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Hejazi S, Moosavi M, Molavinia S, Mansouri E, Azadnasab R, Khodayar MJ. Epicatechin ameliorates glucose intolerance and hepatotoxicity in sodium arsenite-treated mice. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 192:114950. [PMID: 39182636 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2024.114950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2024] [Revised: 08/04/2024] [Accepted: 08/21/2024] [Indexed: 08/27/2024]
Abstract
Arsenic is a metalloid found in the environment that causes toxic effects in different organs, mainly the liver. This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of epicatechin (EC), a natural flavonol, on glucose intolerance (GI) and liver toxicity caused by sodium arsenite (SA) in mice. Our findings showed that SA exposure led to the development of GI. Liver tissue damage and decreased pancreatic Langerhans islet size were also observed in this study. Mice exposed to SA exhibited hepatic oxidative damage, indicated by reduced antioxidant markers (such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione), along with elevated levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances. SA administration elevated the serum activities of liver enzymes alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase. Furthermore, notable increases in the levels of inflammatory and apoptotic markers (Toll-like receptor 4, nuclear factor-kappa B, tumor necrosis factor-α, nitric oxide, B-cell lymphoma-2, and cysteine aspartate-specific protease-3) were observed in the liver. Treatment of SA-exposed mice with EC considerably reversed these biochemical and histological changes. This study demonstrated the beneficial effects of EC in ameliorating SA-induced hyperglycemia and hepatotoxicity due to its ability to enhance the antioxidant system by modulating inflammation and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Hejazi
- Toxicology Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Student Research Committee, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Mehrnoosh Moosavi
- Toxicology Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Department of Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Shahrzad Molavinia
- Toxicology Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Student Research Committee, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Esrafil Mansouri
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Reza Azadnasab
- Toxicology Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Javad Khodayar
- Toxicology Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Department of Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran.
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Zhang G, Lin W, Gao N, Lan C, Ren M, Yan L, Pan B, Xu J, Han B, Hu L, Chen Y, Wu T, Zhuang L, Lu Q, Wang B, Fang M. Using Machine Learning to Construct the Blood-Follicle Distribution Models of Various Trace Elements and Explore the Transport-Related Pathways with Multiomics Data. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:7743-7757. [PMID: 38652822 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c10904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Permeabilities of various trace elements (TEs) through the blood-follicle barrier (BFB) play an important role in oocyte development. However, it has not been comprehensively described as well as its involved biological pathways. Our study aimed to construct a blood-follicle distribution model of the concerned TEs and explore their related biological pathways. We finally included a total of 168 women from a cohort of in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer conducted in two reproductive centers in Beijing City and Shandong Province, China. The concentrations of 35 TEs in both serum and follicular fluid (FF) samples from the 168 women were measured, as well as the multiomics features of the metabolome, lipidome, and proteome in both plasma and FF samples. Multiomics features associated with the transfer efficiencies of TEs through the BFB were selected by using an elastic net model and further utilized for pathway analysis. Various machine learning (ML) models were built to predict the concentrations of TEs in FF. Overall, there are 21 TEs that exhibited three types of consistent BFB distribution characteristics between Beijing and Shandong centers. Among them, the concentrations of arsenic, manganese, nickel, tin, and bismuth in FF were higher than those in the serum with transfer efficiencies of 1.19-4.38, while a reverse trend was observed for the 15 TEs with transfer efficiencies of 0.076-0.905, e.g., mercury, germanium, selenium, antimony, and titanium. Lastly, cadmium was evenly distributed in the two compartments with transfer efficiencies of 0.998-1.056. Multiomics analysis showed that the enrichment of TEs was associated with the synthesis and action of steroid hormones and the glucose metabolism. Random forest model can provide the most accurate predictions of the concentrations of TEs in FF among the concerned ML models. In conclusion, the selective permeability through the BFB for various TEs may be significantly regulated by the steroid hormones and the glucose metabolism. Also, the concentrations of some TEs in FF can be well predicted by their serum levels with a random forest model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guohuan Zhang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Institute of Reproductive and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Epidemiology of Major Diseases (Peking University), Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
| | - Weinan Lin
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Institute of Reproductive and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Epidemiology of Major Diseases (Peking University), Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
| | - Ning Gao
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Institute of Reproductive and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Epidemiology of Major Diseases (Peking University), Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
| | - Changxin Lan
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Institute of Reproductive and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Epidemiology of Major Diseases (Peking University), Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
| | - Mengyuan Ren
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Institute of Reproductive and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Epidemiology of Major Diseases (Peking University), Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
| | - Lailai Yan
- Department of Laboratorial Science and Technology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
| | - Bo Pan
- Yunnan Provincial Key Lab of Soil Carbon Sequestration and Pollution Control, Faculty of Environmental Science & Engineering, Kunming University of Science & Technology, Kunming 650500, P. R. China
| | - Jia Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, P. R. China
| | - Bin Han
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, P. R. China
| | - Ligang Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, P. R. China
| | - Yuanchen Chen
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310032, P. R. China
| | - Tianxiang Wu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Institute of Reproductive and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Epidemiology of Major Diseases (Peking University), Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
| | - Lili Zhuang
- Reproductive Medicine Centre, Yuhuangding Hospital of Yantai, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Yantai 264000, P. R. China
| | - Qun Lu
- Medical Center for Human Reproduction, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100020, P.R China
- Center of Reproductive Medicine, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing 100044, P. R. China
| | - Bin Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Institute of Reproductive and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Epidemiology of Major Diseases (Peking University), Ministry of Education, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Science, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Mingliang Fang
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, P. R. China
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Rea M, Kimmerer G, Mittendorf S, Xiong X, Green M, Chandler D, Saintilnord W, Blackburn J, Gao T, Fondufe-Mittendorf YN. A dynamic model of inorganic arsenic-induced carcinogenesis reveals an epigenetic mechanism for epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 347:123586. [PMID: 38467368 PMCID: PMC11005477 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Inorganic arsenic (iAs) causes cancer by initiating dynamic transitions between epithelial and mesenchymal cell phenotypes. These transitions transform normal cells into cancerous cells, and cancerous cells into metastatic cells. Most in vitro models assume that transitions between states are binary and complete, and do not consider the possibility that intermediate, stable cellular states might exist. In this paper, we describe a new, two-hit in vitro model of iAs-induced carcinogenesis that extends to 28 weeks of iAs exposure. Through week 17, the model faithfully recapitulates known and expected phenotypic, genetic, and epigenetic characteristics of iAs-induced carcinogenesis. By 28 weeks, however, exposed cells exhibit stable, intermediate phenotypes and epigenetic properties, and key transcription factor promoters (SNAI1, ZEB1) enter an epigenetically poised or bivalent state. These data suggest that key epigenetic transitions and cellular states exist during iAs-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and that it is important for our in vitro models to encapsulate all aspects of EMT and the mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET). In so doing, and by understanding the epigenetic systems controlling these transitions, we might find new, unexpected opportunities for developing targeted, cell state-specific therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Rea
- Department of Epigenetics, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, 49502, USA
| | - Greg Kimmerer
- Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40506, USA
| | - Shania Mittendorf
- Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40506, USA
| | - Xiaopeng Xiong
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA; Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
| | - Meghan Green
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA; Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
| | - Darrell Chandler
- Department of Epigenetics, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, 49502, USA
| | - Wesley Saintilnord
- Department of Epigenetics, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, 49502, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
| | - Jessica Blackburn
