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Algar JL, Lawes DJ, Carroll AJ, Caldicott D, McLeod MD. Identification of three unexpected new psychoactive substances at an Australian drug checking service. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 38205685 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Drug checking is a harm reduction measure that provides people with the opportunity to confirm the identity and purity of substances before consumption. The CanTEST Health and Drug Checking Service is Australia's first fixed-site drug checking service, where clients can learn about the contents of the samples they provide while receiving tailored harm reduction and health advice. Three samples were recently presented to the service with the expectation of 4-fluoromethylphenidate (4F-MPH) 1, methoxetamine (MXE) 2 and 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC) 3. The identity of all three samples did not meet these expectations and remained unknown on-site, as no high confidence identifications were obtained. However, further analysis by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, high resolution gas chromatography-electron ionisation-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry at the nearby Australian National University allowed for the structure elucidation of the three samples as 4-fluoro-α-pyrrolidinoisohexanophenone (4F-α-PiHP) 4, 1-(4-fluorobenzyl)-4-methylpiperazine (4F-MBZP) 5 and N-propyl-1,2-diphenylethylamine (propylphenidine) 6, respectively. Given all three samples were not of the expected identity and have not yet been described as new psychoactive substances in the literature, this study presents a full characterisation of each compound. As exemplified by this rapid identification of three unexpected new psychoactive substances, drug checking can be used as an effective method to monitor the unregulated drug market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jess L Algar
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- CanTEST Health and Drug Checking Service, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Douglas J Lawes
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Adam J Carroll
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - David Caldicott
- Emergency Department, Calvary Public Hospital, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- ANU Medical School, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Malcolm D McLeod
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
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2
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Simão AY, Antunes M, Cabral E, Oliveira P, Rosendo LM, Brinca AT, Alves E, Marques H, Rosado T, Passarinha LA, Andraus M, Barroso M, Gallardo E. An Update on the Implications of New Psychoactive Substances in Public Health. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19084869. [PMID: 35457736 PMCID: PMC9028227 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19084869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of new psychoactive substances has earned a great deal of attention, and several reports of acute poisoning and deaths have been issued involving, for instance, synthetic opiates. In recent years, there have been profound alterations in the legislation concerning consumption, marketing, and synthesis of these compounds; rapid alert systems have also been subject to changes, and new substances and new markets, mainly through the internet, have appeared. Their effects and how they originate in consumers are still mostly unknown, primarily in what concerns chronic toxicity. This review intends to provide a detailed description of these substances from the point of view of consumption, toxicokinetics, and health consequences, including case reports on intoxications in order to help researchers and public health agents working daily in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Y. Simão
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-284 Covilha, Portugal
| | - Mónica Antunes
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, Delegação do Sul, 1150-219 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Emanuel Cabral
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
| | - Patrik Oliveira
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
| | - Luana M. Rosendo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
| | - Ana Teresa Brinca
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
| | - Estefânia Alves
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
| | - Hernâni Marques
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-284 Covilha, Portugal
| | - Tiago Rosado
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-284 Covilha, Portugal
| | - Luís A. Passarinha
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Departamento de Química, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA, 2819-516 Caparica, Portugal
- Correspondence: (L.A.P.); (M.A.); (M.B.); (E.G.); Tel.: +351-275-329-001 (L.A.P. & E.G.); +55-800-042-0384 (M.A.); +351-21-881-1800 (M.B.)
| | - Maristela Andraus
- Chromatox/Dasa Laboratory Ltda. Sumaré, São Paulo 01259-000, Brazil
- Correspondence: (L.A.P.); (M.A.); (M.B.); (E.G.); Tel.: +351-275-329-001 (L.A.P. & E.G.); +55-800-042-0384 (M.A.); +351-21-881-1800 (M.B.)
| | - Mário Barroso
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, Delegação do Sul, 1150-219 Lisboa, Portugal
- Correspondence: (L.A.P.); (M.A.); (M.B.); (E.G.); Tel.: +351-275-329-001 (L.A.P. & E.G.); +55-800-042-0384 (M.A.); +351-21-881-1800 (M.B.)
| | - Eugenia Gallardo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-284 Covilha, Portugal
- Correspondence: (L.A.P.); (M.A.); (M.B.); (E.G.); Tel.: +351-275-329-001 (L.A.P. & E.G.); +55-800-042-0384 (M.A.); +351-21-881-1800 (M.B.)
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3
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Welz A, Koba M, Kośliński P, Siódmiak J. Comparison of LC-MS and LC-DAD Methods of Detecting Abused Piperazine Designer Drugs. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11071758. [PMID: 35407366 PMCID: PMC8999770 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11071758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Recreational use of piperazine designer drugs is a serious threat to human health. These compounds act on the body in a similar fashion to illegal drugs. They induce psychostimulatory effects as well as visual and auditory hallucinations to varying degrees. In many cases of poisoning and deaths, the presence of two or even several psychoactive substances have been demonstrated. Piperazine derivatives are often found in such mixtures and pose a great analytical problem during their identification. Additionally, some piperazine derivatives can be detected in biological material as a result of metabolic changes to related drugs. Therefore, it is necessary to correctly identify these compounds and ensure repeatability of determinations. This article presents a comparison of the methods used to detect abused piperazine designer drugs using liquid chromatography in combination with a diode-array detector (LC-DAD) or mass spectrometer (LC-MS). Each of methods can be used independently for determinations, obtaining reliable results in a short time of analysis. These methods can also complement each other, providing qualitative and quantitative confirmation of results. The proposed methods provide analytical confirmation of poisoning and may be helpful in toxicological diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Welz
- Department of Toxicology and Bromatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Collegium Medicum Nicolaus Copernicus University, 85-089 Bydgoszcz, Poland; (M.K.); (P.K.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Marcin Koba
- Department of Toxicology and Bromatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Collegium Medicum Nicolaus Copernicus University, 85-089 Bydgoszcz, Poland; (M.K.); (P.K.)
| | - Piotr Kośliński
- Department of Toxicology and Bromatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Collegium Medicum Nicolaus Copernicus University, 85-089 Bydgoszcz, Poland; (M.K.); (P.K.)
