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Kaewchot S, Tangsudjai S, Sariya L, Mongkolphan C, Saechin A, Sariwongchan R, Panpeth N, Thongsahuan S, Suksai P. Zoonotic pathogens survey in free-living long-tailed macaques in Thailand. Int J Vet Sci Med 2022; 10:11-18. [PMID: 35291581 PMCID: PMC8890534 DOI: 10.1080/23144599.2022.2040176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) are known to harbour a variety of infectious pathogens, including zoonotic species. Long-tailed macaques and humans coexist in Thailand, which creates potential for interspecies pathogen transmission. This study was conducted to assess the presence of B virus, Mycobacterium spp., simian foamy virus (SFV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and Plasmodium spp. in 649 free-living Thai long-tailed macaques through polymerase-chain reaction. DNA of SFV (56.5%), HBV (0.3%), and Plasmodium spp. (2.2%) was detected in these macaques, whereas DNA of B virus and Mycobacterium spp. was absent. SFV infection in long-tailed macaques is broadly distributed in Thailand and is correlated with age. The HBV sequences in this study were similar to HBV sequences from orangutans. Plasmodium spp. DNA was identified as P. inui. Collectively, our results indicate that macaques can carry zoonotic pathogens, which have a public health impact. Surveillance and awareness of pathogen transmission between monkeys and humans are important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Supakarn Kaewchot
- Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Siriporn Tangsudjai
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | - Ladawan Sariya
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | - Chalisa Mongkolphan
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | - Aeknarin Saechin
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | - Rattana Sariwongchan
- Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Natanon Panpeth
- Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Parut Suksai
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
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Voinson M, Nunn CL, Goldberg A. Primate malarias as a model for cross-species parasite transmission. eLife 2022; 11:e69628. [PMID: 35086643 PMCID: PMC8798051 DOI: 10.7554/elife.69628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasites regularly switch into new host species, representing a disease burden and conservation risk to the hosts. The distribution of these parasites also gives insight into characteristics of ecological networks and genetic mechanisms of host-parasite interactions. Some parasites are shared across many species, whereas others tend to be restricted to hosts from a single species. Understanding the mechanisms producing this distribution of host specificity can enable more effective interventions and potentially identify genetic targets for vaccines or therapies. As ecological connections between human and local animal populations increase, the risk to human and wildlife health from novel parasites also increases. Which of these parasites will fizzle out and which have the potential to become widespread in humans? We consider the case of primate malarias, caused by Plasmodium parasites, to investigate the interacting ecological and evolutionary mechanisms that put human and nonhuman primates at risk for infection. Plasmodium host switching from nonhuman primates to humans led to ancient introductions of the most common malaria-causing agents in humans today, and new parasite switching is a growing threat, especially in Asia and South America. Based on a wild host-Plasmodium occurrence database, we highlight geographic areas of concern and potential areas to target further sampling. We also discuss methodological developments that will facilitate clinical and field-based interventions to improve human and wildlife health based on this eco-evolutionary perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Voinson
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
| | - Charles L Nunn
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
- Duke Global Health, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
| | - Amy Goldberg
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
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3
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Progress in understanding the phylogeny of the Plasmodium vivax lineage. Parasitol Int 2021; 87:102507. [PMID: 34781012 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2021.102507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
There has been some controversy about the evolutionary origin of Plasmodium vivax, particularly whether it is of Asian or African origin. Recently, a new malaria species which closely related to ape P. vivax was found in chimpanzees, in addition, the host switches of P. vivax from ape to human was confirmed. These findings support the African origin of P. vivax. Previous phylogenetic analyses have shown the position of P. vivax within the Asian primate malaria parasite clade. This suggested an Asian origin of P. vivax. Recent analyses using massive gene data, however, positioned P. vivax after the branching of the African Old World monkey parasite P. gonderi, and before the branching of the common ancestor of Asian primate malaria parasites. This position is consistent with an African origin of P. vivax. We here review the history of phylogenetic analyses on P. vivax, validate previous analyses, and finally present a definitive analysis using currently available data that indicate a tree in which P. vivax is positioned at the base of the Asian primate malaria parasite clade, and thus that is consistent with an African origin of P. vivax.
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Cuenca PR, Key S, Jumail A, Surendra H, Ferguson HM, Drakeley CJ, Fornace K. Epidemiology of the zoonotic malaria Plasmodium knowlesi in changing landscapes. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2021; 113:225-286. [PMID: 34620384 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2021.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Within the past two decades, incidence of human cases of the zoonotic malaria Plasmodium knowlesi has increased markedly. P. knowlesi is now the most common cause of human malaria in Malaysia and threatens to undermine malaria control programmes across Southeast Asia. The emergence of zoonotic malaria corresponds to a period of rapid deforestation within this region. These environmental changes impact the distribution and behaviour of the simian hosts, mosquito vector species and human populations, creating new opportunities for P. knowlesi transmission. Here, we review how landscape changes can drive zoonotic disease emergence, examine the extent and causes of these changes across Southeast and identify how these mechanisms may be impacting P. knowlesi dynamics. We review the current spatial epidemiology of reported P. knowlesi infections in people and assess how these demographic and environmental changes may lead to changes in transmission patterns. Finally, we identify opportunities to improve P. knowlesi surveillance and develop targeted ecological interventions within these landscapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Ruiz Cuenca
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Stephanie Key
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Henry Surendra
- Eijkman-Oxford Clinical Research Unit, Jakarta, Indonesia; Centre for Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Heather M Ferguson
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Chris J Drakeley
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kimberly Fornace
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom.
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Chin AZ, Avoi R, Atil A, Awang Lukman K, Syed Abdul Rahim SS, Ibrahim MY, Ahmed K, Jeffree MS. Risk factor of plasmodium knowlesi infection in Sabah Borneo Malaysia, 2020: A population-based case-control study. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0257104. [PMID: 34506556 PMCID: PMC8432820 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0257104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the Malaysian state of Sabah, P. knowlesi notifications increased from 2% (59/2,741) of total malaria notifications in 2004 to 98% (2030/2,078) in 2017. There was a gap regarding P. knowlesi acquisition risk factors related to practice specifically in working age group. The main objective of this study was to identify the risk factors for acquiring P. knowlesi infection in Sabah among the working age group. METHODS AND METHODS This retrospective population-based case-control study was conducted in Ranau district to assess sociodemographic, behavioural and medical history risk factors using a pretested questionnaire. The data were entered and analyzed using IBM SPSS version 23. Bivariate analysis was conducted using binary logistic regression whereas multivariate analysis was conducted using multivariable logistic regression. We set a statistical significance at p-value less than or equal to 0.05. RESULTS A total of 266 cases and 532 controls were included in the study. Male gender (AOR = 2.71; 95% CI: 1.63-4.50), spending overnight in forest (AOR = 1.92; 95% CI: 1.20-3.06), not using mosquito repellent (AOR = 2.49; 95% CI: 1.36-4.56) and history of previous malaria infection (AOR = 49.34; 95% CI: 39.09-78.32) were found to be independent predictors of P. knowlesi infection. CONCLUSIONS This study showed the need to strengthen the strategies in preventing and controlling P. knowlesi infection specifically in changing the practice of spending overnight in forest and increasing the usage of personal mosquito repellent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abraham Zefong Chin
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Public Health Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Richard Avoi
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Public Health Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Azman Atil
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Public Health Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Community Health, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, Jalan Yaacob Latiff, Bandar Tun Razak, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Khamisah Awang Lukman
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Public Health Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Syed Sharizman Syed Abdul Rahim
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Public Health Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Yusof Ibrahim
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Public Health Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Kamruddin Ahmed
- Borneo Medical and Health Research Centre, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Mohammad Saffree Jeffree
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Public Health Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
- Borneo Medical and Health Research Centre, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
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Rondón S, León C, Link A, González C. Prevalence of Plasmodium parasites in non-human primates and mosquitoes in areas with different degrees of fragmentation in Colombia. Malar J 2019; 18:276. [PMID: 31426810 PMCID: PMC6700793 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-019-2910-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parasites from the genus Plasmodium, the aetiological agent of malaria in humans, can also infect non-human primates (NHP), increasing the potential risk of zoonotic transmission with its associated global public health concerns. In Colombia, there are no recent studies on Plasmodium spp. infecting free-ranging NHP. Thus, this study aimed to determine the diversity of Plasmodium species circulating in fragmented forests in central Colombia, both in Anopheles mosquitoes and in the four sympatric NHP in the region (Ateles hybridus, Cebus versicolor, Alouatta seniculus and Aotus griseimembra), in order to evaluate the risk of infection to humans associated with the presence of sylvatic hosts and vectors infected with Plasmodium spp. METHODS Overall, there were collected 166 fecal samples and 25 blood samples from NHP, and 442 individuals of Anopheles spp. DNA extraction, nested PCR using mitochondrial (cox3 gene) and ribosomal (18S rDNA) primers, electrophoresis and sequencing were conducted in order to identify Plasmodium spp. from the samples. RESULTS Plasmodium falciparum was detected in two fecal samples of Alouatta seniculus, while Plasmodium vivax/simium infected Ateles hybridus, Cebus versicolor and Alouatta seniculus. Co-infections with P. vivax/simium and Plasmodium malariae/brasilianum were found in three individuals. The highest prevalence from blood samples was found for Plasmodium malariae/brasilianum in two Alouatta seniculus while Plasmodium vivax/simium was most prevalent in fecal samples, infecting four individuals of Alouatta seniculus. Seven Anopheles species were identified in the study site: Anopheles (Anopheles) punctimacula, Anopheles (An.) malefactor, Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) oswaldoi, Anopheles (Nys.) triannulatus, Anopheles (An.) neomaculipalpus, Anopheles (Nys.) braziliensis and Anopheles (Nys.) nuneztovari. Infection with P. vivax/simium was found in An. nuneztovari, An. neomaculipalpus, and An. triannulatus. Furthermore, An. oswaldoi and An. triannulatus were found infected with P. malariae/brasilianum. The effect of fragmentation and distance to the nearest town measured in five forests with different degrees of fragmentation was not statistically significant on the prevalence of Plasmodium in NHP, but forest fragmentation did have an effect on the Minimum Infection Rate (MIR) in Anopheles mosquitoes. CONCLUSIONS The presence of Plasmodium spp. in NHP and Anopheles spp. in fragmented forests in Colombia has important epidemiological implications in the human-NHP interface and the associated risk of malaria transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Rondón
- Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Tropical, CIMPAT, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de los Andes, Cra. 1 N° 18ª-12, Bogotá, Colombia.