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA; Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
| | - Tianyan Gao
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA; Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
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Xiong X, Zhang S, Liao X, Du J, Zheng W, Hu S, Wei Q, Yang L. An umbrella review of the evidence associating occupational carcinogens and cancer risk at 19 anatomical sites. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 345:123531. [PMID: 38341059 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Occupational exposure to carcinogens of increasing cancer risk have been extensively suggested. A robust assessment of these evidence is needed to guide public policy and health care. We aimed to classify the strength of evidence for associations of 13 occupational carcinogens (OCs) and risk of cancers. We searched PubMed and Web of Science up to November 2022 to identify potentially relevant studies. We graded the evidence into convincing, highly suggestive, suggestive, weak, or not significant according to a standardized classification based on: random-effects p value, number of cancer cases, 95% confidence interval of largest study, heterogeneity between studies, 95% prediction interval, small study effect, excess significance bias and sensitivity analyses with credibility ceilings. The quality of meta-analysis was evaluated by AMSTAR 2. Forty-eight articles yielded 79 meta-analyses were included in current umbrella review. Evidence of associations were convincing (class I) or highly suggeastive (class II) for asbestos exposure and increasing risk of lung cancer among smokers (RR = 8.79, 95%CI: 5.81-13.25 for cohort studies and OR = 8.68, 95%CI: 5.68-13.24 for case-control studies), asbestos exposure and increasing risk of mesothelioma (RR = 4.61, 95%CI: 2.57-8.26), and formaldehyde exposure and increasing risk of sinonasal cancer (RR = 1.68, 95%CI: 1.38-2.05). Fifteen associations were supported by suggestive evidence (class III). In summary, the current umbrella review found strong associations between: asbestos exposure and increasing risk of lung cancer among smokers; asbestos exposure and increasing risk of mesothelioma; and formaldehyde exposure and higher risk of sinonasal cancer. Other associations might be genuine, but substantial uncertainty remains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingyu Xiong
- Department of Urology, Center of Biomedical Big Data and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Shiyu Zhang
- Department of Urology, Center of Biomedical Big Data and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xinyang Liao
- Department of Urology, Center of Biomedical Big Data and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jiajia Du
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Weitao Zheng
- Department of Urology, Center of Biomedical Big Data and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Siping Hu
- Department of Urology, Center of Biomedical Big Data and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Qiang Wei
- Department of Urology, Center of Biomedical Big Data and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Lu Yang
- Department of Urology, Center of Biomedical Big Data and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
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Dong L, Liu Y, Wang D, Zhu K, Zou Z, Zhang A. Imbalanced inflammatory response in subchronic arsenic-induced liver injury and the protective effects of Ginkgo biloba extract in rats: Potential role of cytokines mediated cell-cell interactions. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2021; 36:2073-2092. [PMID: 34251737 DOI: 10.1002/tox.23324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Arsenic is a well-known environmental toxicant and carcinogen, which has been epidemiologically proved related to the increased hepatic disorders. Researches have shown that aseptic inflammation and abnormal immune response are associated with arsenic-induced liver injury. However, the immunotoxic effects of liver have not been extensively characterized. Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE), a natural products of G. biloba leaves with proven anti-inflammatory and potential immunoregulatory activities, was used as intervention agent to explore its protective effects on arsenic-induced hepatotoxicity. Thus, the underlying mechanism of the immunotoxic effects on arsenic-induced liver injury were investigated in 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 mg/kg NaAsO2 of Wistar rats for 16 weeks. Subsequently, GBE was used as intervention agent in 50 mg/kg for 6 weeks after cessation of arsenic exposure. The ratio of Th17 to Treg cells in peripheral blood as well as the secretion of inflammatory cytokines IL-17A, IL-6, TGF-β1, and IL-10 in serum and liver were detected. Meanwhile, the notable activation of aseptic inflammation-related molecule TLR4 and its downstream targets MyD88 and NF-κB in the liver were observed. In this work, we confirmed that subchronic exposed to arsenic triggered the infiltration of inflammatory cells in rat liver, coupled with obvious histopathological changes and aberrant hepatic serum biochemical parameters. Meanwhile, imbalanced immune response was verified by the notable abnormal ratio of Th17 to Treg cells in peripheral blood as well as the secretion of inflammatory cytokines IL-17A, IL-6, TGF-β1, and IL-10 in serum and liver of arsenic exposed rats. Further, the level of TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κB in liver both transcription and translation activity were raised. Subsequently, GBE markedly mitigated arsenic-induced liver injury, most impressively, post treatment with GBE prominently suppressed the overactivated inflammatory-related TLR4-MyD88-NF-κB pathway and evidently decreased the secretion of inflammation cytokines. Meanwhile, the disturbance of pro- and anti-inflammatory response was reversed. We concluded that the disruption of pro- and anti-inflammatory T-cells balance caused by cytokines mediated cell-cell interactions may be one of the mechanisms underlying arsenic-induced liver injury and that GBE intervention exerts an evidence protective effects, which might be closely associated with the suppression of inflammatory-related TLR4 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Dong
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Yonglian Liu
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Dapeng Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Kai Zhu
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Zhonglan Zou
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Aihua Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
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Kumar S, Tchounwou PB. Arsenic trioxide reduces the expression of E2F1, cyclin E, and phosphorylation of PI3K signaling molecules in acute leukemia cells. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2021; 36:1785-1792. [PMID: 34042274 PMCID: PMC8453914 DOI: 10.1002/tox.23299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Arsenic trioxide (ATO) has been used for the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). Although ATO modulates cell cycle progression and apoptosis in APL cells, its exact mechanism of action remains elusive. In this research, we investigated its effects on E2F1, cyclin E, p53, pRb, and PI3K signaling molecules by western blotting, immunocytochemistry and/or confocal imaging. We found that ATO inhibited the proliferation of APL cells through down-regulation of E2F1 and cyclin E expression, and stimulation of pRb. It also reduced the interaction of pRb and E2F1with binding to the E2F1 promoter, by stimulating pRb association. ATO also effected the phosphorylation of pRb at S608 and T373 residues and association of E2F1, pRb, and p53, simultaneously. However, in p53-knockdown NB4 cells, ATO did not significantly reduce E2F1 and cyclin E expression. Our findings demonstrate that ATO inhibits APL cell growth through reduced expression of E2F1, cyclin E, and stimulation of pRb. It also effected both interaction and association of E2F1, pRb, and p53 by phosphorylation of pRb at T373 and S608 residues and reduced phosphorylation of PI3K signaling molecules. This novel mode of action of ATO in APL cells may be useful for designing new APL drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Kumar
- Cellomics and Toxicogenomics Research LaboratoryNIH/NIMHD‐RCMI Center for Environmental Health, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, Jackson State UniversityJacksonMississippi
- Department of life Sciences, School of Earth, Biological, and Environmental SciencesCentral UniversityGayaSouth BiharIndia
| | - Paul B. Tchounwou
- Cellomics and Toxicogenomics Research LaboratoryNIH/NIMHD‐RCMI Center for Environmental Health, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, Jackson State UniversityJacksonMississippi
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Hata A, Hasegawa M, Yamauchi T, Otomo Y, Miura M, Yamanaka K, Yamano Y, Fujitani N, Endo G. Metabolism of 3-[5'-deoxy-5'-(dimethylarsinoyl)-β-ribofuranosyloxy]-2-hydroxypropylene glycol in an artificial digestive system. Heliyon 2019; 5:e02079. [PMID: 31372544 PMCID: PMC6656958 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Seaweeds contain large amounts of organoarsenic compounds, mostly arsenosugars (AsSug) and arsenolipids (AsLipid). AsSug is mainly metabolized into dimethylarsinic acid (DMA V ) in humans. However, this metabolic process is not well understood. We investigated the metabolism of an AsSug, 3-[5'-deoxy-5'-(dimethylarsinoyl)-β-ribofuranosyloxy]-2-hydroxypropylene glycol (AsSug328), in the gastrointestinal tract using an in vitro artificial gastrointestinal digestion system. AsSug328 was incubated with gastric juice for 4 h, with bile-pancreatic juice for 0.5 h, and finally with enteric bacteria solution for 24 h. The conversion of arsenic compounds after artificial digestion was analyzed by HPLC-ICP-MS and HPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS. Our results show that artificial gastrointestinal digestion converted AsSug328 into thio-AsSug328. However, no formation of DMA V was detected. Under the artificial digestion system, the 5-deoxyribofuranose structure of AsSug was maintained. Therefore, AsSug should be absorbed in the intestinal tract after its sugar moiety is partially decomposed. They are then possibly metabolized to DMA V in the liver and subsequently excreted through urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihisa Hata
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Okayama University of Science, 1-3 Ikoino-oka, Imabari, Ehime, 794-8555, Japan
| | - Momoko Hasegawa
- Department of Medical Risk Management, Graduate School of Risk and Crisis Management, Chiba Institute of Science, 15-8 Shiomi-cho, Choshi, Chiba, 288-0025, Japan
| | - Takenori Yamauchi
- Department of Hygiene and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8555, Japan
| | - Yuki Otomo
