricovac DE, Cîrcioban D, Mioc A, Szuhanek CA, Şoica C. Solid Polymeric Nanoparticles of Albendazole: Synthesis, Physico-Chemical Characterization and Biological Activity. Molecules 2020; 25:E5130. [PMID: 33158183 PMCID: PMC7663605 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25215130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Albendazole is a benzimidazole derivative with documented antitumor activity and low toxicity to healthy cells. The major disadvantage in terms of clinical use is its low aqueous solubility which limits its bioavailability. Albendazole was incorporated into stable and homogeneous polyurethane structures with the aim of obtaining an improved drug delivery system model. Spectral and thermal analysis was used to investigate the encapsulation process and confirmed the presence of albendazole inside the nanoparticles. The in vitro anticancer properties of albendazole encapsulated in polyurethane structures versus the un-encapsulated compound were tested on two breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, in terms of cellular viability and apoptosis induction. The study showed that the encapsulation process enhanced the antitumor activity of albendazole on the MCF-7 and MDA-MB-23 breast cancer lines. The cytotoxic activity manifested in a concentration-dependent manner and was accompanied by changes in cell morphology and nuclear fragmentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxana Racoviceanu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Sq., 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (R.R.); (C.T.); (C.Ş.)
| | - Cristina Trandafirescu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Sq., 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (R.R.); (C.T.); (C.Ş.)
| | - Mirela Voicu
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Sq., 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Roxana Ghiulai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Sq., 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (R.R.); (C.T.); (C.Ş.)
| | - Florin Borcan
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Sq., 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (F.B.); (D.C.)
| | - Cristina Dehelean
- Department of Toxicology, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Sq., 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (C.D.); (D.E.C.)
| | - Claudia Watz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Physics, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Sq., 300041 Timisoara, Romania;
| | - Zoltán Aigner
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology and Regulatory Affairs, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Szeged, 6th Eotvos Str., 6720 Szeged, Hungary; (Z.A.); (R.A.)
| | - Rita Ambrus
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology and Regulatory Affairs, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Szeged, 6th Eotvos Str., 6720 Szeged, Hungary; (Z.A.); (R.A.)
| | - Dorina Elena Coricovac
- Department of Toxicology, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Sq., 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (C.D.); (D.E.C.)
| | - Denisa Cîrcioban
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Sq., 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (F.B.); (D.C.)
| | - Alexandra Mioc
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Physiopathology, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Sq., 300041 Timisoara, Romania;
| | - Camelia Alexandrina Szuhanek
- Department of Orthodontics, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 9th Revolutiei din 1989 Bvd, 300041 Timisoara, Romania;
| | - Codruţa Şoica
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Sq., 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (R.R.); (C.T.); (C.Ş.)
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16
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Nath J, Paul R, Ghosh SK, Paul J, Singha B, Debnath N. Drug repurposing and relabeling for cancer therapy: Emerging benzimidazole antihelminthics with potent anticancer effects. Life Sci 2020; 258:118189. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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17
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Son DS, Lee ES, Adunyah SE. The Antitumor Potentials of Benzimidazole Anthelmintics as Repurposing Drugs. Immune Netw 2020; 20:e29. [PMID: 32895616 PMCID: PMC7458798 DOI: 10.4110/in.2020.20.e29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of refractory tumor cells limits therapeutic efficacy in cancer by activating mechanisms that promote cellular proliferation, migration, invasion, metastasis, and survival. Benzimidazole anthelmintics have broad-spectrum action to remove parasites both in human and veterinary medicine. In addition to being antiparasitic agents, benzimidazole anthelmintics are known to exert anticancer activities, such as the disruption of microtubule polymerization, the induction of apoptosis, cell cycle (G2/M) arrest, anti-angiogenesis, and blockage of glucose transport. These antitumorigenic effects even extend to cancer cells resistant to approved therapies and when in combination with conventional therapeutics, enhance anticancer efficacy and hold promise as adjuvants. Above all, these anthelmintics may offer a broad, safe spectrum to treat cancer, as demonstrated by their long history of use as antiparasitic agents. The present review summarizes central literature regarding the anticancer effects of benzimidazole anthelmintics, including albendazole, parbendazole, fenbendazole, mebendazole, oxibendazole, oxfendazole, ricobendazole, and flubendazole in cancer cell lines, animal tumor models, and clinical trials. This review provides valuable information on how to improve the quality of life in patients with cancers by increasing the treatment options and decreasing side effects from conventional therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deok-Soo Son