| | - Cielo León
- Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Tropical, CIMPAT, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de los Andes, Cra. 1 N° 18ª-12, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Andrés Link
- Laboratorio de Ecología de Bosques Tropicales y Primatología, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Los Andes, Cra. 1 N° 18ª-12, Bogotá, Colombia
- Fundación Proyecto Primates, Cra. 11a N° 91-55, Apartamento 202, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Camila González
- Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Tropical, CIMPAT, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de los Andes, Cra. 1 N° 18ª-12, Bogotá, Colombia
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Gamalo LE, Dimalibot J, Kadir KA, Singh B, Paller VG. Plasmodium knowlesi and other malaria parasites in long-tailed macaques from the Philippines. Malar J 2019; 18:147. [PMID: 31014342 PMCID: PMC6480513 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-019-2780-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Macaca fascicularis (long-tailed macaque) is the most widespread species of macaque in Southeast Asia and the only species of monkey found naturally in the Philippines. The species is the natural host for the zoonotic malaria species, Plasmodium knowlesi and Plasmodium cynomolgi and for the potentially zoonotic species, Plasmodium inui. Moreover, other Plasmodium species such as Plasmodium coatneyi and Plasmodium fieldi are also natural parasites of M. fascicularis. The aims of this study were to identify and determine the prevalence of Plasmodium species infecting wild and captive long-tailed macaques from the Philippines. Methods A total of 95 blood samples from long-tailed macaques in the Philippines were collected from three locations; 30 were from captive macaques at the National Wildlife Rescue and Rehabilitation Center (NWRRC) in Luzon, 25 were from captive macaques at the Palawan Wildlife Rescue and Conservation Center (PWRCC) in Palawan and 40 were from wild macaques from Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park (PPSRNP) in Palawan. The Plasmodium spp. infecting the macaques were identified using nested PCR assays on DNA extracted from these blood samples. Results All 40 of the wild macaques from PPSRNP in Palawan and 5 of 25 captive macaques from PWRCC in Palawan were Plasmodium-positive; while none of the 30 captive macaques from the NWRRC in Luzon had any malaria parasites. Overall, P. inui was the most prevalent malaria parasite (44.2%), followed by P. fieldi (41.1%), P. cynomolgi (23.2%), P. coatneyi (21.1%), and P. knowlesi (19%). Mixed species infections were also observed in 39 of the 45 Plasmodium-positive macaques. There was a significant difference in the prevalence of P. knowlesi among the troops of wild macaques from PPSRNP. Conclusion Wild long-tailed macaques from the island of Palawan, the Philippines are infected with P. knowlesi, P. inui, P. coatneyi, P. fieldi and P. cynomolgi. The prevalence of these Plasmodium spp. varied among the sites of collection and among troops of wild macaques at one site. The presence of these simian Plasmodium parasites, especially P. knowlesi and P. cynomolgi in the long-tailed macaques in Palawan presents risks for zoonotic transmission in the area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lief Erikson Gamalo
- Animal Biology Division, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of the Philippines Los, Baños, 4031, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.,Department of Biological Sciences and Environmental Studies, University of the Philippines Mindanao, Tugbok District, Mintal, 8000, Davao City, Philippines
| | - Judeline Dimalibot
- Animal Biology Division, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of the Philippines Los, Baños, 4031, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
| | - Khamisah Abdul Kadir
- Malaria Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Balbir Singh
- Malaria Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.
| | - Vachel Gay Paller
- Animal Biology Division, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of the Philippines Los, Baños, 4031, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.
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Davidson G, Chua TH, Cook A, Speldewinde P, Weinstein P. Defining the ecological and evolutionary drivers of Plasmodium knowlesi transmission within a multi-scale framework. Malar J 2019; 18:66. [PMID: 30849978 PMCID: PMC6408765 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-019-2693-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium knowlesi is a zoonotic malaria parasite normally residing in long-tailed and pig-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis and Macaca nemestrina, respectively) found throughout Southeast Asia. Recently, knowlesi malaria has become the predominant malaria affecting humans in Malaysian Borneo, being responsible for approximately 70% of reported cases. Largely as a result of anthropogenic land use changes in Borneo, vectors which transmit the parasite, along with macaque hosts, are both now frequently found in disturbed forest habitats, or at the forest fringes, thus having more frequent contact with humans. Having access to human hosts provides the parasite with the opportunity to further its adaption to the human immune system. The ecological drivers of the transmission and spread of P. knowlesi are operating over many different spatial (and, therefore, temporal) scales, from the molecular to the continental. Strategies to prevent and manage zoonoses, such as P. knowlesi malaria require interdisciplinary research exploring the impact of land use change and biodiversity loss on the evolving relationship between parasite, reservoir hosts, vectors, and humans over multiple spatial scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gael Davidson
- School of Agriculture and Environment, University of Western Australia, Stirling Terrace, Albany, WA, 6330, Australia. .,School of Population and Global Health, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.
| | - Tock H Chua
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Angus Cook
- School of Population and Global Health, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Peter Speldewinde
- School of Agriculture and Environment, University of Western Australia, Stirling Terrace, Albany, WA, 6330, Australia
| | - Philip Weinstein
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
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Dixit J, Zachariah A, P. K. S, Chandramohan B, Shanmuganatham V, Karanth KP. Reinvestigating the status of malaria parasite (Plasmodium sp.) in Indian non-human primates. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006801. [PMID: 30521518 PMCID: PMC6298686 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Many human parasites and pathogens have closely related counterparts among non-human primates. For example, non-human primates harbour several species of malaria causing parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Studies suggest that for a better understanding of the origin and evolution of human malaria parasites it is important to know the diversity and evolutionary relationships of these parasites in non-human primates. Much work has been undertaken on malaria parasites in wild great Apes of Africa as well as wild monkeys of Southeast Asia however studies are lacking from South Asia, particularly India. India is one of the major malaria prone regions in the world and exhibits high primate diversity which in turn provides ideal setting for both zoonoses and anthropozoonoses. In this study we report the molecular data for malaria parasites from wild populations of Indian non-human primates. We surveyed 349 fecal samples from five different Indian non-human primates, while 94 blood and tissue samples from one of the Indian non-human primate species (Macaca radiata) and one blood sample from M. mulatta. Our results confirm the presence of P. fragile, P. inui and P. cynomolgi in Macaca radiata. Additionally, we report for the first time the presence of human malarial parasite, P. falciparum, in M. mulatta and M. radiata. Additionally, our results indicate that M. radiata does not exhibit population structure probably due to human mediated translocation of problem monkeys. Human mediated transport of macaques adds an additional level of complexity to tacking malaria in human. This issue has implications for both the spread of primate as well as human specific malarias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyotsana Dixit
- TE-11, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore, India
- * E-mail: ,
| | - Arun Zachariah
- Department of Forests and Wildlife, Sulthan Batheri, Wayanad District, Kerala State, India
| | - Sajesh P. K.