- Department of Medical Risk Management, Graduate School of Risk and Crisis Management, Chiba Institute of Science, 15-8 Shiomi-cho, Choshi, Chiba, 288-0025, Japan
| | - Motofumi Miura
- Laboratory of Molecular Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Nihon University, 7-7-1 Narashinodai, Funabashi, Chiba, 274-8555, Japan
| | - Kenzo Yamanaka
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, School of Pharmacy, Nihon University, 7-7-1 Narashinodai, Funabashi, Chiba, 274-8555, Japan
| | - Yuko Yamano
- Department of Hygiene and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8555, Japan
| | - Noboru Fujitani
- Biomedical Science Examination and Research Center, Okayama University of Science, 1-3 Ikoino-oka, Imabari, Ehime, 794-8555, Japan
| | - Ginji Endo
- Osaka Occupational Health Service Center, Japan Industrial Safety and Health Association, 2-3-8 Tosabori, Nishi-ku, Osaka, 550-0001, Japan
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Shimoda Y, Kato K, Asami S, Kurita M, Kurosawa H, Toriyama M, Miura M, Hata A, Endo Y, Endo G, An Y, Yamanaka K. Differences in apoptotic signaling and toxicity between dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTA V) and its active metabolite, dimethylarsinous acid (DMA III), in HepaRG cells: Possibility of apoptosis cascade based on diversity of active metabolites of DMMTA V. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2018; 50:188-197. [PMID: 30262279 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Dimethylmonothioarsinical acid (DMMTAV), a metabolite of arsenosugars (AsSug) and arsenolipids (AsLP), which are major organoarsenicals contained in seafoods, has been a focus of our attention due to its toxicity. It has been reported that the toxicity of DMMTAV differs according to the host cell type and that dimethylarsinous acid (DMAIII), which is a higher active metabolite of inorganic and organo arsenic compounds, may be the ultimate substance. To further elucidate the details of the mechanisms of DMMTAV, we carried out toxicological characterization by comparing DMMTAV and DMAIII using HepaRG cells, which are terminally differentiated hepatic cells derived from a human hepatic progenitor cell line that retains many characteristics, e.g, primary human hepatocytes including the morphology and expression of key metabolic enzymes (P450 s and GSTs, etc.) and complete expression of all nuclear receptors. HepaRG cells were induced to undergo differentiation by DMSO, which result red in increased levels of metabolic enzymes such as P450 and GST, in non-differentiated cells the cellular toxicities of DMMTAV and DMAIII were reduced and the induction of toxicity by DMMTAV was increased by GSH but not by DMAIII. Both DMAIII and DMMTAV induce apoptosis and increase caspase 3/7 activity. DMAIII exposure increased the activity of caspase-9. On the contrary, DMMTAV exposure resulted in markedly elevated activity of caspase-8 as well as caspase-9. These results suggest there are differences between the signaling pathways of apoptosis in DMAIII and DMMTAV and that between their active metabolites. Consequently, the ultimate metabolic substance of toxicity induction of DMMTAV may not only be DMAIII, but may also be partly due to other metabolic substances produced through the activation mechanism by GSH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyo Shimoda
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Koichi Kato
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Satoru Asami
- Laboratory of Clinical Medicine, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Masahiro Kurita
- Laboratory of Clinical Medicine, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Hidetoshi Kurosawa
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan; Criminal Investigation Laboratory, Metropolitan Police Department, Tokyo 100-8929, Japan
| | - Masaharu Toriyama
- Department of Molecular Chemistry, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Motofumi Miura
- Department of Molecular Chemistry, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Akihisa Hata
- Department of Medical Risk Management, Graduate School of Risk and Crisis Management, Chiba Institute of Science, Chiba 288-0025, Japan
| | - Yoko Endo
- Endo Occupational Health Consultant Office, Osaka 534-0027, Japan
| | - Ginji Endo
- Osaka Occupational Health Service Center, Japan Industrial Safety and Health Association, Osaka 550-0001, Japan
| | - Yan An
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou Jiangsu 215123, PR China
| | - Kenzo Yamanaka
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan.
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10
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Huang N, Pei X, Lin W, Chiu JF, Tao T, Li G. DNA methylation of a non-CpG island promoter represses NQO1 expression in rat arsenic-transformed lung epithelial cells. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2018; 50:733-739. [PMID: 29889218 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gmy063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), a phase II flavoenzyme that catalyzes reduction reactions to protect cells against electrophiles and oxidants, is involved in tumorigenesis. Altered methylation of the NQO1 gene has been observed and is speculated to result in aberrant NQO1 expression in rat cells undergoing chemical carcinogenesis, although this has not been proven experimentally. In this study, we first investigated the potential epigenetic mechanisms underlying the phenomenon of NQO1 differential expression in individual subclones of rat arsenic-transformed lung epithelial cells (TLECs). NQO1 expression of TLEC subclones with or without 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-Aza-CdR) treatment was assessed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), western blot analysis, and real-time PCR. Methylation status of the NQO1 promoter in TLEC subclones was analyzed by bisulfite sequencing. Transcriptional activity of NQO1 promoter in vitro methylated was determined by luciferase assay using a CpG-free luciferase reporter driven by the NQO1 promoter region (-435 to +229). We found that non-CpG island (non-CpGI) within the NQO1 promoter was hyper- or hypo-methylated in TLEC subclones and corresponded to low and high gene expressions, respectively. Following the treatment with 5-Aza-CdR, transcription of the NQO1 gene in the hypermethylated subclones was restored, accompanied by demethylation of the NQO1 promoter. In vitro promoter methylation almost completely silenced reporter activity in TLECs. These results indicate that DNA methylation of the non-CpGI promoter contributes to epigenetic silencing of NQO1 in rat TLECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ningyu Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xiaojuan Pei
- Department of Pathology, Shenzhen Hospital of Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wenbo Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Jen-Fu Chiu
- Department of Biochemistry, The Key Lab of Molecular Biology for High Cancer Incidence Coastal Chaoshan Area, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
- School of Biomedical Sciences, LKS Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Tao Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Guanwu Li
- Department of Biochemistry, The Key Lab of Molecular Biology for High Cancer Incidence Coastal Chaoshan Area, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
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11
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Herath I, Vithanage M, Seneweera S, Bundschuh J. Thiolated arsenic in natural systems: What is current, what is new and what needs to be known. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 115:370-386. [PMID: 29705693 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Thiolated arsenic compounds are the sulfur analogous substructures of oxo-arsenicals as the arsinoyl (As = O) is substituted by an arsinothioyl (As = S) group. Relatively brief history of thioarsenic research, mostly in the current decade has endeavored to understand their consequences in the natural environment. However, thioarsenic related aspects have by far not attached much research concern on global scale compared to other arsenic species. This review attempts to provide a critical overview for the first time on formation mechanisms of thioarsenicals, their chemistry, speciation and analytical methodologies in order to provide a rational assessment of what is new, what is current, what needs to be known or what should be done in future research. Thioarsenic compounds play a vital role in determining the biogeochemistry of arsenic in sulfidic environments under reducing conditions. Thioarsenic species are widely immobilized by naturally occurring processes such as the adsorption on iron (oxyhydr)oxides and precipitation on iron sulfide minerals. Accurate measurement of thioarsenic species is a challenging task due to their instability upon pH, temperature, redox potential, and concentrations of oxygen, sulfur and iron. Assessment of direct and indirect effects of toxic thioarsenic species on global population those who frequently get exposed to high levels of arsenic is an urgent necessity. Dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTAV) is the most cytotoxic arsenic metabolite having similar toxicological effects as dimethylarsinous acid (DMAIII) in human and animal tissues. The formation and chemical analysis of thioarsenicals in soil and sediments are highly unknown. Therefore, future research needs to be more inclined towards in determining the molecular structure of unknown thioarsenic complexes in various environmental suites. Contemporary approaches hyphenated to existing technologies would pave the way to overcome critical challenges of thioarsenic speciation such as standards synthesis, structural determination, quantification and sample preservation in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indika Herath
- School of Civil Engineering and Surveying, Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences, University of Southern Queensland, West Street, 4350 Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Meththika Vithanage
- International Centre for Applied Climate Science, University of Southern Queensland, West Street, Toowoomba, 4350, Queensland, Australia; Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda 10250, Sri Lanka
| | - Saman Seneweera
- Plant Stress Biology Research Group, Centre for Crop Health, University of Southern Queensland, West Street, Toowoomba, 4350, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jochen Bundschuh
- School of Civil Engineering and Surveying, Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences, University of Southern Queensland, West Street, 4350 Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia; UNESCO Chair on Groundwater Arsenic within the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, University of Southern Queensland, West Street, 4350 Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia.