| | - Joanna Siódmiak
- Department of Laboratory Diagnostics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Collegium Medicum Nicolaus Copernicus University, 85-094 Bydgoszcz, Poland;
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4
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Almalghrabi M, Abiedalla Y, Dhanasakaran M, DeRuiter J, Randall Clark C. GC–MS and GC–IR of Regioisomeric 4-N-Bromodimethoxybenzyl Derivatives of 3-Trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine. Forensic Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2022.100416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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5
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Rapid Targeted Method of Detecting Abused Piperazine Designer Drugs. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10245813. [PMID: 34945109 PMCID: PMC8704057 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10245813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Piperazine derivatives belong to the popular psychostimulating compounds from the group of designer drugs. They are an alternative to illegal drugs such as ecstasy and amphetamines. They are being searched by consumers for recreational use due to their stimulating and hallucinogenic effects. Many NPS-related poisonings and deaths have been reported where piperazines have been found. However, a major problem is the potential lack of laboratory confirmation of the involvement of piperazine derivatives in the occurrence of poisoning. Although many methods have been published, piperazine derivatives are not always included in a routine analytical approach or targeted toxicological analysis. There is an increasing need to provide qualitative evidence for the presence of piperazine derivatives and to ensure reproducible quantification. This article describes a new rapid method of detecting piperazine derivatives in biological material, using LC-MS. All target analytes were separated in a 15 min run time and identified based on the precursor ion, at least two product ions, and the retention time. Stable isotopically labeled (SIL) internal standards: BZP-D7, mCPP-D8 and TFMPP-D4 were used for analysis, obtaining the highest level of confidence in the results. The proposed detection method provides the analytical confirmation of poisoning with piperazine designer drugs.
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6
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Rudin D, Liechti ME, Luethi D. Molecular and clinical aspects of potential neurotoxicity induced by new psychoactive stimulants and psychedelics. Exp Neurol 2021; 343:113778. [PMID: 34090893 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive stimulants and psychedelics continue to play an important role on the illicit new psychoactive substance (NPS) market. Designer stimulants and psychedelics both affect monoaminergic systems, although by different mechanisms. Stimulant NPS primarily interact with monoamine transporters, either as inhibitors or as substrates. Psychedelic NPS most potently interact with serotonergic receptors and mediate their mind-altering effects mainly through agonism at serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A) receptors. Rarely, designer stimulants and psychedelics are associated with potentially severe adverse effects. However, due to the high number of emerging NPS, it is not possible to investigate the toxicity of each individual substance in detail. The brain is an organ particularly sensitive to substance-induced toxicity due to its high metabolic activity. In fact, stimulant and psychedelic NPS have been linked to neurological and cognitive impairments. Furthermore, studies using in vitro cell models or rodents indicate a variety of mechanisms that could potentially lead to neurotoxic damage in NPS users. Cytotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and oxidative stress may potentially contribute to neurotoxicity of stimulant NPS in addition to altered neurochemistry. Serotonin 5-HT2A receptor-mediated toxicity, oxidative stress, and activation of mitochondrial apoptosis pathways could contribute to neurotoxicity of some psychedelic NPS. However, it remains unclear how well the current preclinical data of NPS-induced neurotoxicity translate to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Rudin
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dino Luethi
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Institute of Applied Physics, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria.
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7
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GC–MS and GC–IR analysis of methylenedioxyphenylalkylamine analogues of the psychoactive 25X-NBOMe drugs. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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8
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Krambeck K, Silva V, Silva R, Fernandes C, Cagide F, Borges F, Santos D, Otero-Espinar F, Lobo JMS, Amaral MH. Design and characterization of Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) and Nanostructured lipid carrier-based hydrogels containing Passiflora edulis seeds oil. Int J Pharm 2021; 600:120444. [PMID: 33713760 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
This study aims to design and characterize Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) and Nanostructured lipid carrier-based hydrogels with Passiflora edulis seeds oil, a by-product from Madeira Island food industry. NLC were prepared by the ultrasonication technique, using passion fruit seeds oil as a liquid lipid and glyceryl distearate as a solid lipid. These NLC were then gelled with Poly (acrylic acid). Long-term stability studies were conducted with NLC and NLC-based hydrogels stored for 12 months. The following tests were performed: morphology, encapsulation efficiency, particle size analysis, polydispersity index analysis, zeta potential, pH measurement, color analysis, viscosity studies, texture analysis, in vitro occlusion test, ex vivo skin penetration study, tyrosinase inhibition activity, in vitro skin permeation experiments and in vitro cytotoxicity studies. The developed NLC had spherical shape and narrow particle sizes distribution with mean sizes in the range of 150 nm and PDI below 0.3, Zeta potential values around -30 mV and high Encapsulation efficiency. The tyrosinase inhibitory activity and skin retention of the nanoparticles was superior to that of the non-encapsulated oil. The developed formulations did not show cytotoxicity towards HaCat cells and presented suitable viscosity and texture properties for skin application, proving to be good candidates as depigmenting agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolline Krambeck
- MedTech, UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Vera Silva
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Renata Silva
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carlos Fernandes
- CIQUP, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Fernando Cagide
- CIQUP, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Fernanda Borges
- CIQUP, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Delfim Santos
- MedTech, UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Francisco Otero-Espinar
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - José Manuel Sousa Lobo
- MedTech, UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria Helena Amaral
- MedTech, UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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Budharaju H, Subramanian A, Sethuraman S. Recent advancements in cardiovascular bioprinting and bioprinted cardiac constructs. Biomater Sci 2021; 9:1974-1994. [DOI: 10.1039/d0bm01428a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensionally bioprinted cardiac constructs with biomimetic bioink helps to create native-equivalent cardiac tissues to treat patients with myocardial infarction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harshavardhan Budharaju
- Tissue Engineering & Additive Manufacturing (TEAM) Lab
- Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials
- ACBDE Innovation Centre
- School of Chemical & Biotechnology
- SASTRA Deemed to be University
| | - Anuradha Subramanian
- Tissue Engineering & Additive Manufacturing (TEAM) Lab
- Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials
- ACBDE Innovation Centre
- School of Chemical & Biotechnology
- SASTRA Deemed to be University
| | - Swaminathan Sethuraman
- Tissue Engineering & Additive Manufacturing (TEAM) Lab
- Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials
- ACBDE Innovation Centre
- School of Chemical & Biotechnology
- SASTRA Deemed to be University
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10
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Piperazine derivatives as dangerous abused compounds. ACTA PHARMACEUTICA (ZAGREB, CROATIA) 2020; 70:423-441. [PMID: 32412428 DOI: 10.2478/acph-2020-0035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Piperazine derivatives are a group of compounds with a psychostimulant effect. They are an alternative to illegal drugs. They are being searched for recreational use due to their psychoactive and hallucinogenic effects. The high popularity of these compounds can be noticed all over the world due to easy purchase, lack of legal regulations and incorrect assessment of the safety of use. The recreational use of piperazine derivatives can often result in chronic and acute health problems and additionally with unpredictable remote effects. It is also common to take mixtures of psychoactive compounds. This hinders the correct diagnosis and treatment of patients with poisoning. The presented work is an illustration of the wide problem of piperazine derivatives abuse. The health effects and the possibility of identifying these compounds in preparations and biological material are described.