- Scigenom Research Foundation, Cochin, Kerala, India
| | - Bathrachalam Chandramohan
- School of Biological Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha, India
| | - Vinoth Shanmuganatham
- TE-11, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore, India
| | - K. Praveen Karanth
- TE-11, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore, India
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Figueiredo MAP, Di Santi SM, Manrique WG, André MR, Machado RZ. Serological and molecular techniques applied for identification of Plasmodium spp. in blood samples from nonhuman primates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 27:363-376. [PMID: 30066720 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-296120180043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to identify Plasmodium spp. in blood samples from nonhuman primates (NHPs) in the state of Maranhão, using classical and alternative techniques for examination of human malaria. A total of 161 blood samples from NHPs were analyzed: 141 from captive animals at a Wildlife Screening Center (CETAS) and 20 from free-living animals in a private reserve. The techniques used were microscopy, rapid diagnostic test (RDT), Indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and molecular techniques (semi-nested PCR, quantitative real-time PCR and LAMP). Two serological methods (dot-ELISA and indirect ELISA) were also standardized with rhoptry protein-soluble antigen of P. falciparum and P. berghei. Trophozoite forms of Plasmodium sp. were identified on slides from five different animals. No samples were positive through RDT and LAMP. Four samples were seropositive for P. malariae through IFAT. The samples showed low reactivity to ELISA. Plasmodium sp. was detected in 34.16% (55/161) of the samples using qPCR based on the 18S rRNA gene. After sequencing, two samples showed 100% identityl to P. malariae, one showed 97% identity to Plasmodium sp. ZOOBH and one showed 99% identity to P. falciparum . PCR was shown to be the most sensitive technique for diagnosing Plasmodium in NHP samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayra Araguaia Pereira Figueiredo
- Laboratório de Parasitologia Animal, Curso de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Rondônia - UNIR, Rolim de Moura, RO, Brasil
| | - Silvia Maria Di Santi
- Centro de Estudos da Malária, Superintendência de Controle de Endemias - SUCEN, São Paulo, SP, Brasil.,Departamento de Saúde do Estado de São Paulo, Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo - IMTSP, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Wilson Gómez Manrique
- Laboratório de Patologia Veterinária, Curso de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Rondônia - UNIR, Rolim de Moura, RO, Brasil
| | - Marcos Rogério André
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias - FCAV, Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP, Jaboticabal, SP, Brasil
| | - Rosangela Zacarias Machado
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias - FCAV, Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP, Jaboticabal, SP, Brasil
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11
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Smith ML, Styczynski MP. Systems Biology-Based Investigation of Host-Plasmodium Interactions. Trends Parasitol 2018; 34:617-632. [PMID: 29779985 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2018.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a serious, complex disease caused by parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Plasmodium parasites affect multiple tissues as they evade immune responses, replicate, sexually reproduce, and transmit between vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. The explosion of omics technologies has enabled large-scale collection of Plasmodium infection data, revealing systems-scale patterns, mechanisms of pathogenesis, and the ways that host and pathogen affect each other. Here, we provide an overview of recent efforts using systems biology approaches to study host-Plasmodium interactions and the biological themes that have emerged from these efforts. We discuss some of the challenges in using systems biology for this goal, key research efforts needed to address those issues, and promising future malaria applications of systems biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maren L Smith
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; Malaria Host-Pathogen Interaction Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Mark P Styczynski
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; Malaria Host-Pathogen Interaction Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Komaki-Yasuda K, Vincent JP, Nakatsu M, Kato Y, Ohmagari N, Kano S. A novel PCR-based system for the detection of four species of human malaria parasites and Plasmodium knowlesi. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0191886. [PMID: 29370297 PMCID: PMC5785027 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A microscopy-based diagnosis is the gold standard for the detection and identification of malaria parasites in a patient’s blood. However, the detection of cases involving a low number of parasites and the differentiation of species sometimes requires a skilled microscopist. Although PCR-based diagnostic methods are already known to be very powerful tools, the time required to apply such methods is still much longer in comparison to traditional microscopic observation. Thus, improvements to PCR systems are sought to facilitate the more rapid and accurate detection of human malaria parasites Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, and P. malariae, as well as P. knowlesi, which is a simian malaria parasite that is currently widely distributed in Southeast Asia. A nested PCR that targets the small subunit ribosomal RNA genes of malaria parasites was performed using a “fast PCR enzyme”. In the first PCR, universal primers for all parasite species were used. In the second PCR, inner-specific primers, which targeted sequences from P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi, were used. The PCR reaction time was reduced with the use of the “fast PCR enzyme”, with only 65 minutes required to perform the first and second PCRs. The specific primers only reacted with the sequences of their targeted parasite species and never cross-reacted with sequences from other species under the defined PCR conditions. The diagnoses of 36 clinical samples that were obtained using this new PCR system were highly consistent with the microscopic diagnoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanako Komaki-Yasuda
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Malaria, Research Institute, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, 1-21-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jeanne Perpétue Vincent
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Malaria, Research Institute, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, 1-21-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Masami Nakatsu
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Malaria, Research Institute, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, 1-21-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Kato
- Disease Control and Prevention Center of National Center for Global Health and Medicine, 1-21-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Norio Ohmagari
- Disease Control and Prevention Center of National Center for Global Health and Medicine, 1-21-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shigeyuki Kano
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Malaria, Research Institute, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, 1-21-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
- * E-mail:
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Verhulst NO, Umanets A, Weldegergis BT, Maas JPA, Visser TM, Dicke M, Smidt H, Takken W. Do apes smell like humans? The role of skin bacteria and volatiles of primates in mosquito host selection. J Exp Biol 2018; 221:jeb.185959. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.185959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Anthropophilic mosquitoes are effective vectors of human diseases because of their biting preference. To find their host, these mosquitoes are guided by human odours, primarily produced by human skin bacteria. By analysing the skin bacterial and skin volatile profiles of humans, bonobos, chimpanzees, gorillas, lemurs and cows, we investigated whether primates that are more closely related to humans have a skin bacterial community and odour profile that is similar to humans. We then investigated whether this affected discrimination between humans and closely related primates by anthropophilic and zoophilic mosquitoes that search for hosts. Humans had a lower skin bacterial diversity than the other animals and their skin bacterial composition was more similar to the other primates than to the skin bacterial composition of cows. Like the skin bacterial profiles, the volatile profiles of the animal groups were clearly different from each other. The cow and lemur volatile profiles were more closely related to the human profiles than expected. Human volatiles were indeed preferred above cow volatiles by anthropophilic mosquitoes and no preference was observed when tested against non-human primate odour, except for bonobo volatiles that were preferred over human volatiles. Unravelling the differences between mosquito hosts and their effect on host selection is important for a better understanding of cross-species transmission of vector-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niels O. Verhulst
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
- National Centre for Vector Entomology, Institute of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Science (Vetsuisse), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alexander Umanets
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 8033, 6700 EH, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Berhane T. Weldegergis
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen P. A. Maas
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Tessa M. Visser
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Marcel Dicke
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Hauke Smidt
- National Centre for Vector Entomology, Institute of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Science (Vetsuisse), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Willem Takken
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
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Lim C, Dankwa S, Paul AS, Duraisingh MT. Host Cell Tropism and Adaptation of Blood-Stage Malaria Parasites: Challenges for Malaria Elimination. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2017; 7:a025494. [PMID: 28213436 PMCID: PMC5666624 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a025494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax account for most of the mortality and morbidity associated with malaria in humans. Research and control efforts have focused on infections caused by P. falciparum and P. vivax, but have neglected other malaria parasite species that infect humans. Additionally, many related malaria parasite species infect nonhuman primates (NHPs), and have the potential for transmission to humans. For malaria elimination, the varied and specific challenges of all of these Plasmodium species will need to be considered. Recent advances in molecular genetics and genomics have increased our knowledge of the prevalence and existing diversity of the human and NHP Plasmodium species. We are beginning to identify the extent of the reservoirs of each parasite species in humans and NHPs, revealing their origins as well as potential for adaptation in humans. Here, we focus on the red blood cell stage of human infection and the host cell tropism of each human Plasmodium species. Determinants of tropism are unique among malaria parasite species, presenting a complex challenge for malaria elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caeul Lim