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12
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Sheldon LA. Inhibition of E2F1 activity and cell cycle progression by arsenic via retinoblastoma protein. Cell Cycle 2017; 16:2058-2072. [PMID: 28880708 DOI: 10.1080/15384101.2017.1338221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The regulation of cell cycle progression by steroid hormones and growth factors is important for maintaining normal cellular processes including development and cell proliferation. Deregulated progression through the G1/S and G2/M cell cycle transitions can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and cancer. The transcription factor E2F1, a key cell cycle regulator, targets genes encoding proteins that regulate cell cycle progression through the G1/S transition as well as proteins important in DNA repair and apoptosis. E2F1 expression and activity is inhibited by inorganic arsenic (iAs) that has a dual role as a cancer therapeutic and as a toxin that leads to diseases including cancer. An understanding of what underlies this dichotomy will contribute to understanding how to use iAs as a more effective therapeutic and also how to treat cancers that iAs promotes. Here, we show that quiescent breast adenocarcinoma MCF-7 cells treated with 17-β estradiol (E2) progress through the cell cycle, but few cells treated with E2 + iAs progress from G1 into S-phase due to a block in cell cycle progression. Our data support a model in which iAs inhibits the dissociation of E2F1 from the tumor suppressor, retinoblastoma protein (pRB) due to changes in pRB phosphorylation which leads to decreased E2F1 transcriptional activity. These findings present an explanation for how iAs can disrupt cell cycle progression through E2F1-pRB and has implications for how iAs acts as a cancer therapeutic as well as how it may promote tumorigenesis through decreased DNA repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynn A Sheldon
- a Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Department of Molecular and Systems Biology , Hanover , NH , USA
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13
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Singh B, Kulawiec M, Owens KM, Singh A, Singh KK. Sustained Early Disruption of Mitochondrial Function Contributes to Arsenic-Induced Prostate Tumorigenesis. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2017; 81:1089-1100. [PMID: 27908234 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297916100072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Arsenic is a well-known human carcinogen that affects millions of people worldwide, but the underlying mechanisms of carcinogenesis are unclear. Several epidemiological studies have suggested increased prostate cancer incidence and mortality due to exposure to arsenic. Due to lack of an animal model of arsenic-induced carcinogenesis, we used a prostate epithelial cell culture model to identify a role for mitochondria in arsenic-induced prostate cancer. Mitochondrial morphology and membrane potential was impacted within a few hours of arsenic exposure of non-neoplastic prostate epithelial cells. Chronic arsenic treatment induced mutations in mitochondrial genes and altered mitochondrial functions. Human non-neoplastic prostate epithelial cells continuously cultured for seven months in the presence of 5 µM arsenite showed tumorigenic properties in vitro and induced tumors in SCID mice, which indicated transformation of these cells. Protein and mRNA expression of subunits of mtOXPHOS complex I were decreased in arsenic-transformed cells. Alterations in complex I, a main site for reactive oxygen species (ROS) production as well as increased expression of ROS-producing NOX4 in arsenic-transformed cells suggested a role of oxidative stress in tumorigenic transformation of prostate epithelial cells. Whole genome cGH array analyses of arsenic-transformed prostate cells identified extensive genomic instability. Our study revealed mitochondrial dysfunction induced oxidative stress and decreased expression of p53 in arsenic-transformed cells as an underlying mechanism of the mitochondrial and nuclear genomic instability. These studies suggest that early changes in mitochondrial functions are sustained during prolong arsenic exposure. Overall, our study provides evidence that arsenic disruption of mitochondrial function is an early and key step in tumorigenic transformation of prostate epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Singh
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Genetics, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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14
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Ebert F, Thomann M, Witt B, Müller SM, Meyer S, Weber T, Christmann M, Schwerdtle T. Evaluating long-term cellular effects of the arsenic species thio-DMA(V): qPCR-based gene expression as screening tool. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2016; 37:78-84. [PMID: 27320638 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2016.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Thio-dimethylarsinic acid (thio-DMA(V)) is a human urinary metabolite of the class 1 human carcinogen inorganic arsenic as well as of arsenosugars. Thio-DMA(V) exerts strong cellular toxicity, whereas its toxic modes of action are not fully understood. For the first time, this study characterises the impact of a long-term (21days) in vitro incubation of thio-DMA(V) on the expression of selected genes related to cell death, stress response, epigenetics and DNA repair. The observed upregulation of DNMT1 might be a cellular compensation to counterregulate the in a very recent study observed massive global DNA hypomethylation after chronic thio-DMA(V) incubation. Moreover, our data suggest that chronic exposure towards subcytotoxic, pico- to nanomolar concentrations of thio-DMA(V) causes a stress response in human urothelial cells. The upregulation of genes encoding for proteins of DNA repair (Apex1, Lig1, XRCC1, DDB2, XPG, ATR) as well as damage response (GADD45A, GADD45G, Trp53) indicate a potential genotoxic risk emanating from thio-DMA(V) after long-term incubation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Ebert
- Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Marlies Thomann
- Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Barbara Witt
- Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Sandra M Müller
- Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Sören Meyer
- Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Till Weber
- Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Markus Christmann
- Institute of Toxicology, University Medical Center, Obere Zahlbacher Str. 67, 55131 Mainz, Germany
| | - Tanja Schwerdtle
- Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany.
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15
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Kurosawa H, Shimoda Y, Miura M, Kato K, Yamanaka K, Hata A, Yamano Y, Endo Y, Endo G. A novel metabolic activation associated with glutathione in dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTA(V))-induced toxicity obtained from in vitro reaction of DMMTA(V) with glutathione. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2016; 33:87-94. [PMID: 26653748 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2015.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Revised: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to elucidate the metabolic processing of dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTA(V)), which is a metabolite of inorganic arsenic and has received a great deal of attention recently due to its high toxicity. The metabolites produced from an in vitro reaction with GSH were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography-time of flight mass spectrometer (HPLC-TOFMS), HPLC with a photodiode array detector (PDA), and also gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and GC with a flame photometric detector (FPD). The reaction of dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)) with GSH did not generate DMA(V)-SG but did generate dimethylarsinous acid (DMA(III)) or DMA(III)-SG. On the contrary, we confirmed that the reaction of DMMTA(V) with GSH directly produced the stable complex of DMMTA(V)-SG without reduction through a trivalent dimethylated arsenic such as DMA(III) and DMA(III)-SG. Furthermore, the present study suggests the production of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and dimethylmercaptoarsine (DMA(III)-SH), a trivalent dimethylated arsenic, as well as DMA(III) and DMA(III)-SG in the decomposition process of DMMTA(V)-SG. These results indicate that the toxicity of DMMTA(V) depends not only on the formation of DMA(III) but also on at least those of H2S and DMA(III)-SH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidetoshi Kurosawa
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan; Criminal Investigation Laboratory, Metropolitan Police Department, Tokyo 100-8929, Japan
| | - Yasuyo Shimoda
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Motofumi Miura
- Laboratory of Molecular Chemistry, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Koichi Kato
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Kenzo Yamanaka
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, Chiba 274-8555, Japan.