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11
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GC–MS analysis of methylenedioxybenzyl analogues of the serotonin receptor agonists 25X-NBOMe drugs. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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12
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Long S, Resende DISP, Palmeira A, Kijjoa A, Silva AMS, Tiritan ME, Pereira-Terra P, Freitas-Silva J, Barreiro S, Silva R, Remião F, Pinto E, Martins da Costa P, Sousa E, Pinto MMM. New marine-derived indolymethyl pyrazinoquinazoline alkaloids with promising antimicrobial profiles. RSC Adv 2020; 10:31187-31204. [PMID: 35520644 PMCID: PMC9056383 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra05319h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant pathogenic microorganisms, the search for novel antimicrobials is urgent. Inspired by marine alkaloids, a series of indolomethyl pyrazino [1,2-b]quinazoline-3,6-diones was prepared using a one-pot microwave-assisted multicomponent polycondensation of amino acids. The compounds were evaluated for their antimicrobial activity against a panel of nine bacterial strains and five fungal strains. Compounds 26 and 27 were the most effective against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 reference strain with MIC values of 4 μg mL−1, and a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolate with MIC values of 8 μg mL−1. It was possible to infer that enantiomer (−)-26 was responsible for the antibacterial activity (MIC 4 μg mL−1) while (+)-26 had no activity. Furthermore, compound (−)-26 was able to impair S. aureus biofilm production and no significant cytotoxicity towards differentiated and non-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells was observed. Compounds 26, 28, and 29 showed a weak antifungal activity against Trichophyton rubrum clinical isolate with MIC 128 μg mL−1 and presented a synergistic effect with fluconazole. Indolomethyl pyrazino [1,2-b]quinazoline-3,6-diones were prepared using a one-pot multicomponent polycondensation of amino acids and were evaluated for their antimicrobial activity against a panel of nine bacterial strains and five fungal strains.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Solida Long
- LQOF - Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal
| | - Diana I S P Resende
- LQOF - Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal .,CIIMAR - Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos S/N 4450-208 Matosinhos Portugal
| | - Andreia Palmeira
- LQOF - Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal .,CIIMAR - Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos S/N 4450-208 Matosinhos Portugal
| | - Anake Kijjoa
- CIIMAR - Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos S/N 4450-208 Matosinhos Portugal.,ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal
| | - Artur M S Silva
- QOPNA - Química Orgânica, Produtos Naturais e Agroalimentares, Departamento de Química, Universidade de Aveiro 3810-193 Aveiro Portugal
| | - Maria Elizabeth Tiritan
- LQOF - Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal .,CIIMAR - Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos S/N 4450-208 Matosinhos Portugal.,CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde (IINFACTS) Rua Central de Gandra, 1317 4585-116 Gandra PRD Portugal
| | - Patrícia Pereira-Terra
- CIIMAR - Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos S/N 4450-208 Matosinhos Portugal.,ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal
| | - Joana Freitas-Silva
- CIIMAR - Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos S/N 4450-208 Matosinhos Portugal.,ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal
| | - Sandra Barreiro
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal
| | - Renata Silva
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal
| | - Fernando Remião
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal
| | - Eugénia Pinto
- CIIMAR - Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos S/N 4450-208 Matosinhos Portugal.,Laboratório de Microbiologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal
| | - Paulo Martins da Costa
- CIIMAR - Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos S/N 4450-208 Matosinhos Portugal.,ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal
| | - Emília Sousa
- LQOF - Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal .,CIIMAR - Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos S/N 4450-208 Matosinhos Portugal
| | - Madalena M M Pinto
- LQOF - Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal .,CIIMAR - Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos S/N 4450-208 Matosinhos Portugal
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13
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Correia A, Costa CP, Silva V, Silva R, Lobo JMS, Silva AC. Pessaries containing nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) for prolonged vaginal delivery of progesterone. Eur J Pharm Sci 2020; 153:105475. [PMID: 32711115 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2020.105475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Progesterone (PRG) plays a crucial role in the female reproductive system, being the vaginal route the most adequate for its administration, as this drug has an extensive hepatic first pass effect. Nonetheless, vaginal PRG dosage forms originate immediate drug release and requires repeated administrations, which is unpleasant. Thereby, it is necessary to develop alternative delivery systems for prolonged vaginal release of PRG. The objective of this work was the development of pessaries for the prolonged vaginal delivery of PRG. Studies began with the preparation of an aqueous dispersion of PRG-loaded NLC (NLC_PRG), followed by the evaluation of its biocompatibility in human immortalized keratinocytes (HaCat cells), using three different methods (neutral red uptake, resazurin reduction and sulforhodamine B assays). Finally, the NLC_PRG was incorporated into pessaries, which were further characterized according to the European Pharmacopoeia to assess their suitability to prolong PRG release through the vaginal route. The results showed that, after preparation, 90% of the NLC_PRG had sizes equal or lower than 315.60 ± 0.01 nm, and an EE of 96.42 ± 0.00%. All the assays used to assess the biocompatibility of NLC_PRG showed the absence of cytotoxicity towards HaCaT cells for concentrations up to 10 μg/mL. In all cytotoxicity assays, a cytotoxic effect was only observed for concentrations equal or higher than 25 μg/mL, which provides high confidence in the obtained results. The outcomes of this study suggest the suitability of using pessaries containing PRG-loaded NLC for sustained drug release, which is an innovative therapeutic strategy and constitutes a promising alternative for the vaginal use of PRG. However, further ex vivo and in vivo studies are needed to fully clarify the pharmacokinetic and toxicological profile before reaching the clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Correia
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, MEDTECH, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - C P Costa
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, MEDTECH, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - V Silva
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Porto, Portugal
| | - R Silva
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Porto, Portugal
| | - J M Sousa Lobo
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, MEDTECH, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - A C Silva
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, MEDTECH, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; FP-ENAS (UFP Energy, Environment and Health Research Unit), CEBIMED (Biomedical Research Centre), Faculty of Health Sciences, University Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal.