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Neurosciences and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA
| | - Eun-Sook Lee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL 32301, USA
| | - Samuel E Adunyah
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Neurosciences and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA
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18
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Rudolf K, Rudolf E. An analysis of mitotic catastrophe induced cell responses in melanoma cells exposed to flubendazole. Toxicol In Vitro 2020; 68:104930. [PMID: 32652169 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2020.104930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Mitotic catastrophe induced by mictotubule-targeting drugs such as benzimidazole carbamates has been demonstrated to be an efficient mechanism for suppression of tumor cells growth and proliferation, with variable resulting endpoints. The present study was designed to explore some of these endpoints; i.e. the apoptosis as well as autophagy and their related signaling in several stabilized cell lines as well as human explant melanoma cells treated with flubendazole (FLU). FLU-induced mitotic catastrophe resulted in mitochondrial and caspase-dependent apoptosis, which occurred at various rates in all treated cells during 96 h of treatment. The process was characterized by enhanced transcriptional activity of TP53 and NF-κB as well as upregulated Noxa expression. Also, inactivation of Bcl-2, BclXL and Mcl-1 proteins by JNK mediated phosphorylation was observed. Although increased autophagic activity took place in treated cells too, no discernible functional linkage with ongoing cell death process was evidenced. Together these results advance our evidence over the effectiveness of FLU cytotoxicity-related killing of melanoma cells while calling for more extensive testing of melanoma samples as a prerequisite of further preclinical evaluation of FLU antineoplastic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Rudolf
- Department of Medical Biology and Genetics, Charles University, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | - E Rudolf
- Department of Medical Biology and Genetics, Charles University, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Králové, Czech Republic.
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19
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Zhen Y, Zhao R, Wang M, Jiang X, Gao F, Fu L, Zhang L, Zhou XL. Flubendazole elicits anti-cancer effects via targeting EVA1A-modulated autophagy and apoptosis in Triple-negative Breast Cancer. Am J Cancer Res 2020; 10:8080-8097. [PMID: 32724459 PMCID: PMC7381743 DOI: 10.7150/thno.43473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is one of the most prevalent neoplastic diseases worldwide, but efficacious treatments for this pathological condition are still challenging. The lack of an effective targeted therapy also leads to a poor prognosis for patients affected by TNBC. In the present study, we repurposed the distinctive inhibitory effects of flubendazole, a traditional anthelmintic drug, towards the putative modulation of proliferation and migration of TNBC in vitro and in vivo. Methods: According to a series of experimental approaches, including immunofluorescence (IF), immunoblotting (IB), siRNA and GFP-mRFP-LC3 plasmid transfection, respectively, we have found that flubendazole is capable of inducing autophagic cell death and apoptosis, thus exerting some anti-proliferative and anti-migration activity in TNBC cells. The therapeutic effects of flubendazole were evaluated by xenograft mouse models, followed by immunohistochemistry (IHC), IF and IB. Changes in the gene expression profiles of flubendazole-treated TNBC cells were analyzed by RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and validated by IB. The potential binding mode of flubendazole and EVA1A was predicted by molecular docking and demonstrated by site-directed mutagenesis. Results: We have presently found that flubendazole exhibits a considerable anti-proliferative activity in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, the induction of autophagic cell death appears to be pivotal for flubendazole-mediated growth inhibition of TNBC cells, whereas blocking autophagy was able to improve the survival rate and migration ability of flubendazole-treated TNBC cells. Specifically, RNA-seq analysis showed that flubendazole treatment could promote the up-regulation of EVA1A. Flubendazole may regulate autophagy and apoptosis by targeting EVA1A, thus affecting the mechanisms of TNBC proliferation and migration. Furthermore, Thr113 may be the key amino acid residues for the binding of flubendazole to EVA1A. Conclusion: Our results provide novel insights towards the putative anti-cancer efficacy of flubendazole. Furthermore, here we show that flubendazole could serve as a potential therapeutic drug in TNBC. Altogether, this study highlights the possibility of this repurposed autophagic inducer for future cancer treatments.
