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Salazar-González RA, Doll MA, Hein DW. N-acetyltransferase 2 genetic polymorphism modifies genotoxic and oxidative damage from new psychoactive substances. Arch Toxicol 2023; 97:189-199. [PMID: 36138126 PMCID: PMC10187882 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03383-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) as drugs of abuse is common and increasingly popular, particularly among youth and neglected communities. Recent studies have reported acute toxic effects from these chemicals; however, their long-term toxicity is unknown. Genetic differences between individuals likely affect the toxicity risk. Arylamine N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2) capacity differs among individuals due to genetic inheritance. The goal of the present study is to investigate the gene-environment interaction between NAT2 polymorphism and toxicity after exposure to these chemicals. We measured N-acetylation by human NAT1 and NAT2 and found that N-acetylation of NPS is carried out exclusively by NAT2. Differences in N-acetylation between NAT2*4 (reference allele) and NAT2*5B (common variant allele) were highly significant (p < 0.0001). Using DNA repair-deficient genetically engineered Chinese hamster ovary (CHO cells), expressing human CYP1A2 and either NAT2*4 or NAT2*5B, we measured the induction of DNA double-strand breaks ([Formula: see text]H2Ax) following treatment of the CHO cells with increasing concentrations of NPS. The induction of [Formula: see text]H2Ax showed a NAT2 allele-dependent response, higher in the NAT2*4 vs NAT2*5B alleles (p < 0.05). Induction of oxidative stress (ROS/RNS) was evaluated; we observed NAT2 allele-dependent response for all compounds in concentrations as low as 10 [Formula: see text]M, where NAT2*4 showed increased ROS/RNS vs NAT2*5B (p < 0.05). In summary, NPS are N-acetylated by NAT2 at rates higher in cells expressing NAT2*4 than NAT2*5B. Exposure to psychoactive chemicals results in genotoxic and oxidative damage that is modified by the NAT2 genetic polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl A Salazar-González
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, 505 S. Hancock Street, CTR Rm 303, Louisville, KY, 40202, USA
| | - Mark A Doll
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, 505 S. Hancock Street, CTR Rm 303, Louisville, KY, 40202, USA
| | - David W Hein
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, 505 S. Hancock Street, CTR Rm 303, Louisville, KY, 40202, USA.
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2
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Conway LP, Rendo V, Correia MSP, Bergdahl IA, Sjöblom T, Globisch D. Unexpected Acetylation of Endogenous Aliphatic Amines by Arylamine N-Acetyltransferase NAT2. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:14342-14346. [PMID: 32497306 PMCID: PMC7497018 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202005915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
N-Acetyltransferases play critical roles in the deactivation and clearance of xenobiotics, including clinical drugs. NAT2 has been classified as an arylamine N-acetyltransferase that mainly converts aromatic amines, hydroxylamines, and hydrazines. Herein, we demonstrate that the human arylamine N-acetyltransferase NAT2 also acetylates aliphatic endogenous amines. Metabolomic analysis and chemical synthesis revealed increased intracellular concentrations of mono- and diacetylated spermidine in human cell lines expressing the rapid compared to the slow acetylator NAT2 phenotype. The regioselective N8 -acetylation of monoacetylated spermidine by NAT2 answers the long-standing question of the source of diacetylspermidine. We also identified selective acetylation of structurally diverse alkylamine-containing drugs by NAT2, which may contribute to variations in patient responses. The results demonstrate a previously unknown functionality and potential regulatory role for NAT2, and we suggest that this enzyme should be considered for re-classification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis P. Conway
- Department of Medicinal ChemistryScience for Life LaboratoryUppsala UniversityBox 57475123UppsalaSweden
| | - Veronica Rendo
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and PathologyScience for Life LaboratoryUppsala University75123UppsalaSweden
| | - Mário S. P. Correia
- Department of Medicinal ChemistryScience for Life LaboratoryUppsala UniversityBox 57475123UppsalaSweden
| | - Ingvar A. Bergdahl
- The Biobank Research Unit and Department of Public Health and Clinical MedicineSection of Sustainable HealthUmeå University90185UmeåSweden
| | - Tobias Sjöblom
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and PathologyScience for Life LaboratoryUppsala University75123UppsalaSweden
| | - Daniel Globisch
- Department of Medicinal ChemistryScience for Life LaboratoryUppsala UniversityBox 57475123UppsalaSweden
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3
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Conway LP, Rendo V, Correia MSP, Bergdahl IA, Sjöblom T, Globisch D. Unexpected Acetylation of Endogenous Aliphatic Amines by Arylamine
N