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14
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Oxygenated xanthones as P-glycoprotein modulators at the intestinal barrier: in vitro and docking studies. Med Chem Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-020-02544-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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15
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Santos‐Toscano R, Guirguis A, Davidson C. How preclinical studies have influenced novel psychoactive substance legislation in the UK and Europe. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2020; 86:452-481. [DOI: 10.1111/bcp.14224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Santos‐Toscano
- School of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Clinical & Biomedical Sciences University of Central Lancashire UK
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University Swansea UK
| | - Colin Davidson
- School of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Clinical & Biomedical Sciences University of Central Lancashire UK
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16
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Giordani CFA, Campanharo S, Wingert NR, Bueno LM, Manoel JW, Costa B, Cattani S, Arbo MD, Garcia SC, Garcia CV, Volpato NM, Schapoval EES, Steppe M. In vitro toxic evaluation of two gliptins and their main impurities of synthesis. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 2019; 20:82. [PMID: 31852534 PMCID: PMC6921383 DOI: 10.1186/s40360-019-0354-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The presence of impurities in some drugs may compromise the safety and efficacy of the patient’s treatment. Therefore, establishing of the biological safety of the impurities is essential. Diabetic patients are predisposed to tissue damage due to an increased oxidative stress process; and drug impurities may contribute to these toxic effects. In this context, the aim of this work was to study the toxicity, in 3 T3 cells, of the antidiabetic agents sitagliptin, vildagliptin, and their two main impurities of synthesis (S1 and S2; V1 and V2, respectively). Methods MTT reduction and neutral red uptake assays were performed in cytotoxicity tests. In addition, DNA damage (measured by comet assay), intracellular free radicals (by DCF), NO production, and mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔψM) were evaluated. Results Cytotoxicity was observed for impurity V2. Free radicals generation was found at 1000 μM of sitagliptin and 10 μM of both vildagliptin impurities (V1 and V2). A decrease in NO production was observed for all vildagliptin concentrations. No alterations were observed in ΔψM or DNA damage at the tested concentrations. Conclusions This study demonstrated that the presence of impurities might increase the cytotoxicity and oxidative stress of the pharmaceutical formulations at the concentrations studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila F A Giordani
- Laboratório de Controle de Qualidade Farmacêutico, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Sarah Campanharo
- Laboratório de Controle de Qualidade Farmacêutico, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Nathalie R Wingert
- Laboratório de Controle de Qualidade Farmacêutico, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Lívia M Bueno
- Laboratório de Controle de Qualidade Farmacêutico, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Joanna W Manoel
- Laboratório de Controle de Qualidade Farmacêutico, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Barbara Costa
- Laboratório de Toxicologia (LATOX), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Shanda Cattani
- Laboratório de Toxicologia (LATOX), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Dutra Arbo
- Laboratório de Toxicologia (LATOX), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Solange Cristina Garcia
- Laboratório de Toxicologia (LATOX), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Cássia Virginia Garcia
- Laboratório de Controle de Qualidade Farmacêutico, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Nádia Maria Volpato
- Laboratório de Controle de Qualidade Farmacêutico, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | | | - Martin Steppe
- Laboratório de Controle de Qualidade Farmacêutico, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.
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17
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Souto C, Göethel G, Peruzzi CP, Cestonaro LV, Garcia I, Ávila DS, Eifler‐Lima V, Carmo H, Bastos MDL, Garcia SC, Arbo MD. Piperazine designer drugs elicit toxicity in the alternative in vivo model
Caenorhabditis elegans. J Appl Toxicol 2019; 40:363-372. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.3909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Souto
- Laboratório de Toxicologia (LATOX), Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
| | - Gabriela Göethel
- Laboratório de Toxicologia (LATOX), Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
| | - Caroline Portela Peruzzi
- Laboratório de Toxicologia (LATOX), Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
| | - Larissa Vivan Cestonaro
- Laboratório de Toxicologia (LATOX), Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
| | - Ingrid Garcia
- Laboratório de Toxicologia (LATOX), Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
| | - Daiana Silva Ávila
- Grupo de Pesquisa em Bioquímica e Toxicologia em Caenorhabditis elegans (GBToxCE)Universidade Federal do Pampa (UNIPAMPA) Uruguaiana RS Brazil
| | - Vera Eifler‐Lima
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
- Laboratório de Síntese Orgânica Medicinal (LaSOM), Departamento de Produção de Matéria Prima, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
| | - Helena Carmo
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade do Porto Porto Portugal
| | - Maria de Lurdes Bastos
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade do Porto Porto Portugal
| | - Solange C. Garcia
- Laboratório de Toxicologia (LATOX), Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
| | - Marcelo Dutra Arbo
- Laboratório de Toxicologia (LATOX), Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de FarmáciaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) Porto Alegre RS Brazil
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18
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Gong G, Kam H, Tse Y, Lee SM. Cardiotoxicity of forchlorfenuron (CPPU) in zebrafish (Danio rerio) and H9c2 cardiomyocytes. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 235:153-162. [PMID: 31255755 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2019] [Revised: 06/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Forchlorfenuron (CPPU), as a plant growth regulator or herbicide/pesticide, is widely used in agriculture worldwide. It is adopted by most farmers due to its high efficacy for boosting size and improving the quality of fruit. However, CPPU was implicated in, and gained notoriety due to an incident of exploding watermelon that occurred in 2011. Subsequently, the wider community became aware of the potential risks it posed to living organisms and the ecosystem. In this study, we evaluated the effects of CPPU on the survival, cardiac morphology and function, as well as hematopoietic system, of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Notably, CPPU (2.5-12.5 μg/ml) induced cardiac morphology deformation, cardiac contractile dysfunction and erythrocyte reduction in zebrafish. Consistently, the mRNA expression levels of several cardiac and hematopoietic gene markers (myl7, gata4, mef2c, amhc, vmhc and gata1) were altered by CPPU treatment. In addition, CPPU caused cytotoxicity, cytoskeleton destruction and reduced corresponding proteins (Myl7, Gata4 and Mef2c) expression in H9c2 cardiomyocytes in vitro. Taken together, this study has identified the cardiotoxicity of CPPU in different experimental models and enhanced our understanding on the mechanism underlying the toxicity of CPPU to living organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guiyi Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech), Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Hiotong Kam
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Yuchung Tse
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech), Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Simon Mingyuen Lee
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China.