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Selasi Dankwa
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Aditya S Paul
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
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Maeno Y. Molecular epidemiology of mosquitoes for the transmission of forest malaria in south-central Vietnam. Trop Med Health 2017; 45:27. [PMID: 29046610 PMCID: PMC5637239 DOI: 10.1186/s41182-017-0065-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Human infection caused by non-human primate malarial parasites, such as Plasmodium knowlesi and Plasmodium cynomolgi, occurs naturally in Southeast Asian countries, including Vietnam. Members of the Anopheles dirus species complex are known to be important vectors of human malarial parasites in the forested areas of southern and central Vietnam, including those in Khanh Phu commune and Khanh Hoa Province. Recent molecular epidemiological studies in Vietnam have reported cases of co-infection with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, and P. knowlesi in An. dirus. The commonly found macaques in the forest in the forested areas are suspected to be bitten by the same An. dirus population that bites humans. A recent epidemiological study identified six species of malarial parasites in sporozoite-infected An. dirus using polymerase chain reaction, of which P. vivax was the most common, followed by P. knowlesi, Plasmodium inui, P. cynomolgi, Plasmodium coatneyi, and P. falciparum. Based on a gametocyte analysis, the same allelic gametocyte types were observed in both humans and mosquitoes at similar frequencies. These observations suggest that people who stay overnight in the forests are frequently infected with both human and non-human primate malarial parasites, leading to the emergence of novel zoonotic malaria. Moreover, it is suggested that mosquito vector populations should be controlled and monitored closely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshimasa Maeno
- Department of Virology and Parasitology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, 1-98 Kutsukake, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192 Japan
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Muehlenbein MP. Primates on display: Potential disease consequences beyond bushmeat. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 162 Suppl 63:32-43. [PMID: 28105720 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Human interactions with nonhuman primates vary tremendously, from daily cultural engagements and food commodities, to pet ownership and tourist encounters. These interactions provide opportunities for the exchange of pathogenic organisms (both zoonoses and anthroponoses). As exposures are not limited to areas where bushmeat usage continues to be a major problem, we must work to understand better our motivations for engaging in activities like owning primates as pets and having direct physical contact with wild primates within the context of nature-based tourism. These topics, and the theoretical potential for pathogen transmission, are reviewed in the present manuscript. This is followed by a case study utilizing 3845 survey responses collected from four international locations known for primate-based tourism, with results indicating that while a majority of people understand that they can give/get diseases to/from wild primates, a surprising percentage would still touch or feed these animals if given the opportunity. Many people still choose to touch and/or own primates, as their drive to bond with animals outweighs some basic health behaviors. Desires to tame, control, or otherwise establish emotional connections with other species, combined with the central role of touch for exploring our environment, necessitate the development of better communication and educational campaigns to minimize risks of emerging infectious diseases.
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Abstract
The complexity and connectedness of eco-social processes have major influence on the emergence and spread of infectious diseases amongst humans and animals. The disciplinary nature of most research activity has made it difficult to improve our understanding of interactions and feedback loops within the relevant systems. Influenced by the One Health approach, increasing efforts have recently been made to address this knowledge gap. Disease emergence and spread is strongly influenced by host density and contact structures, pathogen characteristics and pathogen population and molecular evolutionary dynamics in different host species, and host response to infection. All these mechanisms are strongly influenced by eco-social processes, such as globalization and urbanization, which lead to changes in global ecosystem dynamics, including patterns of mobility, human population density and contact structures, and food production and consumption. An improved understanding of epidemiological and eco-social processes, including their interdependence, will be essential to be able to manage diseases in these circumstances. The interfaces between wild animals, domestic animals and humans need to be examined to identify the main risk pathways and put in place appropriate mitigation. Some recent examples of emerging infectious disease are described to illustrate eco-social processes that are influencing disease emergence and spread.
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Aitken EH, Bueno MG, Dos Santos Ortolan L, Alvaréz JM, Pissinatti A, Kierulff MCM, Catão-Dias JL, Epiphanio S. Survey of Plasmodium in the golden-headed lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) living in urban Atlantic forest in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Malar J 2016; 15:93. [PMID: 26883507 PMCID: PMC4756513 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-016-1155-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background
Communicating the presence of potential zoonotic pathogens such as Plasmodium spp. in wild animals is important for developing both animal and human health policies. Methods The translocation of an exotic and invasive population of Leontopithecus chrysomelas (golden-headed lion tamarins) required the screening of these animals for specific pathogens. This studies objective was to investigate Plasmodium spp. infection in the L. chrysomelas, both to know its prevalence in these animals in the local area and to minimize the risk of pathogens being translocated to the destination site. To investigate Plasmodium spp. infection, blood samples from 268 animals were assessed for the presence of Plasmodium spp. by genus-specific PCR and stained thick and thin blood smears were examined by light microscopy. Data of human malaria infection in the studied region was also assembled from SINAN (Diseases Information System Notification—Ministry of Health of Brazil). Results Results from the PCR and microscopy were all negative and suggested that no L. chrysomelas was infected with Plasmodium spp. Analysis of SINAN data showed that malaria transmission is present among the human population in the studied region. Conclusions This study is the first to provide information on Plasmodium spp. infection in L. chrysomelas.Plasmodium spp. infection of this species is rare or absent though malaria parasites circulate in the region. In addition, there is minimal risk of translocating Plasmodium spp. infected animals to the destination site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Helen Aitken
- Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. .,Department of Medicine, Peter Doherty Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Marina Galvão Bueno
- Instituto Pri-Matas para Conservação da Biodiversidade (Pri-Matas), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. .,Instituto de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Mamirauá (IDSM/MCTI), Tefé, Amazonas, Brazil. .,Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Programa Institucional Biodiversidade & Saúde, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| | - Luana Dos Santos Ortolan
- Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - José M Alvaréz
- Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | | | - Maria Cecília Martins Kierulff
- Instituto Pri-Matas para Conservação da Biodiversidade (Pri-Matas), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. .,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biodiversidade Tropical, Centro Universitário Norte do Espírito Santo, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, São Mateus, Brazil.
| | - José Luiz Catão-Dias
- Laboratório de Patologia Comparada de Animais Selvagens (LAPCOM), Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Sabrina Epiphanio
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes, 580, Butantã, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil.
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The Effect of Aqueous Extract of Cinnamon on the Metabolome of Plasmodium falciparum Using (1)HNMR Spectroscopy. J Trop Med 2016; 2016:3174841. [PMID: 26904134 PMCID: PMC4745969 DOI: 10.1155/2016/3174841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Revised: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is responsible for estimated 584,000 deaths in 2013. Researchers are working on new drugs and medicinal herbs due to drug resistance that is a major problem facing them; the search is on for new medicinal herbs. Cinnamon is the bark of a tree with reported antiparasitic effects. Metabonomics is the simultaneous study of all the metabolites in biological fluids, cells, and tissues detected by high throughput technology. It was decided to determine the mechanism of the effect of aqueous extract of cinnamon on the metabolome of Plasmodium falciparum in vitro using (1)HNMR spectroscopy. Prepared aqueous extract of cinnamon was added to a culture of Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 and its 50% inhibitory concentration determined, and, after collection, their metabolites were extracted and (1)HNMR spectroscopy by NOESY method was done. The spectra were analyzed by chemometric methods. The differentiating metabolites were identified using Human Metabolome Database and the metabolic cycles identified by Metaboanalyst. 50% inhibitory concentration of cinnamon on Plasmodium falciparum was 1.25 mg/mL with p < 0.001. The metabolites were identified as succinic acid, glutathione, L-aspartic acid, beta-alanine, and 2-methylbutyryl glycine. The main metabolic cycles detected were alanine and aspartame and glutamate pathway and pantothenate and coenzyme A biosynthesis and lysine biosynthesis and glutathione metabolism, which are all important as drug targets.