| | - Akihisa Hata
- Department of Medical Risk Management, Graduate School of Risk and Crisis Management, Chiba Institute of Science, Chiba 288-0025, Japan
| | - Yuko Yamano
- Department of Hygiene and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Showa University, 142-8555, Japan
| | - Yoko Endo
- Research Center for Occupational Poisoning, Kansai Rosai Hospital, Hyogo 660-8511, Japan
| | - Ginji Endo
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Environmental Health, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka City University, Osaka 545-8585, Japan
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16
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Park YH, Kim D, Dai J, Zhang Z. Human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells, an appropriate in vitro model to study heavy metals induced carcinogenesis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2015; 287:240-5. [PMID: 26091798 PMCID: PMC4549192 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2015.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Occupational and environmental exposure to arsenic (III) and chromium VI (Cr(VI)) have been confirmed to cause lung cancer. Mechanisms of these metals carcinogenesis are still under investigation. Selection of cell lines to be used is essential for the studies. Human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells are the cells to be utilized by most of scientists. However, due to p53 missense mutation (CCG→TCG) at codon 47 and the codon 72 polymorphism (CGC→CCC) in BEAS-2B cells, its usage has frequently been questioned. The present study has examined activity and expression of 53 and its downstream target protein p21 upon acute or chronic exposure of BEAS-2B cells to arsenic and Cr(VI). The results show that short-term exposure of BEAS-2B cells to arsenic or Cr(VI) was able to activate both p53 and p21. Chronic exposure of BEAS-2B cells to these two metals caused malignant cell transformation and tumorigenesis. In arsenic-transformed BEAS-2B cells reductions in p53 promoter activity, mRNA expression, and phosphorylation of p53 at Ser392 were observed, while the total p53 protein level remained the same compared to those in passage-matched parent ones. p21 promoter activity and expression were decreased in arsenic-transformed cells. Cr(VI)-transformed cells exhibit elevated p53 promoter activity, mRNA expression, and phosphorylation at Ser15, but reduced phosphorylation at Ser392 and total p53 protein level compared to passage-matched parent ones. p21 promoter activity and expression were elevated in Cr(VI)-transformed cells. These results demonstrate that p53 is able to respond to exposure of arsenic or Cr(VI), suggesting that BEAS-2B cells are an appropriate in vitro model to investigate arsenic or Cr(VI) induced lung cancer.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Arsenites/toxicity
- Bronchi/drug effects
- Bronchi/metabolism
- Bronchi/pathology
- Cell Line
- Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/chemically induced
- Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/genetics
- Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/metabolism
- Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/pathology
- Chromates/toxicity
- Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p21/genetics
- Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p21/metabolism
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Epithelial Cells/drug effects
- Epithelial Cells/metabolism
- Epithelial Cells/pathology
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Heavy Metal Poisoning
- Humans
- Lung Neoplasms/chemically induced
- Lung Neoplasms/genetics
- Lung Neoplasms/metabolism
- Lung Neoplasms/pathology
- Metals, Heavy/metabolism
- Mice, Nude
- Mutation, Missense
- Phosphorylation
- Poisoning/etiology
- Poisoning/genetics
- Poisoning/metabolism
- Poisoning/pathology
- Promoter Regions, Genetic
- Risk Assessment
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Sodium Compounds/toxicity
- Time Factors
- Transcriptional Activation
- Tumor Suppressor Protein p53/genetics
- Tumor Suppressor Protein p53/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Youn-Hee Park
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Donghern Kim
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Jin Dai
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Zhuo Zhang
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.
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17
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Efremenko AY, Seagrave J, Clewell HJ, Van Landingham C, Gentry PR, Yager JW. Evaluation of gene expression changes in human primary lung epithelial cells following 24-hr exposures to inorganic arsenic and its methylated metabolites and to arsenic trioxide. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2015; 56:477-490. [PMID: 25873331 DOI: 10.1002/em.21937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The concentration response for altered gene expression in primary lung epithelial cells was determined following two treatments with arsenicals: (1) a mixture of trivalent arsenic compounds representative of urinary arsenic concentrations in exposed human populations, and (2) arsenite (As2 O3 ) a common form of inhaled arsenic dust that is frequently used in both in vivo and in vitro experimental exposures. Biochemical assays did not detect any evidence of cytotoxicity at the concentrations used, apart from a concentration-related increase in cellular heme oxygenase that was also indicated by the genomic analysis. Cell signal pathway enrichment analysis indicated similar responses to both treatments, with concentration-related responses in pathways related to cell adhesion, cytoskeleton remodeling, development (morphogenesis), cell cycle control, and to a lesser extent inflammatory responses. These cellular responses to arsenic were consistent with those observed in a previous study with primary uroepithelial cells. Benchmark dose analysis also demonstrated similar potency of the two treatments as well as comparable sensitivity of the two cell types. A number of genes showing similar concentration-dependent expression across individuals in both bladder and lung cells were identified, including heme oxygenase 1, thioredoxin reductase, DNA damage binding protein 2, and thrombomodulin. The data on human primary lung cells from this study, together with the data from human primary uroepithelial cells, support a conclusion that biological responses to arsenic by human cells under study conditions are unlikely to occur at concentrations below 0.1 µM. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 56:477-490, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Y Efremenko
- Institute for Chemical Safety Sciences, The Hamner Institutes for Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | | | - Harvey J Clewell
- Institute for Chemical Safety Sciences, The Hamner Institutes for Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | | | | | - Janice W Yager
- ENVIRON International Corporation, Emeryville, California
- Division of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Preventive Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico
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18
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Shimoda Y, Kurosawa H, Kato K, Endo Y, Yamanaka K, Endo G. Proposal for novel metabolic pathway of highly toxic dimethylated arsenics accompanied by enzymatic sulfuration, desulfuration and oxidation. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2015; 30:129-36. [PMID: 25559201 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2014.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Revised: 11/27/2014] [Accepted: 12/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that dimethylarsinic acid [(CH3)2AsO(OH), DMA(V)], a main metabolite of inorganic arsenic, is responsible for carcinogenesis in urinary bladder and lung in rodents, and various modes of carcinogenic action have been proposed. One theory concerning the mode of action is that the biotransformation of dimethylarsinous acid [(CH3)2AsOH, DMA(III)] from DMA(V) plays an important role in the carcinogenesis by way of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Furthermore, dimethylmonothioarsinic acid [(CH3)2AsS(OH), DMMTA(V)], a metabolite of DMA(V), has also been noted because of its higher toxicity. However, the metabolic mechanisms of formation and disappearance of DMA(III) and DMMTA(V), and their toxicity are not fully understood. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to clarify the mechanism of metabolic formation of DMMTA(V) and DMA(V) from DMA(III). The in vitro transformation of arsenicals by treatment with liver homogenate from rodents and sulfur transferase was detected by HPLC-ICP-MS and HPLC-tandem MS. DMMTA(V) is produced from DMA(III) but not DMA(V) by cellular fractions from mouse liver homogenates and by rhodanese from bovine liver in the presence of thiosulfate, a sulfur donor. Not only DMMTA(V) thus produced but also DMA(III) are re-converted into DMA(V) by an in vitro addition of S9 mix. These findings indicate that the metabolic process not only of DMA(III) to DMA(V) or DMMTA(V) but also of DMMTA(V) to DMA(V) consists of a complicated mode of interaction between monooxygenase including cytochrome P450 (CYP) and/or sulfur transferase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyo Shimoda
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, 7-7-1 Narashinodai, Funabashi, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Hidetoshi Kurosawa
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, 7-7-1 Narashinodai, Funabashi, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Koichi Kato
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, 7-7-1 Narashinodai, Funabashi, Chiba 274-8555, Japan
| | - Yoko Endo
- Research Center for Occupational Poisoning, Kansai Rosai Hospital, Hyogo 660-8511, Japan
| | - Kenzo Yamanaka
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Nihon University School of Pharmacy, 7-7-1 Narashinodai, Funabashi, Chiba 274-8555, Japan.