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The new psychoactive substance 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC or metaphedrone) induces oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy in primary rat hepatocytes at human-relevant concentrations. Arch Toxicol 2019; 93:2617-2634. [PMID: 31468101 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02539-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
3-Methylmethcathinone (3-MMC or metaphedrone) has become one of the most popular recreational drugs worldwide after the ban of mephedrone, and was recently deemed responsible for several intoxications and deaths. This study aimed at assessing the hepatotoxicity of 3-MMC. For this purpose, Wistar rat hepatocytes were isolated by collagenase perfusion, cultured and exposed for 24 h at a concentration range varying from 31 nM to 10 mM 3-MMC. The modulatory effects of cytochrome P450 (CYP) inhibitors on 3-MMC hepatotoxicity were evaluated. 3-MMC-induced toxicity was perceived at the lysosome at lower concentrations (NOEC 312.5 µM), compared to mitochondria (NOEC 379.5 µM) and cytoplasmic membrane (NOEC 1.04 mM). Inhibition of CYP2D6 and CYP2E1 diminished 3-MMC cytotoxicity, yet for CYP2E1 inhibition this effect was only observed for concentrations up to 1.3 mM. A significant concentration-dependent increase of intracellular reactive species was observed from 10 μM 3-MMC on; a concentration-dependent decrease in antioxidant glutathione defences was also observed. At 10 μM, caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 activities were significantly elevated, corroborating the activation of both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways. Nuclear morphology and formation of cytoplasmic acidic vacuoles suggest prevalence of necrosis and autophagy at concentrations higher than 10 μM. No significant alterations were observed in the mitochondrial membrane potential, but intracellular ATP significantly decreased at 100 μM. Our data point to a role of metabolism in the hepatotoxicity of 3-MMC, which seems to be triggered both by autophagic and apoptotic/necrotic mechanisms. This work is the first approach to better understand 3-MMC toxicology.
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20
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Vestena A, Piton Y, de Loretto Bordignon SA, Garcia S, Arbo MD, Zuanazzi JA, von Poser G. Hepatoprotective activity of Verbena litoralis, Verbena montevidensis and their main iridoid, brasoside. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 239:111906. [PMID: 31028856 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2019.111906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Verbena montevidensis and Verbena litoralis are plants that present morphological similarities. They are both known as "gervão" and "fel-da-terra", among other popular names, and are used in folk medicine to treat diseases related to the liver and stomach. AIMS OF THE STUDY The aim of the current investigation was to determine the chemical composition and evaluate the hepatoprotective properties and cytotoxicity of the methanolic and aqueous extracts of V. montevidensis, V. litoralis and their main iridoid in HepG2 cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS Aqueous and methanolic extracts from the dried aerial parts of V. montevidensis and V. litoralis were obtained. The methanolic extract of V. montevidensis afforded an iridoid as the main compound. The extracts and isolated compound were examined for the hepatoprotective effect and cytotoxicity in human hepatoblastoma HepG2 cells by MTT reduction and neutral red uptake methods. RESULTS The methanolic and aqueous extracts of both species showed the presence of iridoid and phenylethanoids as the main compounds. The iridoid brasoside was isolated and identified by spectroscopic methods. The phenylethanoid was characterized by HPLC, comparing the UV profile and retention time with an authentic sample. The results of the biological assays indicate that both aqueous and methanolic extracts of V. montevidensis and V. litoralis as well as brasoside were hepatoprotective against ethanol-induced damage in HepG2 cells. The effect can be attributed to the main compounds present since both classes are recognized for this activity. CONCLUSIONS Our results contribute towards validation of the traditional use of V. montevidensis and V. litoralis in the treatment of liver disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelica Vestena
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Yasmin Piton
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | | | - Solange Garcia
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Marcelo D Arbo
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - José Angelo Zuanazzi
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Gilsane von Poser
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
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21
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Zong X, Yan X, Wu JL, Liu Z, Zhou H, Li N, Liu L. Potentially Cardiotoxic Diterpenoid Alkaloids from the Roots of Aconitum carmichaelii. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2019; 82:980-989. [PMID: 30892884 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.8b01039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Aconitum carmichaelii is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine used for the treatment of pain and inflammation in the joints. However, the strong cardiotoxicity hinders its use. Although diester- and monoester-type diterpenoids, e.g., aconitine, mesaconitine, and hypacaonitine, are commonly considered as the toxic components, the toxicity of A. carmichaelii cannot be completely explained by the compounds reported. To investigate further the cardiotoxic compounds and their potential mechanism, the chemical constituents were first isolated by column chromatography and identified using mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy. Two new hetisine-type (1 and 2) and four new aconitine-type alkaloids (3-6) were assigned. The cardiac cytotoxicity assessed on H9c2 cells indicated that the new compound 4 as well as six known alkaloids (7 and 9-13) exhibited significant toxicities. A preliminary structure-toxicity relationship study suggested that substitution at C-8 and C-10 both have a significant influence on cardiotoxicity, and such toxicity decreased in the order OBz-8, OBu-8, and OMe-8. The presence of an OH-10 group abolished the toxicity. Finally, it was found that ion channel disorder and induction of mitochondrial-mediated cell apoptosis are the possible mechanisms of cardiotoxicity among the compounds studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingxing Zong
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health , Macau University of Science and Technology , Avenida Wai Long , Taipa , Macao 999078 , Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaojing Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health , Macau University of Science and Technology , Avenida Wai Long , Taipa , Macao 999078 , Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
| | - Jian-Lin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health , Macau University of Science and Technology , Avenida Wai Long , Taipa , Macao 999078 , Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
| | - Zhongqiu Liu
- International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine , Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine , Guangzhou 510006 , People's Republic of China
| | - Hua Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health , Macau University of Science and Technology , Avenida Wai Long , Taipa , Macao 999078 , Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