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20
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Armando RG, Gómez DLM, Gomez DE. New drugs are not enough‑drug repositioning in oncology: An update. Int J Oncol 2020; 56:651-684. [PMID: 32124955 PMCID: PMC7010222 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2020.4966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug repositioning refers to the concept of discovering novel clinical benefits of drugs that are already known for use treating other diseases. The advantages of this are that several important drug characteristics are already established (including efficacy, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and toxicity), making the process of research for a putative drug quicker and less costly. Drug repositioning in oncology has received extensive focus. The present review summarizes the most prominent examples of drug repositioning for the treatment of cancer, taking into consideration their primary use, proposed anticancer mechanisms and current development status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romina Gabriela Armando
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Science and Technology Department, National University of Quilmes, Bernal B1876, Argentina
| | - Diego Luis Mengual Gómez
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Science and Technology Department, National University of Quilmes, Bernal B1876, Argentina
| | - Daniel Eduardo Gomez
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Science and Technology Department, National University of Quilmes, Bernal B1876, Argentina
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21
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Florio R, Veschi S, di Giacomo V, Pagotto S, Carradori S, Verginelli F, Cirilli R, Casulli A, Grassadonia A, Tinari N, Cataldi A, Amoroso R, Cama A, De Lellis L. The Benzimidazole-Based Anthelmintic Parbendazole: A Repurposed Drug Candidate That Synergizes with Gemcitabine in Pancreatic Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11122042. [PMID: 31861153 PMCID: PMC6966614 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11122042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer (PC) is one of the most lethal, chemoresistant malignancies and it is of paramount importance to find more effective therapeutic agents. Repurposing of non-anticancer drugs may expand the repertoire of effective molecules. Studies on repurposing of benzimidazole-based anthelmintics in PC and on their interaction with agents approved for PC therapy are lacking. We analyzed the effects of four Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved benzimidazoles on AsPC-1 and Capan-2 pancreatic cancer cell line viability. Notably, parbendazole was the most potent benzimidazole affecting PC cell viability, with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values in the nanomolar range. The drug markedly inhibited proliferation, clonogenicity and migration of PC cell lines through mechanisms involving alteration of microtubule organization and formation of irregular mitotic spindles. Moreover, parbendazole interfered with cell cycle progression promoting G2/M arrest, followed by the emergence of enlarged, polyploid cells. These abnormalities, suggesting a mitotic catastrophe, culminated in PC cell apoptosis, are also associated with DNA damage in PC cell lines. Remarkably, combinations of parbendazole with gemcitabine, a drug employed as first-line treatment in PC, synergistically decreased PC cell viability. In conclusion, this is the first study providing evidence that parbendazole as a single agent, or in combination with gemcitabine, is a repurposing candidate in the currently dismal PC therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalba Florio
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (V.d.G.); (F.V.); (A.C.); (R.A.); (L.D.L.)
| | - Serena Veschi
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (V.d.G.); (F.V.); (A.C.); (R.A.); (L.D.L.)
| | - Viviana di Giacomo
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (V.d.G.); (F.V.); (A.C.); (R.A.); (L.D.L.)
| | - Sara Pagotto
- Department of Medical, Oral and Biotechnological Sciences, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (S.P.); (A.G.); (N.T.)
- Center for Advanced Studies and Technology (CAST), University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Simone Carradori
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (V.d.G.); (F.V.); (A.C.); (R.A.); (L.D.L.)
- Correspondence: (S.C.); (A.C.); Tel.: +39-0871-3554583 (S.C.); +39-0871-3554559 (A.C.)
| | - Fabio Verginelli
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (V.d.G.); (F.V.); (A.C.); (R.A.); (L.D.L.)
- Center for Advanced Studies and Technology (CAST), University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Roberto Cirilli
- Centro nazionale per il controllo e la valutazione dei farmaci, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Adriano Casulli
- WHO Collaborating Centre for the Epidemiology, Detection and Control of Cystic and Alveolar Echinococcosis (in Animals and Humans), Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), 00161 Rome, Italy;
- European Union Reference Laboratory for Parasites, Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS), 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Antonino Grassadonia
- Department of Medical, Oral and Biotechnological Sciences, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (S.P.); (A.G.); (N.T.)
- Center for Advanced Studies and Technology (CAST), University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Nicola Tinari
- Department of Medical, Oral and Biotechnological Sciences, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (S.P.); (A.G.); (N.T.)