‐Acetyltransferase NAT2. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202005915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Louis P. Conway
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry Science for Life Laboratory Uppsala University Box 574 75123 Uppsala Sweden
| | - Veronica Rendo
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology Science for Life Laboratory Uppsala University 75123 Uppsala Sweden
| | - Mário S. P. Correia
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry Science for Life Laboratory Uppsala University Box 574 75123 Uppsala Sweden
| | - Ingvar A. Bergdahl
- The Biobank Research Unit and Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine Section of Sustainable Health Umeå University 90185 Umeå Sweden
| | - Tobias Sjöblom
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology Science for Life Laboratory Uppsala University 75123 Uppsala Sweden
| | - Daniel Globisch
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry Science for Life Laboratory Uppsala University Box 574 75123 Uppsala Sweden
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Manier SK, Felske C, Eckstein N, Meyer MR. The metabolic fate of two new psychoactive substances - 2-aminoindane and N-methyl-2-aminoindane - studied in vitro and in vivo to support drug testing. Drug Test Anal 2019; 12:145-151. [PMID: 31667988 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to characterize the in vitro and in vivo metabolism of 2-aminoindane (2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-amine, 2-AI), and N-methyl-2-aminoindane (N-methyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-amine, NM-2-AI) after incubations using pooled human liver microsomes (pHLMs), pooled human liver S9 fraction (pS9), and rat urine after oral administration. After analysis using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry, pHLM incubations revealed that 2-AI was left unmetabolized, while NM-2-AI formed a hydroxylamine and diastereomers of a metabolite formed after hydroxylation in beta position. Incubations using pS9 led to the formation of an acetyl conjugation in the case of 2-AI and merely a hydroxylamine for NM-2-AI. Investigations on rat urine showed that 2-AI was hydroxylated also forming diasteromers as described for NM-2-AI or acetylated similar to incubations using pS9. All hydroxylated metabolites of NM-2-AI except the hydroxylamine were found in rat urine as additional sulfates. Assuming similar patterns in humans, urine screening procedures might be focused on the parent compounds but should also include their metabolites. An activity screening using human recombinant N-acetyl transferase (NAT) isoforms 1 and 2 revealed that 2-AI was acetylated exclusively by NAT2, which is polymorphically expressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha K Manier
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany
| | - Christina Felske
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany.,Applied Pharmacy, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Pirmasens, Germany
| | - Niels Eckstein
- Applied Pharmacy, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Pirmasens, Germany
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany
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Wagmann L, Hempel N, Richter LHJ, Brandt SD, Stratford A, Meyer MR. Phenethylamine-derived new psychoactive substances 2C-E-FLY, 2C-EF-FLY, and 2C-T-7-FLY: Investigations on their metabolic fate including isoenzyme activities and their toxicological detectability in urine screenings. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1507-1521. [PMID: 31299701 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Psychoactive substances of the 2C-series are phenethylamine-based designer drugs that can induce psychostimulant and hallucinogenic effects. The so-called 2C-FLY series contains rigidified methoxy groups integrated in a 2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']difuran core. The aim of the presented work was to investigate the in vivo and in vitro metabolic fate including isoenzyme activities and toxicological detectability of the three new psychoactive substances (NPS) 2C-E-FLY, 2C-EF-FLY, and 2C-T-7-FLY to allow clinical and forensic toxicologists the identification of these novel compounds. Rat urine, after oral administration, and pooled human liver S9 fraction (pS9) incubations were analyzed by liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS). By performing activity screenings, the human isoenzymes involved were identified and toxicological detectability in rat urine investigated using standard urine screening approaches (SUSAs) based on gas chromatography (GC)-MS, LC-MSn , and LC-HRMS/MS. In total, 32 metabolites were tentatively identified. Main metabolic steps consisted of hydroxylation and N-acetylation. Phase I metabolic reactions were catalyzed by CYP2D6, 3A4, and FMO3 and N-acetylation by NAT1 and NAT2. Methoxyamine was used as a trapping agent for detection of the deaminated metabolite formed by MAO-A and B. Interindividual differences in the metabolism of the 2C-FLY drugs could be caused by polymorphisms of enzymes involved or drug-drug interactions. All three SUSAs were shown to be suitable to detect an intake of these NPS but common metabolites of 2C-E-FLY and 2C-EF-FLY have to be considered during interpretation of analytical findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Wagmann