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Faust C, Dobson AP. Primate malarias: Diversity, distribution and insights for zoonotic Plasmodium. One Health 2015; 1:66-75. [PMID: 28616467 PMCID: PMC5441356 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Revised: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Protozoans within the genus Plasmodium are well-known as the causative agents of malaria in humans. Numerous Plasmodium species parasites also infect a wide range of non-human primate hosts in tropical and sub-tropical regions worldwide. Studying this diversity can provide critical insight into our understanding of human malarias, as several human malaria species are a result of host switches from non-human primates. Current spillover of a monkey malaria, Plasmodium knowlesi, in Southeast Asia highlights the permeability of species barriers in Plasmodium. Also recently, surveys of apes in Africa uncovered a previously undescribed diversity of Plasmodium in chimpanzees and gorillas. Therefore, we carried out a meta-analysis to quantify the global distribution, host range, and diversity of known non-human primate malaria species. We used published records of Plasmodium parasites found in non-human primates to estimate the total diversity of non-human primate malarias globally. We estimate that at least three undescribed primate malaria species exist in sampled primates, and many more likely exist in unstudied species. The diversity of malaria parasites is especially uncertain in regions of low sampling such as Madagascar, and taxonomic groups such as African Old World Monkeys and gibbons. Presence-absence data of malaria across primates enables us to highlight the close association of forested regions and non-human primate malarias. This distribution potentially reflects a long coevolution of primates, forest-adapted mosquitoes, and malaria parasites. The diversity and distribution of primate malaria are an essential prerequisite to understanding the mechanisms and circumstances that allow Plasmodium to jump species barriers, both in the evolution of malaria parasites and current cases of spillover into humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Faust
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
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Lalremruata A, Magris M, Vivas-Martínez S, Koehler M, Esen M, Kempaiah P, Jeyaraj S, Perkins DJ, Mordmüller B, Metzger WG. Natural infection of Plasmodium brasilianum in humans: Man and monkey share quartan malaria parasites in the Venezuelan Amazon. EBioMedicine 2015; 2:1186-92. [PMID: 26501116 PMCID: PMC4588399 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2015.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Revised: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The quartan malaria parasite Plasmodium malariae is the widest spread and best adapted human malaria parasite. The simian Plasmodium brasilianum causes quartan fever in New World monkeys and resembles P. malariae morphologically. Since the genetics of the two parasites are nearly identical, differing only in a range of mutations expected within a species, it has long been speculated that the two are the same. However, no naturally acquired infection with parasites termed as P. brasilianum has been found in humans until now. Methods We investigated malaria cases from remote Yanomami indigenous communities of the Venezuelan Amazon and analyzed the genes coding for the circumsporozoite protein (CSP) and the small subunit of ribosomes (18S) by species-specific PCR and capillary based-DNA sequencing. Findings Based on 18S rRNA gene sequencing, we identified 12 patients harboring malaria parasites which were 100% identical with P. brasilianum isolated from the monkey, Alouatta seniculus. Translated amino acid sequences of the CS protein gene showed identical immunodominant repeat units between quartan malaria parasites isolated from both humans and monkeys. Interpretation This study reports, for the first time, naturally acquired infections in humans with parasites termed as P. brasilianum. We conclude that quartan malaria parasites are easily exchanged between humans and monkeys in Latin America. We hypothesize a lack of host specificity in mammalian hosts and consider quartan malaria to be a true anthropozoonosis. Since the name P. brasilianum suggests a malaria species distinct from P. malariae, we propose that P. brasilianum should have a nomenclatorial revision in case further research confirms our findings. The expansive reservoir of mammalian hosts discriminates quartan malaria from other Plasmodium spp. and requires particular research efforts. We found human infections with ‘Plasmodium brasilianum’, a quartan malaria parasite of New World monkeys in South America We show that in areas of close contact humans and non-human primates are concurrently infected with quartan malaria parasites We conclude that quartan malaria parasites can transcend host species boundaries with impunity
We found naturally acquired infections in humans with Plasmodium brasilianum parasites, a quartan malaria parasite which usually infects more than 35 monkey species in South America. This confirms that malaria parasites, which cause the quartan type of fever (two days without fever between fever peaks), are easily exchanged between humans and monkeys in Latin America. The wide host reservoir of quartan malaria parasites requires particular malaria research efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Lalremruata
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Magda Magris
- Servicio Autónomo Centro Amazónico para la Investigación y Control de Enfermedades Tropicales ‘Simón Bolívar’ (SACAICET), Puerto Ayacucho, Estado Amazonas, Venezuela
| | - Sarai Vivas-Martínez
- Servicio Autónomo Centro Amazónico para la Investigación y Control de Enfermedades Tropicales ‘Simón Bolívar’ (SACAICET), Puerto Ayacucho, Estado Amazonas, Venezuela
- Cátedra de Salud Pública, Escuela de Medicina Luis Razetti, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Maike Koehler
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Meral Esen
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Prakasha Kempaiah
- Center for Global Health, Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | | | - Douglas Jay Perkins
- Center for Global Health, Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | | | - Wolfram G. Metzger
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Servicio Autónomo Centro Amazónico para la Investigación y Control de Enfermedades Tropicales ‘Simón Bolívar’ (SACAICET), Puerto Ayacucho, Estado Amazonas, Venezuela
- Corresponding author at: Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Wilhelmstrasse 27, D-72074 Tübingen, Germany.
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Maeno Y, Quang NT, Culleton R, Kawai S, Masuda G, Nakazawa S, Marchand RP. Humans frequently exposed to a range of non-human primate malaria parasite species through the bites of Anopheles dirus mosquitoes in South-central Vietnam. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:376. [PMID: 26178324 PMCID: PMC4504216 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-0995-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent studies have described natural human infections of the non-human primate parasites Plasmodium knowlesi and Plasmodium cynomolgi. In Southeast Asia, mosquitoes of the Anopheles leucosphyrus group bite both humans and monkeys in the forest and thus offer a possible route for Plasmodium species to bridge the species barrier. In this study we analysed the species composition of malarial sporozoites infecting the salivary glands of Anopheles dirus in order to determine their potential role as bridge vectors of Plasmodium parasites from monkeys to humans. METHODS Mosquitoes were collected in the forest and forest fringe area of Khanh Phu commune by human-baited landing collection. Anopheles species were determined on the basis of morphologic features. Sporozoite-infected salivary glands were applied to filter paper and dried in an ambient atmosphere, before storage in closed vials at 4-6 °C. Detection and identification of Plasmodium species in salivary glands were carried out by nested-PCR of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene. RESULTS Six species of Plasmodium parasites were detected by PCR, of which P. vivax was the most common, followed by P. knowlesi, P. inui, P. cynomolgi, P. coatneyi and P. falciparum. Twenty-six of the 79 sporozoite infected mosquitoes showed multiple infections, most of which were a combination of P. vivax with one or more of the non-human primate Plasmodium species. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that humans overnighting in this forest are frequently inoculated with both human and non-human primate malaria parasites, leading to a situation conducive for the emergence of novel zoonotic malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshimasa Maeno
- Department of Virology and Parasitology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, 1-98 Kutsukake, Toyoake, Aichi, 470-1192, Japan.
| | - Nguyen Tuyen Quang
- Khanh Phu Malaria Research Unit, Medical Committee Netherlands-Viet Nam, Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa province, Viet Nam.
| | - Richard Culleton
- Malaria Unit, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Nagasaki, Japan.
| | - Satoru Kawai
- Laboratory of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Dokkyo Medical University, Mibu, Tochigi, Japan.
| | - Gaku Masuda
- The Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Kyoto, Japan.
| | - Shusuke Nakazawa
- Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Nagasaki, Japan.
| | - Ron P Marchand
- Khanh Phu Malaria Research Unit, Medical Committee Netherlands-Viet Nam, Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa province, Viet Nam.