- Center for Advanced Studies and Technology (CAST), University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Amelia Cataldi
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (V.d.G.); (F.V.); (A.C.); (R.A.); (L.D.L.)
| | - Rosa Amoroso
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (V.d.G.); (F.V.); (A.C.); (R.A.); (L.D.L.)
| | - Alessandro Cama
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (V.d.G.); (F.V.); (A.C.); (R.A.); (L.D.L.)
- Center for Advanced Studies and Technology (CAST), University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
- Correspondence: (S.C.); (A.C.); Tel.: +39-0871-3554583 (S.C.); +39-0871-3554559 (A.C.)
| | - Laura De Lellis
- Department of Pharmacy, G. d’Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy; (R.F.); (S.V.); (V.d.G.); (F.V.); (A.C.); (R.A.); (L.D.L.)
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22
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Benzimidazoles Downregulate Mdm2 and MdmX and Activate p53 in MdmX Overexpressing Tumor Cells. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24112152. [PMID: 31181622 PMCID: PMC6600429 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24112152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor suppressor p53 is mutated in about 50% of cancers. Most malignant melanomas carry wild-type p53, but p53 activity is often inhibited due to overexpression of its negative regulators Mdm2 or MdmX. We performed high throughput screening of 2448 compounds on A375 cells carrying p53 activity luciferase reporter construct to reveal compounds that promote p53 activity in melanoma. Albendazole and fenbendazole, two approved and commonly used benzimidazole anthelmintics, stimulated p53 activity and were selected for further studies. The protein levels of p53 and p21 increased upon the treatment with albendazole and fenbendazole, indicating activation of the p53–p21 pathway, while the levels of Mdm2 and MdmX decreased in melanoma and breast cancer cells overexpressing these proteins. We also observed a reduction of cell viability and changes of cellular morphology corresponding to mitotic catastrophe, i.e., G2/M cell cycle arrest of large multinucleated cells with disrupted microtubules. In summary, we established a new tool for testing the impact of small molecule compounds on the activity of p53 and used it to identify the action of benzimidazoles in melanoma cells. The drugs promoted the stability and transcriptional activity of wild-type p53 via downregulation of its negative regulators Mdm2 and MdmX in cells overexpressing these proteins. The results indicate the potential for repurposing the benzimidazole anthelmintics for the treatment of cancers overexpressing p53 negative regulators.
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23
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Kubíček V, Skálová L, Skarka A, Králová V, Holubová J, Štěpánková J, Šubrt Z, Szotáková B. Carbonyl Reduction of Flubendazole in the Human Liver: Strict Stereospecificity, Sex Difference, Low Risk of Drug Interactions. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:600. [PMID: 31191322 PMCID: PMC6546852 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Flubendazole (FLU), an anthelmintic drug of benzimidazole type, is now considered a promising anti-cancer agent due to its tubulin binding ability and low system toxicity. The present study was aimed at determining more information about FLU reduction in human liver, because this information has been insufficient until now. Subcellular fractions from the liver of 12 human patients (6 male and 6 female patients) were used to study the stereospecificity, cellular localization, coenzyme preference, enzyme kinetics, and possible inter-individual or sex differences in FLU reduction. In addition, the risk of FLU interaction with other drugs was evaluated. Our study showed that FLU is predominantly reduced in cytosol, and the reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) coenzyme is preferred. The strict stereospecificity of FLU carbonyl reduction was proven, and carbonyl reductase 1 was identified as the main enzyme of FLU reduction in the human liver. A higher reduction of FLU and a higher level of carbonyl reductase 1 protein were found in male patients than in female patients, but overall inter-individual variability was relatively low. Hepatic intrinsic clearance of FLU is very low, and FLU had no effect on doxorubicin carbonyl reduction in the liver and in cancer cells. All these results fill the gaps in the knowledge of FLU metabolism in human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimír Kubíček
- Department of Biophysics and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czechia
| | - Lenka Skálová
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czechia
| | - Adam Skarka
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Králové, Hradec Králové, Czechia
| | - Věra Králová
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czechia
| | - Jana Holubová
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czechia
| | - Jana Štěpánková
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czechia
| | - Zdeněk Šubrt
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czechia.,Department of Surgery, University Hospital Hradec Králové, Hradec Králové, Czechia
| | - Barbora Szotáková
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czechia
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24