| | - Na Li
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health , Macau University of Science and Technology , Avenida Wai Long , Taipa , Macao 999078 , Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health , Macau University of Science and Technology , Avenida Wai Long , Taipa , Macao 999078 , Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
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22
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Arbo MD, Altknecht LF, Cattani S, Braga WV, Peruzzi CP, Cestonaro LV, Göethel G, Durán N, Garcia SC. In vitro cardiotoxicity evaluation of graphene oxide. Mutat Res 2019; 841:8-13. [PMID: 31138412 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2019.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Graphene is a two-dimensional (2D) monolayer of carbon atoms, tightly packed, forming a honey comb crystal lattice, with physical, chemical, and mechanical properties greatly used for energy storage, electrochemical devices, and in nanomedicine. Many studies showed that nanomaterials have side-effects on health. At present, there is a lack of information regarding graphene and its derivatives including their cardiotoxic properties. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the toxicity of nano-graphene oxide (nano-GO) in the rat cardiomyoblast cell line H9c2 and the involvement of oxidative processes. The cell viability was evaluated with the fluorescein diacetate (FDA)/propidium iodide (PI) and in the trypan blue exclusion assay, furthermore mitochondrial membrane potential and production of free radicals were measured. Genotoxicity was evaluated in comet assay and low molecular weight DNA experiment. Reduction of cell viability with 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 μg/mL nano-GO was observed after 24 h incubation. Besides, nano-GO induced a mitochondrial hyperpolarization and a significant increase of free radicals production in the same concentrations. DNA breaks were observed at 40, 60, 80, and 100 μg/mL. This DNA damage was accompanied by a significant increase in LMW DNA only at 40 μg/mL. In conclusion, the nano-GO caused cardiotoxicity in our in vitro model, with mitochondrial disturbances, generation of reactive species and interactions with DNA, indicating the importance of the further evaluation of the safety of nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Dutra Arbo
- Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Louise F Altknecht
- Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Shanda Cattani
- Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Wesley V Braga
- Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Caroline P Peruzzi
- Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Larissa V Cestonaro
- Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Göethel
- Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Nelson Durán
- Laboratório Nacional de Nanotecnologia - LNNano, Instituto de Quimica-UNICAMP, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Solange Cristina Garcia
- Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Análises, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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DeRuiter J, Van Cleave A, de Sousa Moura A, Abiedalla Y, Clark CR. Disubstituted piperazine analogues of trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine and methylenedioxybenzylpiperazine: analytical differentiation and serotonin receptor binding studies. Forensic Sci Res 2018; 3:161-169. [PMID: 30483665 PMCID: PMC6197089 DOI: 10.1080/20961790.2018.1445497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
A series of N,N-disubstituted piperazines were synthesized containing the structural elements of both methylenedioxybenzylpiperazine (MDBP) and trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP) in a single molecule. These six potential designer drug molecules having a regioisomeric relationship were compared in gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), gas chromatography-infrared spectroscopy and serotonin receptor affinity studies. These compounds were separated by capillary gas chromatography on an Rxi®-17Sil MS stationary phase film and the elution order appears to be determined by the position of aromatic ring substitution. The majority of electron ionization mass spectral fragment ions occur via processes initiated by one of the two nitrogen atoms of the piperazine ring. The major electron ionization mass spectrometry (EI-MS) fragment ions observed in all six of these regioisomeric substances occur at m/z = 364, 229, 163 and 135. The relative intensity of the various fragment ions is also equivalent in each of the six EI-MS spectra. The vapour phase infrared spectra provide a number of absorption bands to differentiate among the six individual compounds on this regioisomeric set. Thus, the mass spectra place these compounds into a single group and the vapour phase infrared spectra differentiate among the six regioisomeric possibilities. All of the TFMPP-MDBP regioisomers displayed significant binding to 5-HT2B receptors and in contrast to 3-TFMPP, most of these TFMPP-MDBP isomers did not show significant binding at 5-HT1 receptor subtypes. Only the 3-TFMPP-3,4-MDBP (Compound 5) isomer displayed affinity comparable to 3-TFMPP at 5-HT1A receptors (Ki = 188 nmol/L).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack DeRuiter
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Ashleigh Van Cleave
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Audinei de Sousa Moura
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.,Department of Pharmacy, Federal University of Piaui, Teresina, Brazil
| | - Younis Abiedalla
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.,Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Omar Al-Mukhtar University, El-Beida, Libya
| | - C Randall Clark
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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24
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Özbek N, Mamaş S, Erdoğdu T, Alyar S, Kaya K, Karacan N. Synthesis, characterization, DFT studies of piperazine derivatives and its Ni(II), Cu(II) complexes as antimicrobial agents and glutathione reductase inhibitors. J Mol Struct 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2018.06.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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25
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Martins MJ, Roque Bravo R, Enea M, Carmo H, Carvalho F, Bastos MDL, Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Dias da Silva D. Ethanol addictively enhances the in vitro cardiotoxicity of cocaine through oxidative damage, energetic deregulation, and apoptosis. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:2311-2325. [PMID: 29846769 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2227-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine (COC) is frequently consumed in polydrug abuse settings, and ethanol (EtOH) is the most prominent co-abused substance. Clinical data and experimental evidence suggest that the co-administration of COC with EtOH can be more cardiotoxic than EtOH or COC alone, but information on the molecular pathways involved is scarce. Since these data are crucial to potentiate the identification of therapeutic targets to treat intoxications, we sought to (i) elucidate the type of interaction that occurs between both substances, and (ii) assess the mechanisms implicated in the cardiotoxic effects elicited by COC combined with EtOH. For this purpose, H9c2 cardiomyocytes were exposed to COC (104 µM-6.5 mM) and EtOH (977 µM-4 M), individually or combined at a molar ratio based on blood concentrations of intoxicated abusers (COC 1: EtOH 9; 206 µM-110 mM). After 24 h, cell metabolic viability was recorded by the MTT assay and mixture toxicity expectations were calculated using the independent action (IA) and concentration addition (CA) models. EtOH (EC50 305.26 mM) proved to act additively with COC (EC50 2.60 mM) to significantly increase the drug in vitro cardiotoxicity, even when both substances were combined at individually non-cytotoxic concentrations. Experimental mixture testing (EC50 19.18 ± 3.36 mM) demonstrated that the cardiotoxicity was fairly similar to that predicted by IA (EC50 22.95 mM) and CA (EC50 21.75 mM), supporting additivity. Concentration-dependent increases of intracellular ROS/RNS and GSSG, depletion of GSH and ATP, along with mitochondrial hyperpolarization and activation of intrinsic, extrinsic, and common apoptosis pathways were observed both for single and combined exposures. In general, the mixture exhibited a toxicological profile that mechanistically did not deviate from the single drugs, suggesting that interventions such as antioxidant administration might aid in the clinical treatment of this type of polydrug intoxication. In a clinical perspective, the observed additive mixture effect may reflect the increased hazards at which users of this combination are exposed to in recreational settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Martins
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, Porto, 4050-313, Portugal
| | - Rita Roque Bravo
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, Porto, 4050-313, Portugal
| | - Maria Enea
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, Porto, 4050-313, Portugal
| | - Helena Carmo
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, Porto, 4050-313, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, Porto, 4050-313, Portugal
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, Porto, 4050-313, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Jorge Dinis-Oliveira
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, Porto, 4050-313, Portugal.,IINFACTS, Department of Sciences, Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS-CESPU), Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116, Gandra PRD, Portugal.,Department of Public Health, Forensic Sciences and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal
| | - Diana Dias da Silva
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, Porto, 4050-313, Portugal. .,IINFACTS, Department of Sciences, Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS-CESPU), Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116, Gandra PRD, Portugal.
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26
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Wingert NR, Arbo MD, Göethel G, da Costa B, Altknecht LF, Garcia SC, Steppe M. In vitro toxicity assessment of rivaroxaban degradation products and kinetic evaluation to decay process. Drug Chem Toxicol 2018; 42:509-518. [PMID: 29644883 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2018.1452931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Degradation kinetics of oral anticoagulant rivaroxaban (RIV) was assessed in acid and alkaline media and while exposed to UVC radiation. Among all stress conditions tested, kinetic degradation process was better described by a zero-order model. A stability indicating method was validated for the analysis of the anticoagulant RIV in tablets by high-performance liquid chromatography. Robustness was evaluated with a two-level Plackett-Burman experimental design. The effect of acute exposition of the human hepatoblastoma HepG2 cell line to RIV stressed samples (100 and 500 µM) was assessed through in vitro toxicity tests. MTT reduction, neutral red uptake, mitochondrial membrane potential, and low molecular weight DNA diffusion assays were employed for cytotoxicity evaluation (5×104 cells/well). The genotoxic potential was assessed by comet assay (2×104 cells/well). Acute toxicity to HepG2 cells was assessed after 24 h incubation with sample solutions, for each test. A direct relationship between the increased amount of alkaline degradation products and higher cytotoxic potential was found. Results obtained by viability assay investigations support the concerns on risks associated with acute toxicity and genotoxicity of pharmaceutical samples containing degradation products as impurities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie R Wingert
- a Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Quality Control (LCQFar) , Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul , Porto Alegre , Brazil
| | - Marcelo D Arbo
- b Laboratory of Toxicology (LATOX) , Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul , Porto Alegre , Brazil
| | - Gabriela Göethel
- b Laboratory of Toxicology (LATOX) , Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul , Porto Alegre , Brazil
| | - Bárbara da Costa
- b Laboratory of Toxicology (LATOX) , Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul , Porto Alegre , Brazil
| | - Louise F Altknecht
- b Laboratory of Toxicology (LATOX) , Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul , Porto Alegre , Brazil
| | - Solange C Garcia
- b Laboratory of Toxicology (LATOX) , Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul , Porto Alegre , Brazil
| | - Martin Steppe
- a Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Quality Control (LCQFar) , Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul , Porto Alegre , Brazil
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27
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The synthetic cannabinoid XLR-11 induces in vitro nephrotoxicity by impairment of endocannabinoid-mediated regulation of mitochondrial function homeostasis and triggering of apoptosis. Toxicol Lett 2018; 287:59-69. [PMID: 29410032 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids (SCBs)-related intoxications and deaths have been increasingly reported, turning its widespread recreational use into a major public health concern. Specifically, a direct link between SCBs and acute kidney injury (AKI) has been established. XLR-11 is an SCB commonly found in the toxicological analysis of patients with SCB-associated AKI. However, the pathophysiology of AKI among SCB consumers remains unknown. This work thus represents the first in vitro assessment of SCB nephrotoxicity, as a first approach to identify its cellular targets. We demonstrate that XLR-11, at biologically relevant concentrations (in the nanomolar range), primarily targets mitochondrial function in human proximal tubule (HK-2) cells, inducing a transient hyperpolarization of the mitochondrial membrane and increasing ATP production, accompanied by Bax translocation from cytosol into mitochondria. These phenomena further triggered energy-dependent apoptotic cell death pathways, indicated by increased caspase-3 activity and chromatin condensation. Experiments using SR141716A and SR144258, specific antagonists for CB1 and CB2 receptors, respectively, as well as HEK293T cells (which do not express CBRs) highlighted these processes' dependence on CBR activation. Nevertheless, ATP formation seemed to follow a CBR-independent pathway. Our findings using specific inhibitors of endogenous cannabinoids biosynthesis (i.e. MAFP and THL) further evidenced the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the regulation of these processes, as XLR-11 binding to CBRs seemed to compromise endocannabinoid-mediated preservation of mitochondrial function. Nevertheless, the exact mechanisms involved require further clarification.