| | - Ginji Endo
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Environmental Health, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka City University, Osaka 545-8585, Japan
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19
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Lewis AS, Beyer LA, Zu K. Considerations in deriving quantitative cancer criteria for inorganic arsenic exposure via inhalation. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2015; 74:258-273. [PMID: 25454243 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/18/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The inhalation unit risk (IUR) that currently exists in the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (US EPA's) Integrated Risk Information System was developed in 1984 based on studies examining the relationship between respiratory cancer and arsenic exposure in copper smelters from two US locations: the copper smelter in Anaconda, Montana, and the American Smelting And Refining COmpany (ASARCO) smelter in Tacoma, Washington. Since US EPA last conducted its assessment, additional data have become available from epidemiology and mechanistic studies. In addition, the California Air Resources Board, Texas Commission of Environmental Quality, and Dutch Expert Committee on Occupational Safety have all conducted new risk assessments. All three analyses, which calculated IURs based on respiratory/lung cancer mortality, generated IURs that are lower (i.e., less restrictive) than the current US EPA value of 4.3×10(-3) (μg/m(3))(-1). The IURs developed by these agencies, which vary more than 20-fold, are based on somewhat different studies and use different methodologies to address uncertainties in the underlying datasets. Despite these differences, all were developed based on a cumulative exposure metric assuming a low-dose linear dose-response relationship. In this paper, we contrast and compare the analyses conducted by these agencies and critically evaluate strengths and limitations inherent in the data and methodologies used to develop quantitative risk estimates. In addition, we consider how these data could be best used to assess risk at much lower levels of arsenic in air, such as those experienced by the general public. Given that the mode of action for arsenic supports a threshold effect, and epidemiological evidence suggests that the arsenic concentration in air is a reliable predictor of lung/respiratory cancer risk, we developed a quantitative cancer risk analysis using a nonlinear threshold model. Applying a nonlinear model to occupational data, we established points of departure based on both cumulative exposure (μg/m(3)-years) to arsenic and arsenic concentration (μg/m(3)) via inhalation. Using these values, one can assess the lifetime risk of respiratory cancer mortality associated with ambient air concentrations of arsenic for the general US population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ari S Lewis
- Gradient, 20 University Road, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
| | | | - Ke Zu
- Gradient, 20 University Road, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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Zhao F, Klimecki WT. Culture conditions profoundly impact phenotype in BEAS-2B, a human pulmonary epithelial model. J Appl Toxicol 2014; 35:945-51. [PMID: 25524072 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Revised: 10/13/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BEAS-2B, an immortalized, human lung epithelial cell line, has been used to model pulmonary epithelial function for over 30 years. The BEAS-2B phenotype can be modulated by culture conditions that include the presence or absence of fetal bovine serum (FBS). The popularity of BEAS-2B as a model of arsenic toxicology, and the common use of BEAS-2B cultured both with and without FBS, led us to investigate the impact of FBS on BEAS-2B in the context of arsenic toxicology. Comparison of genome-wide gene expression in BEAS-2B cultured with or without FBS revealed altered expression in several biological pathways, including those related to carcinogenesis and energy metabolism. Real-time measurements of oxygen consumption and glycolysis in BEAS-2B demonstrated that FBS culture conditions were associated with a 1.4-fold increase in total glycolytic capacity, a 1.9-fold increase in basal respiration, a 2.0-fold increase in oxygen consumed for ATP production and a 2.8-fold increase in maximal respiration, compared with BEAS-2B cultured without FBS. Comparisons of the transcriptome changes in BEAS-2B resulting from FBS exposure to the transcriptome changes resulting from exposure to 1 μM sodium arsenite revealed that mRNA levels of 43% of the arsenite-modulated genes were also modulated by FBS. Cytotoxicity studies revealed that BEAS-2B cells exposed to 5% FBS for 8 weeks were almost 5 times more sensitive to arsenite cytotoxicity than non-FBS-exposed BEAS-2B cells. Phenotype changes induced in BEAS-2B by FBS suggest that culture conditions should be carefully considered when using BEAS-2B as an experimental model of arsenic toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85724, USA
| | - Walter T Klimecki
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85724, USA
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Prenatal exposure to arsenic and cadmium impacts infectious disease-related genes within the glucocorticoid receptor signal transduction pathway. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:22374-91. [PMID: 25479081 PMCID: PMC4284714 DOI: 10.3390/ijms151222374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Revised: 11/04/2014] [Accepted: 11/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that environmental agents mediate susceptibility to infectious disease. Studies support the impact of prenatal/early life exposure to the environmental metals inorganic arsenic (iAs) and cadmium (Cd) on increased risk for susceptibility to infection. The specific biological mechanisms that underlie such exposure-mediated effects remain understudied. This research aimed to identify key genes/signal transduction pathways that associate prenatal exposure to these toxic metals with changes in infectious disease susceptibility using a Comparative Genomic Enrichment Method (CGEM). Using CGEM an infectious disease gene (IDG) database was developed comprising 1085 genes with known roles in viral, bacterial, and parasitic disease pathways. Subsequently, datasets collected from human pregnancy cohorts exposed to iAs or Cd were examined in relationship to the IDGs, specifically focusing on data representing epigenetic modifications (5-methyl cytosine), genomic perturbations (mRNA expression), and proteomic shifts (protein expression). A set of 82 infection and exposure-related genes was identified and found to be enriched for their role in the glucocorticoid receptor signal transduction pathway. Given their common identification across numerous human cohorts and their known toxicological role in disease, the identified genes within the glucocorticoid signal transduction pathway may underlie altered infectious disease susceptibility associated with prenatal exposures to the toxic metals iAs and Cd in humans.
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X-ray-induced changes in the expression of inflammation-related genes in human peripheral blood. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:19516-34. [PMID: 25350114 PMCID: PMC4264126 DOI: 10.3390/ijms151119516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2014] [Revised: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) array, we explored and compared the expression changes of inflammation-related genes in human peripheral blood irradiated with 0.5, 3, and 10 Gy doses of X-rays 24 h after exposure. Results indicated that the expression of 62 out of 84 genes was significantly altered after X-ray radiation. Among these 62 genes, 35 (such as TNFSF4) are known to be associated with radiation response, but others are novel. At a low radiation dose (0.5 Gy), 9 genes were up-regulated and 19 were down-regulated. With further increased dose to 3 Gy, 8 unique genes were up-regulated and 19 genes were down-regulated. We also identified 48 different genes that were differentially expressed significantly after 10 Gy of irradiation, and among these transcripts, up-regulated genes accounted for only one-third (16 genes) of the total. Of the 62 genes, 31 were significantly altered only at a specific dose, and a total of 10 genes were significantly expressed at all 3 doses. The dose- and time-dependent expression of CCL2 was confirmed by quantitative real-time reverse-transcription PCR. A number of candidate genes reported herein may be useful molecular biomarkers of radiation exposure in human peripheral blood.
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Health Effects Associated with Inhalation of Airborne Arsenic Arising from Mining Operations. GEOSCIENCES 2014. [DOI: 10.3390/geosciences4030128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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24
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The impact of recent advances in research on arsenic cancer risk assessment. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2014; 69:91-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Revised: 02/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Sakurai T, Narita E, Shinohara N, Miyakoshi J. Alteration of gene expression by exposure to a magnetic field at 23 kHz is not detected in astroglia cells. JOURNAL OF RADIATION RESEARCH 2013; 54:1005-1009. [PMID: 23722077 PMCID: PMC3823784 DOI: 10.1093/jrr/rrt063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/12/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The increasing use of induction heating (IH) cooktops has roused public concern in Japan and Europe regarding potential health effects. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of exposure to a magnetic field at 23 kHz (which is the maximum output power frequency of most IH cooktops) on gene expression in a human-fetus-derived astroglia cell line, SVGp12. The cells were exposed to the magnetic field at 2 mTrms [which is approximately 74 times higher than the reference level in the most recent International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) guidelines], for 2, 4 and 6 h, using a previously reported exposure system. Gene expression was evaluated using an Agilent cDNA microarray. We did not detect any significant effects of the magnetic field on the gene expression profile. On the contrary, heat treatment at 43°C for 2 h used as a positive control significantly affected gene expression, including inducing heat shock proteins, which indicated that our protocol for microarray analysis was appropriate. From these results, we conclude that exposure of human-fetus-derived astroglia cells to an intermediate-frequency magnetic field at 23 kHz and 2 mTrms for up to 6 h does not induce detectable alteration of gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Junji Miyakoshi
- Corresponding author. Laboratory of Applied Radio Engineering for Humanosphere, Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto, 611-0011, Japan. Tel/Fax: +81-774-38-3872; Email;
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Cohen SM, Arnold LL, Beck BD, Lewis AS, Eldan M. Evaluation of the carcinogenicity of inorganic arsenic. Crit Rev Toxicol 2013; 43:711-52. [DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2013.827152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Moore LE, Karami S, Steinmaus C, Cantor KP. Use of OMIC technologies to study arsenic exposure in human populations. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2013; 54:589-595. [PMID: 23893652 DOI: 10.1002/em.21792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to arsenic (As) in drinking water is a major health concern. More than 100 million individuals are exposed to levels over the current World Health Organization standard of 10 µg/L worldwide. Arsenic is one of the few agents established as a human carcinogen prior to understanding its mechanism of carcinogenicity. OMIC technologies have enabled researchers to utilize agnostic approaches to explore new, unknown mechanisms through which As causes disease in exposed human populations. In this article, we present recent studies in which OMIC technologies have been used to explore differences in human biological samples to identify markers of exposure, disease susceptibility, and effect in As-exposed and/or diseased tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee E Moore
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics (DCEG), US National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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Cytotoxicity and gene expression changes induced by inorganic and organic trivalent arsenicals in human cells. Toxicology 2013; 312:18-29. [PMID: 23876855 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2013.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2013] [Revised: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Inorganic arsenic (iAs) is a human urinary bladder, skin and lung carcinogen. iAs is metabolized to methylated arsenicals, with trivalent arsenicals more cytotoxic than pentavalent forms in vitro. In this study, cytotoxicity and gene expression changes for arsenite (iAs(III)), monomethylarsonous acid (MMA(III)) and dimethylarsinous acid (DMA(III)) were evaluated in three human cell types, urothelial (1T1), keratinocyte (HEK001) and bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells, corresponding to target organs for iAs-induced cancer. Cells were exposed to arsenicals to determine cytotoxicity and to study gene expression changes. Affymetrix chips were used to determine differentially expressed genes (DEGs) by statistical analysis. Lethal concentrations (LC50) for trivalent arsenicals in all cells ranged from 1.6 to 10μM. MMA(III) and DMA(III) had 4-12-fold greater potency compared to iAs. Increasing concentrations of iAs(III) induced more genes and additional signaling pathways in HBE cells. At equivalent cytotoxic concentrations, greater numbers of DEGs were induced in 1T1 cells compared to the other cells. Each arsenical altered slightly different signaling pathways within and between cell types, but when altered pathways from all three arsenicals were combined, they were similar between cell types. The major signaling pathways altered included NRF2-mediated stress response, interferon, p53, cell cycle regulation and lipid peroxidation. These results show a similar process qualitatively and quantitatively for all three cell types, and support a mode of action involving cytotoxicity and regenerative proliferation.