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Li Y, Acharya G, Elahy M, Xin H, Khachigian LM. The anthelmintic flubendazole blocks human melanoma growth and metastasis and suppresses programmed cell death protein-1 and myeloid-derived suppressor cell accumulation. Cancer Lett 2019; 459:268-276. [PMID: 31128215 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2019.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of melanoma is increasing faster than any other cancer. In recent years, treatment of melanoma and a range of other deadly cancers has involved immunotherapy with programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1)/PD-1 ligand (PD-L1) checkpoint blockade which has improved survival. However, many patients do not respond or have partial response, survival benefit is in the order of months and all available PD-1/PD-L1 strategies are antibodies requiring intravenous infusion. There are no clinically approved small molecule pharmacologic inhibitors of the PD-1/PD-L1 system. The benzimidazole derivative flubendazole is a widely used anthelmintic available over the counter in Europe. Here we demonstrate the ability of flubendazole to inhibit human melanoma growth and spread in mice. Flubendazole's ability to block tumor growth and spread was comparable to paclitaxel. Anti-tumor effects were observed when flubendazole was delivered systemically not locally. Flubendazole inhibited CD31/PECAM-1 staining indicating suppression of tumor angiogenesis. Most surprisingly, flubendazole inhibited PD-1 levels within the tumors, but not PD-L1. Western blotting and flow cytometry revealed that flubendazole inhibits PD-1 expression in cultured melanoma cells. Flubendazole also reduced myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) levels in tumor tissue. Further we found that flubendazole inhibited active (phospho-Tyr705) signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT3), an upstream regulator of PD-1 expression. These findings uncover that flubendazole is a novel small molecule inhibitor of not only melanoma growth and spread but also of PD-1 and MDSC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Li
- Vascular Biology and Translational Research, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Grishma Acharya
- Explora BioLabs, Flintkote Avenue, San Diego, CA, 92121, USA
| | - Mina Elahy
- Vascular Biology and Translational Research, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Hong Xin
- Explora BioLabs, Flintkote Avenue, San Diego, CA, 92121, USA
| | - Levon M Khachigian
- Vascular Biology and Translational Research, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia.
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25
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Teras M, Viisileht E, Pahtma-Hall M, Rump A, Paalme V, Pata P, Pata I, Langevin C, Rüütel Boudinot S. Porcine circovirus type 2 ORF3 protein induces apoptosis in melanoma cells. BMC Cancer 2018; 18:1237. [PMID: 30526524 PMCID: PMC6288936 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-018-5090-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The current treatment of malignant melanoma is limited by the lack of effective therapeutic approaches, and alternative treatments are needed. Proliferative diseases such as melanoma and other cancers may be treatable by virally-encoded apoptotic proteins that are targeted to rapidly multiplying cells. Caspase-dependent apoptosis, that is frequently used in chemotherapy, can boost the cell proliferation that caspase-independent cell death does not. METHODS In the current study, the porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), proapoptotic protein ORF3 was expressed in mouse and human cancer cell lines, and its apoptotic activity was assessed. RESULTS Quantitative assessment of the apoptotic cells by flow cytometry showed that apoptotic cell death was significantly increased in ORF3-expressing malignant cells, compared to ORF3 non-expressing cells. Our data show that PCV2 ORF3 induces apoptosis in a caspase-3 and -8 independent manner. ORF3 expression seems to cause an increase in abnormal mitosis in B16F10 melanoma cells by interacting with centrosomes and thereby disrupting the formation of the mitotic spindle. In addition, we show that ORF3 of PCV2 also exhibits significant anti-tumor effects in vivo. Although the expression of Regulator of G protein Signaling (RGS)-16 by recipient mice inhibited the development of grafted melanoma in vivo, it was not required for the antitumoral activity of ORF3. CONCLUSION PCV2 ORF3 causes abnormal mitosis in rapidly dividing cells and increases the apoptosis of cancer cells. Apoptin might, therefore, be considered to develop future antitumoral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Teras
- Oncology, North Estonia Medical Centre, 19 J. Sütiste tee st, 13419 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Edda Viisileht
- Oncology, North Estonia Medical Centre, 19 J. Sütiste tee st, 13419 Tallinn, Estonia
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, 15 Akadeemia St, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Merlis Pahtma-Hall
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, 15 Akadeemia St, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Airi Rump
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, 15 Akadeemia St, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Viiu Paalme
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, 15 Akadeemia St, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Pille Pata
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, 15 Akadeemia St, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Illar Pata
- IVEX Lab OU, 15 Akadeemia St, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Christelle Langevin
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Sirje Rüütel Boudinot
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, 15 Akadeemia St, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
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