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Ecology of malaria infections in western lowland gorillas inhabiting Dzanga Sangha Protected Areas, Central African Republic. Parasitology 2015; 142:890-900. [PMID: 25736484 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182015000086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
African great apes are susceptible to infections with several species of Plasmodium, including the predecessor of Plasmodium falciparum. Little is known about the ecology of these pathogens in gorillas. A total of 131 gorilla fecal samples were collected from Dzanga-Sangha Protected Areas to study the diversity and prevalence of Plasmodium species. The effects of sex and age as factors influencing levels of infection with Plasmodium in habituated gorilla groups were assessed. Ninety-five human blood samples from the same locality were also analysed to test for cross-transmission between humans and gorillas. According to a cytB PCR assay 32% of gorilla's fecal samples and 43·1% human individuals were infected with Plasmodium spp. All Laverania species, Plasmodium vivax, and for the first time Plasmodium ovale were identified from gorilla samples. Plasmodium praefalciparum was present only from habituated individuals and P. falciparum was detected from human samples. Although few P. vivax and P. ovale sequences were obtained from gorillas, the evidence for cross-species transmission between humans and gorillas requires more in depth analysis. No association was found between malaria infection and sex, however, younger individuals aged ≤6 years were more susceptible. Switching between two different Plasmodium spp. was observed in three individuals. Prolonged monitoring of Plasmodium infection during various seasons and recording behavioural data is necessary to draw a precise picture about the infection dynamics.
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Grigg MJ, William T, Dhanaraj P, Menon J, Barber BE, von Seidlein L, Rajahram G, Price RN, Anstey NM, Yeo TW. A study protocol for a randomised open-label clinical trial of artesunate-mefloquine versus chloroquine in patients with non-severe Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in Sabah, Malaysia (ACT KNOW trial). BMJ Open 2014; 4:e006005. [PMID: 25138814 PMCID: PMC4139630 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Malaria due to Plasmodium knowlesi is reported throughout South-East Asia, and is the commonest cause of it in Malaysia. P. knowlesi replicates every 24 h and can cause severe disease and death. Current 2010 WHO Malaria Treatment Guidelines have no recommendations for the optimal treatment of non-severe knowlesi malaria. Artemisinin-combination therapies (ACT) and chloroquine have each been successfully used to treat knowlesi malaria; however, the rapidity of parasite clearance has not been prospectively compared. Malaysia's national policy for malaria pre-elimination involves mandatory hospital admission for confirmed malaria cases with discharge only after two negative blood films; use of a more rapidly acting antimalarial agent would have health cost benefits. P. knowlesi is commonly microscopically misreported as P. malariae, P. falciparum or P. vivax, with a high proportion of the latter two species being chloroquine-resistant in Malaysia. A unified ACT-treatment protocol would provide effective blood stage malaria treatment for all Plasmodium species. METHODS AND ANALYSIS ACT KNOW, the first randomised controlled trial ever performed in knowlesi malaria, is a two-arm open-label trial with enrolments over a 2-year period at three district sites in Sabah, powered to show a difference in proportion of patients negative for malaria by microscopy at 24 h between treatment arms (clinicaltrials.gov #NCT01708876). Enrolments started in December 2012, with completion expected by September 2014. A total sample size of 228 is required to give 90% power (α 0.05) to determine the primary end point using intention-to-treat analysis. Secondary end points include parasite clearance time, rates of recurrent infection/treatment failure to day 42, gametocyte carriage throughout follow-up and rates of anaemia at day 28, as determined by survival analysis. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION This study has been approved by relevant institutional ethics committees in Malaysia and Australia. Results will be disseminated to inform knowlesi malaria treatment policy in this region through peer-reviewed publications and academic presentations. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER NCT01708876.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Grigg
- Global Health and Tropical Health Division, Menzies School of Health Research and Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia Infectious Diseases Society Sabah-Menzies School of Health Research Clinical Research Unit, KotaKinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - T William
- Infectious Diseases Society Sabah-Menzies School of Health Research Clinical Research Unit, KotaKinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia Infectious Diseases Unit, Clinical Research Centre, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, KotaKinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia Sabah Department of Health, KotaKinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - P Dhanaraj
- Sabah Department of Health, KotaKinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia Kudat District Hospital, Kudat, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - J Menon
- Sabah Department of Health, KotaKinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - B E Barber
- Global Health and Tropical Health Division, Menzies School of Health Research and Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia Infectious Diseases Society Sabah-Menzies School of Health Research Clinical Research Unit, KotaKinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - L von Seidlein
- Global Health and Tropical Health Division, Menzies School of Health Research and Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia Mahidol-Oxford Research Unit, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - G Rajahram
- Infectious Diseases Society Sabah-Menzies School of Health Research Clinical Research Unit, KotaKinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia Infectious Diseases Unit, Clinical Research Centre, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, KotaKinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - R N Price
- Global Health and Tropical Health Division, Menzies School of Health Research and Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Centre for Tropical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - N M Anstey
- Global Health and Tropical Health Division, Menzies School of Health Research and Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia Infectious Diseases Society Sabah-Menzies School of Health Research Clinical Research Unit, KotaKinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia Division of Medicine, Royal Darwin Hospital, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
| | - T W Yeo
- Global Health and Tropical Health Division, Menzies School of Health Research and Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia Infectious Diseases Society Sabah-Menzies School of Health Research Clinical Research Unit, KotaKinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Imai N, White MT, Ghani AC, Drakeley CJ. Transmission and control of Plasmodium knowlesi: a mathematical modelling study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2978. [PMID: 25058400 PMCID: PMC4109903 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Plasmodium knowlesi is now recognised as a leading cause of malaria in Malaysia. As humans come into increasing contact with the reservoir host (long-tailed macaques) as a consequence of deforestation, assessing the potential for a shift from zoonotic to sustained P. knowlesi transmission between humans is critical. Methods A multi-host, multi-site transmission model was developed, taking into account the three areas (forest, farm, and village) where transmission is thought to occur. Latin hypercube sampling of model parameters was used to identify parameter sets consistent with possible prevalence in macaques and humans inferred from observed data. We then explore the consequences of increasing human-macaque contact in the farm, the likely impact of rapid treatment, and the use of long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs) in preventing wider spread of this emerging infection. Results Identified model parameters were consistent with transmission being sustained by the macaques with spill over infections into the human population and with high overall basic reproduction numbers (up to 2267). The extent to which macaques forage in the farms had a non-linear relationship with human infection prevalence, the highest prevalence occurring when macaques forage in the farms but return frequently to the forest where they experience higher contact with vectors and hence sustain transmission. Only one of 1,046 parameter sets was consistent with sustained human-to-human transmission in the absence of macaques, although with a low human reproduction number (R0H = 1.04). Simulations showed LLINs and rapid treatment provide personal protection to humans with maximal estimated reductions in human prevalence of 42% and 95%, respectively. Conclusion This model simulates conditions where P. knowlesi transmission may occur and the potential impact of control measures. Predictions suggest that conventional control measures are sufficient at reducing the risk of infection in humans, but they must be actively implemented if P. knowlesi is to be controlled. Plasmodium knowlesi is a malaria of macaques which is now recognised as a leading cause of human malaria in Malaysia. Although current human infections are a result of human-macaque contact, there is a potential for P. knowlesi to be transmitted solely among humans. The authors developed a multi-host, multi-site transmission model to assess the likelihood of this happening due to increased human-macaque contact as a consequence of deforestation, population growth, and land-use change. How effective currently available malaria control measures were against P. knowlesi was also an important issue that was explored using the model. Although the model predicts that conventional control measures will be sufficient against P. knowlesi, with the push to eliminate malaria by the end of 2015, it is crucial to be aware of zoonotic malarias which may undermine such efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natsuko Imai
- Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Outbreak Analysis and Modelling, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Michael T. White
- MRC Centre for Outbreak Analysis and Modelling, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Azra C. Ghani
- MRC Centre for Outbreak Analysis and Modelling, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Chris J. Drakeley
- Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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Ta TH, Hisam S, Lanza M, Jiram AI, Ismail N, Rubio JM. First case of a naturally acquired human infection with Plasmodium cynomolgi. Malar J 2014; 13:68. [PMID: 24564912 PMCID: PMC3937822 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-13-68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Since 1960, a total of seven species of monkey malaria have been reported as transmissible to man by mosquito bite: Plasmodium cynomolgi, Plasmodium brasilianum, Plasmodium eylesi, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium inui, Plasmodium schwetzi and Plasmodium simium. With the exception of P. knowlesi, none of the other species has been found to infect humans in nature. In this report, it is described the first known case of a naturally acquired P. cynomolgi malaria in humans.The patient was a 39-year-old woman from a malaria-free area with no previous history of malaria or travel to endemic areas. Initially, malaria was diagnosed and identified as Plasmodium malariae/P. knowlesi by microscopy in the Terengganu State Health Department. Thick and thin blood films stained with 10% Giemsa were performed for microscopy examination. Molecular species identification was performed at the Institute for Medical Research (IMR, Malaysia) and in the Malaria & Emerging Parasitic Diseases Laboratory (MAPELAB, Spain) using different nested PCR methods.Microscopic re-examination in the IMR showed characteristics of Plasmodium vivax and was confirmed by a nested PCR assay developed by Snounou et al. Instead, a different PCR assay plus sequencing performed at the MAPELAB confirmed that the patient was infected with P. cynomolgi and not with P. vivax.This is the first report of human P. cynomolgi infection acquired in a natural way, but there might be more undiagnosed or misdiagnosed cases, since P. cynomolgi is morphologically indistinguishable from P. vivax, and one of the most used PCR methods for malaria infection detection may identify a P. cynomolgi infection as P. vivax.Simian Plasmodium species may routinely infect humans in Southeast Asia. New diagnostic methods are necessary to distinguish between the human and monkey malaria species. Further epidemiological studies, incriminating also the mosquito vector(s), must be performed to know the relevance of cynomolgi malaria and its implication on human public health and in the control of human malaria.The zoonotic malaria cannot be ignored in view of increasing interactions between man and wild animals in the process of urbanization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - José M Rubio
- Malaria & Emerging Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Parasitology Department, National Microbiology Centre, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Cra, Majadahonda Pozuelo Km, 2, Majadahonda 28220, Madrid, Spain.
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Cotter C, Sturrock HJW, Hsiang MS, Liu J, Phillips AA, Hwang J, Gueye CS, Fullman N, Gosling RD, Feachem RGA. The changing epidemiology of malaria elimination: new strategies for new challenges. Lancet 2013; 382:900-11. [PMID: 23594387 PMCID: PMC10583787 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60310-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 446] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Malaria-eliminating countries achieved remarkable success in reducing their malaria burdens between 2000 and 2010. As a result, the epidemiology of malaria in these settings has become more complex. Malaria is increasingly imported, caused by Plasmodium vivax in settings outside sub-Saharan Africa, and clustered in small geographical areas or clustered demographically into subpopulations, which are often predominantly adult men, with shared social, behavioural, and geographical risk characteristics. The shift in the populations most at risk of malaria raises important questions for malaria-eliminating countries, since traditional control interventions are likely to be less effective. Approaches to elimination need to be aligned with these changes through the development and adoption of novel strategies and methods. Knowledge of the changing epidemiological trends of malaria in the eliminating countries will ensure improved targeting of interventions to continue to shrink the malaria map.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Cotter
- The Global Health Group, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94105, USA.
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Liu J, Modrek S, Gosling RD, Feachem RGA. Malaria eradication: is it possible? Is it worth it? Should we do it? LANCET GLOBAL HEALTH 2013; 1:e2-3. [PMID: 25103582 DOI: 10.1016/s2214-109x(13)70002-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Lee WC, Chin PW, Lau YL, Chin LC, Fong MY, Yap CJ, Supramaniam RR, Mahmud R. Hyperparasitaemic human Plasmodium knowlesi infection with atypical morphology in peninsular Malaysia. Malar J 2013; 12:88. [PMID: 23496970 PMCID: PMC3600032 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-12-88] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2012] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium knowlesi is a potentially life-threatening zoonotic malaria parasite due to its relatively short erythrocytic cycle. Microscopic identification of P. knowlesi is difficult, with “compacted parasite cytoplasm” being one of the important identifying keys. This report is about a case of hyperparasitaemic human P. knowlesi infection (27% parasitaemia) with atypical amoeboid morphology. A peninsular Malaysian was admitted to the hospital with malaria. He suffered anaemia and acute kidney function impairment. Microscopic examination, assisted by nested PCR and sequencing confirmed as P. knowlesi infection. With anti-malarial treatment and several medical interventions, patient survived and recovered. One-month medical follow-up was performed after recovery and no recrudescence was noted. This case report highlights the extreme hyperparasitaemic setting, the atypical morphology of P. knowlesi in the patient’s erythrocytes, as well as the medical interventions involved in this successfully treated case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenn-Chyau Lee
- Tropical Infectious Diseases Research and Education Center (TIDREC), Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
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Plasmodium knowlesi: the emerging zoonotic malaria parasite. Acta Trop 2013; 125:191-201. [PMID: 23088834 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2012] [Revised: 10/03/2012] [Accepted: 10/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium knowlesi was initially identified in the 30s as a natural Plasmodium of Macaca fascicularis monkey also capable of experimentally infecting humans. It gained a relative notoriety in the mid-30s as an alternative to Plasmodium vivax in the treatment of the general paralysis of the insane (neurosyphilis). In 1965 the first natural human infection was described in a US military surveyor coming back from the Pahang jungle of the Malaysian peninsula. P. knowlesi was again brought to the attention of the medical community when in 2004, Balbir Singh and his co-workers reported that about 58% of malaria cases observed in the Kapit district of the Malaysian Borneo were actually caused by P. knowlesi. In the following years several reports showed that P. knowlesi is much more widespread than initially thought with cases reported across Southeast Asia. This infection should also be considered in the differential diagnosis of any febrile travellers coming back from a recent travel to forested areas of Southeast Asia. P. knowlesi can cause severe malaria with a rate of 6-9% and with a case fatality rate of 3%. Respiratory distress, acute renal failure, shock and hyperbilirubinemia are the most frequently observed complications of severe P. knowlesi malaria. Chloroquine is considered the treatment of choice of uncomplicated malaria caused by P. knowlesi.