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Chen B, Lu X, Shen S, Arnold LL, Cohen SM, Le XC. Arsenic Speciation in the Blood of Arsenite-Treated F344 Rats. Chem Res Toxicol 2013; 26:952-62. [DOI: 10.1021/tx400123q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Baowei Chen
- Division of Analytical and Environmental
Toxicology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Faculty
of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G3, Canada
| | - Xiufen Lu
- Division of Analytical and Environmental
Toxicology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Faculty
of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G3, Canada
| | - Shengwen Shen
- Division of Analytical and Environmental
Toxicology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Faculty
of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G3, Canada
| | - Lora L. Arnold
- Department of Pathology and
Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-3135, United States
| | - Samuel M. Cohen
- Department of Pathology and
Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-3135, United States
| | - X. Chris Le
- Division of Analytical and Environmental
Toxicology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Faculty
of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G3, Canada
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Bhattacharjee P, Chatterjee D, Singh KK, Giri AK. Systems biology approaches to evaluate arsenic toxicity and carcinogenicity: an overview. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2013; 216:574-86. [PMID: 23340121 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2012.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2012] [Revised: 12/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/13/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Long term exposure to arsenic, either through groundwater, food stuff or occupational sources, results in a plethora of dermatological and non-dermatological health effects including multi-organ cancer and early mortality. Several epidemiological studies, across the globe have reported arsenic-induced health effects and cancerous outcomes; but the prevalence of such diseases varies depending on environmental factors (geographical location, exposure level), and genetic makeup (and variants thereof); which is further modulated by several other factors like ethnicity, age-sex, smoking status, diet, etc. It is also interesting to note that, chronic arsenic exposure to a similar extent, even among the same family members, result in wide inter-individual variations. To understand the adverse effect of this toxic metabolite on biological system (cellular targets), and to unravel the underlying molecular basis (at the level of transcript, proteome, or metabolite), a holistic, systems biology approach was taken. Due to the paradoxical nature and unavailability of any suitable animal model system; the literature review is primarily based on cell line and population based studies. Thus, here we present a comprehensive review on the systems biology approaches to explore the underlying mechanism of arsenic-induced carcinogenicity, along with our own observations and an overview of mitigation strategies and their effectiveness till date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pritha Bhattacharjee
- Molecular and Human Genetics Division, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
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31
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Erraguntla NK, Sielken RL, Valdez-Flores C, Grant RL. An updated inhalation unit risk factor for arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds based on a combined analysis of epidemiology studies. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2012; 64:329-41. [PMID: 22813725 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Revised: 07/02/2012] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) developed an inhalation unit risk factor (URF) of 4.3E-03 per μg/m(3) for arsenic in 1984 for excess lung cancer mortality based on epidemiological studies of workers at two smelters: the Asarco smelter in Tacoma, Washington and the Anaconda smelter in Montana. Since the USEPA assessment, new studies have been published and exposure estimates were updated at the Asarco and Anaconda smelters and additional years of follow-up evaluated. The Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) has developed an inhalation URF for lung cancer mortality from exposures to arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds based on a newer epidemiology study of Swedish workers and the updates of the Asarco and Anaconda epidemiology studies. Using a combined analysis approach, the TCEQ weighted the individual URFs from these three epidemiology cohort studies, to calculate a final inhalation URF of 1.5E-04 per μg/m(3). In addition, the TCEQ also conducted a sensitivity analysis, in which they calculated a URF based on a type of meta-analysis, and these results compared well with the results of the combined analysis. The no significant concentration level (i.e., air concentration at 1 in 100,000 excess lung cancer mortality) is 0.067μg/m(3). This value will be used to evaluate ambient air monitoring data so the general public in Texas is protected against adverse health effects from chronic exposure to arsenic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeraja K Erraguntla
- Texas Commission on Environmental Quality, Toxicology Division, P.O. Box 13087, MC-168, Austin, TX 78711-3087, United States.
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Stueckle TA, Lu Y, Davis ME, Wang L, Jiang BH, Holaskova I, Schafer R, Barnett JB, Rojanasakul Y. Chronic occupational exposure to arsenic induces carcinogenic gene signaling networks and neoplastic transformation in human lung epithelial cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2012; 261:204-16. [PMID: 22521957 PMCID: PMC3358533 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2012.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2011] [Revised: 03/21/2012] [Accepted: 04/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Chronic arsenic exposure remains a human health risk; however a clear mode of action to understand gene signaling-driven arsenic carcinogenesis is currently lacking. This study chronically exposed human lung epithelial BEAS-2B cells to low-dose arsenic trioxide to elucidate cancer promoting gene signaling networks associated with arsenic-transformed (B-As) cells. Following a 6month exposure, exposed cells were assessed for enhanced cell proliferation, colony formation, invasion ability and in vivo tumor formation compared to control cell lines. Collected mRNA was subjected to whole genome expression microarray profiling followed by in silico Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) to identify lung carcinogenesis modes of action. B-As cells displayed significant increases in proliferation, colony formation and invasion ability compared to BEAS-2B cells. B-As injections into nude mice resulted in development of primary and secondary metastatic tumors. Arsenic exposure resulted in widespread up-regulation of genes associated with mitochondrial metabolism and increased reactive oxygen species protection suggesting mitochondrial dysfunction. Carcinogenic initiation via reactive oxygen species and epigenetic mechanisms was further supported by altered DNA repair, histone, and ROS-sensitive signaling. NF-κB, MAPK and NCOR1 signaling disrupted PPARα/δ-mediated lipid homeostasis. A 'pro-cancer' gene signaling network identified increased survival, proliferation, inflammation, metabolism, anti-apoptosis and mobility signaling. IPA-ranked signaling networks identified altered p21, EF1α, Akt, MAPK, and NF-κB signaling networks promoting genetic disorder, altered cell cycle, cancer and changes in nucleic acid and energy metabolism. In conclusion, transformed B-As cells with their whole genome expression profile provide an in vitro arsenic model for future lung cancer signaling research and data for chronic arsenic exposure risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd A. Stueckle
- Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505
| | - Yongju Lu
- Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506
| | - Mary E. Davis
- Department of Physiology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506
| | - Liying Wang
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505
| | - Bing-Hua Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Ida Holaskova
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506
| | - Rosana Schafer
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506
| | - John B. Barnett
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506
| | - Yon Rojanasakul
- Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506
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Boots AW, Gerloff K, Bartholomé R, van Berlo D, Ledermann K, Haenen GRMM, Bast A, van Schooten FJ, Albrecht C, Schins RPF. Neutrophils augment LPS-mediated pro-inflammatory signaling in human lung epithelial cells. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2012; 1823:1151-62. [PMID: 22575681 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2012.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Revised: 04/16/2012] [Accepted: 04/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The role of polymorphonuclear neutrophils in pulmonary host defense is well recognized. The influence of a pre-existing inflammation driven by neutrophils (neutrophilic inflammation) on the airway epithelial response toward pro-inflammatory exogenous triggers, however, is still poorly addressed. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of neutrophils on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced pro-inflammatory signaling in lung epithelial cells. Additionally, underlying signaling pathways are examined. METHODS Human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) were co-incubated with human peripheral blood neutrophils or bone-marrow derived neutrophils from either C57BL/6J wild type or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-oxidase deficient (p47(phox-/-)) mice. Upon stimulation with LPS, interleukin (IL)-8 production and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation were measured. Additionally, activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) 1/2 and nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling pathways was analyzed. RESULTS Our studies show that the presence of neutrophils synergistically increases LPS-induced IL-8 and ROS production by BEAS-2B cells without inducing cytotoxicity. The observed IL-8 response to endotoxin increases in proportion to time, LPS-concentration and the number of neutrophils present. Moreover, this synergistic IL-8 production strongly correlated with the chemotactic properties of the co-incubations and significantly depended on a functional neutrophilic NADPH oxidase. The presence of neutrophils also augments LPS-induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and IκBα as well as NF-κB RelA DNA binding activity in BEAS-2B cells. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that the pro-inflammatory effects of LPS toward lung epithelial cells are amplified during a pre-existing neutrophilic inflammation. These findings support the concept that patients suffering from pulmonary neutrophilic inflammation are more susceptible toward exogenous pro-inflammatory triggers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnes W Boots