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Nora Hempel
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Lilian H J Richter
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | | | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
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Maurer HH, Meyer MR. High-resolution mass spectrometry in toxicology: current status and future perspectives. Arch Toxicol 2016; 90:2161-2172. [PMID: 27369376 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1764-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This paper reviews high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) approaches using time-of-flight or Orbitrap techniques for research and application in various toxicology fields, particularly in clinical toxicology and forensic toxicology published since 2013 and referenced in PubMed. In the introduction, an overview on applications of HRMS in various toxicology fields is given with reference to current review articles. Papers concerning HRMS in metabolism, screening, and quantification of pharmaceuticals, drugs of abuse, and toxins in human body samples are critically reviewed. Finally, a discussion on advantages as well as limitations and future perspectives of these methods is included.
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Affiliation(s)
- H H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany.
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacoepidemiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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Meyer MR, Bergstrand MP, Helander A, Beck O. Identification of main human urinary metabolites of the designer nitrobenzodiazepines clonazolam, meclonazepam, and nifoxipam by nano-liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry for drug testing purposes. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:3571-91. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9439-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Revised: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/19/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Caspar AT, Helfer AG, Michely JA, Auwärter V, Brandt SD, Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Studies on the metabolism and toxicological detection of the new psychoactive designer drug 2-(4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-[(2-methoxyphenyl)methyl]ethanamine (25I-NBOMe) in human and rat urine using GC-MS, LC-MS(n), and LC-HR-MS/MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:6697-719. [PMID: 26108532 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8828-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
25I-NBOMe, a new psychoactive substance, is a potent 5-HT2A receptor agonist with strong hallucinogenic potential. Recently, it was involved in several fatal and non-fatal intoxication cases. The aim of the present work was to study its phase I and II metabolism and its detectability in urine screening approaches. After application of 25I-NBOMe to male Wistar rats, urine was collected over 24 h. The phase I and II metabolites were identified by LC-HR-MS/MS in urine after suitable workup. For the detectability studies, standard urine screening approaches (SUSA) by GC-MS, LC-MS(n), and LC-HR-MS/MS were applied to rat and also to authentic human urine samples submitted for toxicological analysis. Finally, an initial CYP activity screening was performed to identify CYP isoenzymes involved in the major metabolic steps. 25I-NBOMe was mainly metabolized by O-demethylation, O,O-bis-demethylation, hydroxylation, and combinations of these reactions as well as by glucuronidation and sulfation of the main phase I metabolites. All in all, 68 metabolites could be identified. Intake of 25I-NBOMe was detectable mainly via its metabolites by both LC-MS approaches, but not by the GC-MS SUSA. Initial CYP activity screening revealed the involvement of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 in hydroxylation and CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 in O-demethylation. The presented study demonstrated that 25I-NBOMe was extensively metabolized and could be detected only by the LC-MS screening approaches. Since CYP2C9 and CYP3A4 are involved in initial metabolic steps, drug-drug interactions might occur in certain constellations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Achim T Caspar
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany
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Wink CSD, Meyer MR, Braun T, Turcant A, Maurer HH. Biotransformation and detectability of the designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-propylphenethylamine (2C-P) studied in urine by GC-MS, LC-MS n , and LC-high-resolution-MS n. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 407:831-43. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-8083-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Revised: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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