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Kim KS, Tsuda Y. AvianPlasmodiumlineages found in spot surveys of mosquitoes from 2007 to 2010 at Sakata wetland, Japan: do dominant lineages persist for multiple years? Mol Ecol 2012; 21:5374-85. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.12047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2012] [Revised: 08/14/2012] [Accepted: 08/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Y. Tsuda
- Department of Medical Entomology; National Institute of Infectious Diseases; Toyama 1-23-1; Shinjuku-ku; Tokyo; 162-8640; Japan
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Verhulst NO, Smallegange RC, Takken W. Mosquitoes as potential bridge vectors of malaria parasites from non-human primates to humans. Front Physiol 2012; 3:197. [PMID: 22701434 PMCID: PMC3371676 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2012.00197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites which are transmitted by mosquitoes. Until recently, human malaria was considered to be caused by human-specific Plasmodium species. Studies on Plasmodium parasites in non-human primates (NHPs), however, have identified parasite species in gorillas and chimpanzees that are closely related to human Plasmodium species. Moreover, P. knowlesi, long known as a parasite of monkeys, frequently infects humans. The requirements for such a cross-species exchange and especially the role of mosquitoes in this process are discussed, as the latter may act as bridge vectors of Plasmodium species between different primates. Little is known about the mosquito species that would bite both humans and NHPs and if so, whether humans and NHPs share the same Plasmodium vectors. To understand the vector-host interactions that can lead to an increased Plasmodium transmission between species, studies are required that reveal the nature of these interactions. Studying the potential role of NHPs as a Plasmodium reservoir for humans will contribute to the ongoing efforts of human malaria elimination, and will help to focus on critical areas that should be considered in achieving this goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niels O Verhulst
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University and Research Centre Wageningen, Netherlands
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Clinical aspects of uncomplicated and severe malaria. Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis 2012; 4:e2012026. [PMID: 22708041 PMCID: PMC3375727 DOI: 10.4084/mjhid.2012.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Accepted: 03/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The first symptoms of malaria, common to all the different malaria species, are nonspecific and mimic a flu-like syndrome. Although fever represents the cardinal feature, clinical findings in malaria are extremely diverse and may range in severity from mild headache to serious complications leading to death, particularly in falciparum malaria. As the progression to these complications can be rapid, any malaria patient must be assessed and treated rapidly, and frequent observations are needed to look for early signs of systemic complications. In fact, severe malaria is a life threatening but treatable disease. The protean and nonspecific clinical findings occurring in malaria (fever, malaise, headache, myalgias, jaundice and sometimes gastrointestinal symptoms of nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea) may lead physicians who see malaria infrequently to a wrong diagnosis, such as influenza (particularly during the seasonal epidemic flu), dengue, gastroenteritis, typhoid fever, viral hepatitis, encephalitis. Physicians should be aware that malaria is not a clinical diagnosis but must be diagnosed, or excluded, by performing microscopic examination of blood films. Prompt diagnosis and appropriate treatment are then crucial to prevent morbidity and fatal outcomes. Although Plasmodium falciparum malaria is the major cause of severe malaria and death, increasing evidence has recently emerged that Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium knowlesi can also be severe and even fatal.
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Chang Q, Sun X, Wang J, Yin J, Song J, Peng S, Lu H, Zhou H, Jiang N, Chen Q. Identification of Hepatocystis species in a macaque monkey in northern Myanmar. Res Rep Trop Med 2011; 2:141-146. [PMID: 30881188 DOI: 10.2147/rrtm.s27182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Long-tailed and pig-tailed macaque monkeys are natural hosts of Plasmodium knowlesi, which has been identified as a fifth malaria parasite infecting humans. In this study, we investigated possible infection by this Plasmodium parasite in macaque monkeys using a combination of polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing. Methods Forty-five blood samples were obtained in 2010 from macaques in northern Myanmar near Yunnan Province of China and investigated for possible infection with Plasmodium species using a nested polymerase chain reaction method for amplification of 18S SSU rRNA genes. Results Positive amplification was obtained from one monkey, and both sequence and phylogenetic analysis indicated that the parasite was of the Hepatocystis species lineage. Conclusion The results suggest that a combination of polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequence identification would be necessary for detection of Plasmodium knowlesi infection in both humans and its natural hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xiaodong Sun
- Institute for Parasitic Disease Control of Yunnan Province, Puer City, Yunnan
| | - Jian Wang
- Institute for Parasitic Disease Control of Yunnan Province, Puer City, Yunnan
| | - Jigang Yin
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, ,
| | - Junpeng Song
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, ,
| | - Shuai Peng
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, ,
| | - Huijun Lu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, ,
| | - Hongning Zhou
- Institute for Parasitic Disease Control of Yunnan Province, Puer City, Yunnan
| | - Ning Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, ,
| | - Qijun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, , .,Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China,
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Stevenson MM, Ing R, Berretta F, Miu J. Regulating the adaptive immune response to blood-stage malaria: role of dendritic cells and CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells. Int J Biol Sci 2011; 7:1311-22. [PMID: 22110383 PMCID: PMC3221367 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.7.1311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Accepted: 10/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Although a clearer understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved in protection and immunopathology during blood-stage malaria has emerged, the mechanisms involved in regulating the adaptive immune response especially those required to maintain a balance between beneficial and deleterious responses remain unclear. Recent evidence suggests the importance of CD11c+ dendritic cells (DC) and CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells in regulating immune responses during infection and autoimmune disease, but information concerning the contribution of these cells to regulating immunity to malaria is limited. Here, we review recent findings from our laboratory and others in experimental models of malaria in mice and in Plasmodium-infected humans on the roles of DC and natural regulatory T cells in regulating adaptive immunity to blood-stage malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary M Stevenson
- Centre for the Study of Host Resistance and Centre for Host-Parasite Interactions, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre and Department of Medicine, McGill University Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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Subbarao SK. Centenary celebrations article: Plasmodium knowlesi: from macaque monkeys to humans in South-east Asia and the risk of its spread in India. J Parasit Dis 2011; 35:87-93. [PMID: 23024487 PMCID: PMC3235381 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-011-0085-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2011] [Accepted: 11/09/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The identification of a large focus of Plasmodium knowlesi in Malaysian Borneo and subsequent reports from several countries in South-east Asia has led its recognition as the fifth human malaria parasite. The natural preferred hosts of this species still continue to be macaque monkeys that live in broad-leaf rain forests. This review describes the distribution of macaque monkeys, the Anopheles species belonging to the Leucosphyrus Group that have been incriminated as vectors, morphological and clinical features of this parasite, and the transmission cycles that have been identified for this parasite. As the North-eastern states of India share their borders with P. knowlesi malaria endemic countries and because travelers from countries in South-east Asia visit India and vice versa, risks of this parasite entering India and its spread are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarala K. Subbarao
- Division of Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India
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William T, Menon J, Rajahram G, Chan L, Ma G, Donaldson S, Khoo S, Fredrick C, Jelip J, Anstey NM, Yeo TW. SeverePlasmodium knowlesiMalaria in a Tertiary Care Hospital, Sabah, Malaysia. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17:1248-55. [DOI: 10.3201/eid1707.101017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Berry A, Iriart X, Wilhelm N, Valentin A, Cassaing S, Witkowski B, Benoit-Vical F, Menard S, Olagnier D, Fillaux J, Sire S, Le Coustumier A, Magnaval JF. Imported Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in a French tourist returning from Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2011; 84:535-8. [PMID: 21460005 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2011.10-0622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a case of imported Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in a French tourist following a vacation in Thailand. This case shows, first, tourists may contract knowlesi malaria even only staying on the beach and second, the diagnosis remains difficult, even with polymerase chain reaction methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Berry
- Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Hôpital Rangueil, Toulouse Cedex 9, France.
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Modelling knowlesi malaria transmission in humans: vector preference and host competence. Malar J 2010; 9:329. [PMID: 21080968 PMCID: PMC2996403 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-9-329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2010] [Accepted: 11/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plasmodium knowlesi, a malaria species that normally infects long-tailed macaques, was recently found to be prevalent in humans in Southeast Asia. While human host competency has been demonstrated experimentally, the extent to which the parasite can be transmitted from human back to mosquito vector in nature is unclear. Methods Using a mathematical model, the influence of human host competency on disease transmission is assessed. Adapting a standard model for vector-borne disease transmission and using an evolutionary invasion analysis, the paper explores how differential host competency between humans and macaques can facilitate the epidemiological processes of P. knowlesi infection between different hosts. Results Following current understanding of the evolutionary route of other human malaria vectors and parasites, an increasing human population in knowlesi malaria endemic regions will select for a more anthropophilic vector as well as a parasite that preferentially transmits between humans. Applying these adaptations, evolutionary invasion analysis yields threshold conditions under which this macaque disease may become a significant public health issue. Conclusions These threshold conditions are discussed in the context of malaria vector-parasite co-evolution as a function of anthropogenic effects.
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McBride WJH. Chemoprophylaxis of Tropical Infectious Diseases. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010; 3:1561-1575. [PMID: 27713318 PMCID: PMC4033997 DOI: 10.3390/ph3051561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Revised: 04/28/2010] [Accepted: 05/10/2010] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Travelers to tropical countries are at risk for a variety of infectious diseases. In some cases effective vaccinations are available, but for other infections chemoprophylaxis can be offered. Malaria prevention has become increasingly complex as Plasmodium species become resistant to available drugs. In certain high risk settings, antibiotics can be used to prevent leptospirosis, scrub typhus and other infections. Post-exposure prophylaxis is appropriate for selected virulent infections. In this article the evidence for chemoprophylaxis will be reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J H McBride
- School of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, Cairns Base Hospital campus, The Esplanade, Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia.
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