- IUF-Leibniz Institut für Umweltmedizinische Forschung at the Heinrich Heine University, Auf'm Hennekamp 50, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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Naranmandura H, Xu S, Koike S, Pan LQ, Chen B, Wang YW, Rehman K, Wu B, Chen Z, Suzuki N. The endoplasmic reticulum is a target organelle for trivalent dimethylarsinic acid (DMAIII)-induced cytotoxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2012; 260:241-9. [PMID: 22425709 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2012.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2011] [Revised: 02/29/2012] [Accepted: 02/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of present study was to characterize the endoplasmic reticulum stress and generation of ROS in rat liver RLC-16 cells by exposing to trivalent dimethylarsinous acid (DMAIII) and compared with that of trivalent arsenite (iAsIII) and monomethylarsonous acid (MMAIII). Protein kinase-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) phosphorylation was significantly induced in cells exposed to DMAIII, while there was no change in phosphorylated PERK (P-PERK) detected in cells after exposure to iAsIII or MMAIII. The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) after DMAIII exposure was found to take place specifically in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), while previous reports showed that ROS was generated in mitochondria following exposure to MMAIII. Meanwhile, cycloheximide (CHX) which is an inhibitor of protein biosynthesis strongly inhibited the DMAIII-induced intracellular ROS generation in the ER and the phosphorylation of PERK, suggesting the induction of ER stress probably occurs through the inhibition of the protein folding process. Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) mRNA were induced by all three arsenic species, however, evidence suggested that they might be induced by different pathways in the case of iAsIII and MMAIII. In addition, ER resident molecular chaperone glucose-regulated protein78 (GRP78) was not affected by trivalent arsenicals, while it was induced in positive control only at high concentration (Thapsigargin;Tg), suggesting the GRP78 is less sensitive to low levels of ER stress. In summary, our findings demonstrate that the endoplasmic reticulum is a target organelle for DMAIII-induced cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Naranmandura
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Biochemical Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, and Zhejiang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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Toxicological Characterization of the Inorganic and Organic Arsenic Metabolite Thio-DMA in Cultured Human Lung Cells. J Toxicol 2011; 2011:373141. [PMID: 22007210 PMCID: PMC3191745 DOI: 10.1155/2011/373141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2011] [Accepted: 08/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We synthesised and toxicologically characterised the arsenic metabolite thiodimethylarsinic acid (thio-DMAV). Successful synthesis of highly pure thio-DMAV was confirmed by state-of-the-art analytical techniques including 1H-NMR, HPLC-FTMS, and HPLC-ICPMS. Toxicological characterization was carried out in comparison to arsenite and its well-known trivalent and pentavalent methylated metabolites. It comprised cellular bioavailability as well as different cytotoxicity and genotoxicity end points in cultured human A549 lung cells. Of all arsenicals investigated, thio-DMAV exerted the strongest cytotoxicity. Moreover, thio-DMAV did not induce DNA strand breaks and an increased induction of both micronuclei and multinucleated cells occurred only at beginning cytotoxic concentrations, indicating that thio-DMAV does not act via a genotoxic mode of action. Finally, to assess potential implications of thio-DMAV for human health, further mechanistic studies are urgently necessary to identify the toxic mode of action of this highly toxic, unusual pentavalent organic arsenical.
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Naranmandura H, Carew MW, Xu S, Lee J, Leslie EM, Weinfeld M, Le XC. Comparative Toxicity of Arsenic Metabolites in Human Bladder Cancer EJ-1 Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2011; 24:1586-96. [DOI: 10.1021/tx200291p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hua Naranmandura
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Biochemical Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Analytical and Environmental Toxicology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G3, Canada
| | - Michael W. Carew
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Shi Xu
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Biochemical Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jane Lee
- Department of Oncology, Cross Cancer Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1Z2, Canada
| | - Elaine M. Leslie
- Analytical and Environmental Toxicology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G3, Canada
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Michael Weinfeld
- Department of Oncology, Cross Cancer Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1Z2, Canada
| | - X. Chris Le
- Analytical and Environmental Toxicology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G3, Canada
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Ge Y, Bruno M, Wallace K, Winnik W, Prasad RY. Proteome profiling reveals potential toxicity and detoxification pathways following exposure of BEAS-2B cells to engineered nanoparticle titanium dioxide. Proteomics 2011; 11:2406-22. [PMID: 21595037 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201000741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2010] [Revised: 03/01/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress is known to play important roles in engineered nanomaterial-induced cellular toxicity. However, the proteins and signaling pathways associated with the engineered nanomaterial-mediated oxidative stress and toxicity are largely unknown. To identify these toxicity pathways and networks that are associated with exposure to engineered nanomaterials, an integrated proteomic study was conducted using human bronchial epithelial cells, BEAS-2B and nanoscale titanium dioxide. Utilizing 2-DE and MS, we identified 46 proteins that were altered at protein expression levels. The protein changes detected by 2-DE/MS were verified by functional protein assays. These identified proteins include some key proteins involved in cellular stress response, metabolism, adhesion, cytoskeletal dynamics, cell growth, cell death, and cell signaling. The differentially expressed proteins were mapped using Ingenuity Pathway Analyses™ canonical pathways and Ingenuity Pathway Analyses tox lists to create protein-interacting networks and proteomic pathways. Twenty protein canonical pathways and tox lists were generated, and these pathways were compared to signaling pathways generated from genomic analyses of BEAS-2B cells treated with titanium dioxide. There was a significant overlap in the specific pathways and lists generated from the proteomic and the genomic data. In addition, we also analyzed the phosphorylation profiles of protein kinases in titanium dioxide-treated BEAS-2B cells for a better understanding of upstream signaling pathways in response to the titanium dioxide treatment and the induced oxidative stress. In summary, the present study provides the first protein-interacting network maps and novel insights into the biological responses and potential toxicity and detoxification pathways of titanium dioxide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Ge
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, NC 27711, USA.
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Sakurai T, Kiyokawa T, Narita E, Suzuki Y, Taki M, Miyakoshi J. Analysis of gene expression in a human-derived glial cell line exposed to 2.45 GHz continuous radiofrequency electromagnetic fields. JOURNAL OF RADIATION RESEARCH 2011; 52:185-192. [PMID: 21343680 DOI: 10.1269/jrr.10116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The increasing use of mobile phones has aroused public concern regarding the potential health risks of radiofrequency (RF) fields. We investigated the effects of exposure to RF fields (2.45 GHz, continuous wave) at specific absorption rate (SAR) of 1, 5, and 10 W/kg for 1, 4, and 24 h on gene expression in a normal human glial cell line, SVGp12, using DNA microarray. Microarray analysis revealed 23 assigned gene spots and 5 non-assigned gene spots as prospective altered gene spots. Twenty-two genes out of the 23 assigned gene spots were further analyzed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction to validate the results of microarray, and no significant alterations in gene expression were observed. Under the experimental conditions used in this study, we found no evidence that exposure to RF fields affected gene expression in SVGp12 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomonori Sakurai
- Laboratory of Applied Radio Engineering for Humanosphere, Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Japan
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Bu N, Wang HY, Hao WH, Liu X, Xu S, Wu B, Anan Y, Ogra Y, Lou YJ, Naranmandura H. Generation of thioarsenicals is dependent on the enterohepatic circulation in rats. Metallomics 2011; 3:1064-73. [DOI: 10.1039/c1mt00036e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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