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28
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Liu F, Tan X, Han X, Li X, Li N, Kang W. Cytotoxicity of Aconitum alkaloid and its interaction with calf thymus DNA by multi-spectroscopic techniques. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14509. [PMID: 29109516 PMCID: PMC5674014 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15240-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The cytotoxicities of three aconitum alkaloids- aconitine, hypaconitine and mesaconitine, and their abilities to bind DNA have been explored. Rat myocardial cells H9c2 were treated with aconitum alkaloids and assessed the cytotoxicities by using MTT assay and flow cytometry. Apoptosis was evidenced by the results of the annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) assay. Aconitine was found to be the most toxic in rat myocardial cells H9c2 in three aconitum alkaloids. At the same time, DNA adducts were isolated and then analyzed by UV-Vis spectroscopy after exposure to alkaloids, which indicated that three alkaloids could bind to DNA in rat myocardial cells H9c2. Furthermore, their binding modes were investigated by UV-Visible, fluorescence, DNA melting studies and ionic strength effect. Results indicated that the interaction between three alkaloids and DNA were intercalation coupled with electrostatic effect. The estimated binding constants were between 4.83 × 105 M-1 to 9.85 × 105 M-1 for three alkaloids at 298 K.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Liu
- School of Basic Medical, Hebei University of Chinese Medicine, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Xiaoxin Tan
- School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Xu Han
- Institute of Viral Disease, Hebei Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Xiang Li
- School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Nan Li
- School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Weijun Kang
- School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China.
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29
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Katz DP, Majrashi M, Ramesh S, Govindarajulu M, Bhattacharya D, Bhattacharya S, Shlghom A, Bradford C, Suppiramaniam V, Deruiter J, Clark CR, Dhanasekaran M. Comparing the dopaminergic neurotoxic effects of benzylpiperazine and benzoylpiperazine. Toxicol Mech Methods 2017; 28:177-186. [PMID: 28874085 DOI: 10.1080/15376516.2017.1376024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Benzylpiperazine has been designated as Schedule I substance under the Controlled Substances Act by Drug Enforcement Administration. Benzylpiperazine is a piperazine derivative, elevates both dopamine and serotonin extracellular levels producing stimulatory and hallucinogenic effects, respectively, similar to methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). However, the comparative neurotoxic effects of Piperazine derivatives (benzylpiperazine and benzoylpiperazine) have not been elucidated. Here, piperazine derivatives (benzylpiperazine and benzoylpiperazine) were synthesized in our lab and the mechanisms of cellular-based neurotoxicity were elucidated in a dopaminergic human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y). We evaluated the in vitro effects of benzylpiperazine and benzoylpiperazine on the generation of reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial complex-I activity, catalase activity, superoxide dismutase activity, glutathione content, Bax, caspase-3, Bcl-2 and tyrosine hydroxylase expression. Benzylpiperazine and benzoylpiperazine induced oxidative stress, inhibited mitochondrial functions and stimulated apoptosis. This study provides a germinal assessment of the neurotoxic mechanisms induced by piperazine derivatives that lead to neuronal cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Katz
- a Department of Drug Discovery and Development , Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University , Auburn , AL , USA
| | - Mohammed Majrashi
- a Department of Drug Discovery and Development , Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University , Auburn , AL , USA.,b Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine , Jeddah University , Jeddah , KSA
| | - Sindhu Ramesh
- a Department of Drug Discovery and Development , Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University , Auburn , AL , USA
| | - Manoj Govindarajulu
- a Department of Drug Discovery and Development , Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University , Auburn , AL , USA
| | - Dwipayan Bhattacharya
- a Department of Drug Discovery and Development , Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University , Auburn , AL , USA
| | - Subhrajit Bhattacharya
- a Department of Drug Discovery and Development , Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University , Auburn , AL , USA
| | - Aimen Shlghom
- c Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences , Tuskegee University , Tuskegee , AL , USA
| | - Chastity Bradford
- c Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences , Tuskegee University , Tuskegee , AL , USA
| | - Vishnu Suppiramaniam
- a Department of Drug Discovery and Development , Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University , Auburn , AL , USA
| | - Jack Deruiter
- a Department of Drug Discovery and Development , Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University , Auburn , AL , USA
| | - C Randall Clark
- a Department of Drug Discovery and Development , Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University , Auburn , AL , USA
| | - Muralikrishnan Dhanasekaran
- a Department of Drug Discovery and Development , Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University , Auburn , AL , USA
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30
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Suhaeri M, Subbiah R, Kim SH, Kim CH, Oh SJ, Kim SH, Park K. Novel Platform of Cardiomyocyte Culture and Coculture via Fibroblast-Derived Matrix-Coupled Aligned Electrospun Nanofiber. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:224-235. [PMID: 27936534 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b14020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
For cardiac tissue engineering, much attention has been given to the artificial cardiac microenvironment in which anisotropic design of scaffold and extracellular matrix (ECM) are the major cues. Here we propose poly(l-lactide-co-caprolactone) and fibroblast-derived ECM (PLCL/FDM), a hybrid scaffold that combines aligned electrospun PLCL fibers and FDM. Fibroblasts were grown on the PLCL fibers for 5-7 days and subsequently decellularized to produce PLCL/FDM. Various analyses confirmed aligned, FDM-deposited PLCL fibers. Compared to fibronectin (FN)-coated electrospun PLCL fibers (control), H9c2 cardiomyoblast differentiation was significantly effective, and neonatal rat cardiomyocyte (CM) phenotype and maturation was improved on PLCL/FDM. Moreover, a coculture platform was created using multilayer PLCL/FDM in which two different cells make indirect or direct cell-cell contacts. Such coculture platforms demonstrate their feasibility in terms of higher cell viability, efficiency of target cell harvest (>95% in noncontact; 85% in contact mode), and molecular diffusion through the PLCL/FDM layer. Coculture of primary CMs and fibroblasts exhibited much better CM phenotype and improvement of CM maturity upon either direct or indirect interactions, compared to the conventional coculture systems (transwell insert and tissue culture plate (TCP)). Taken together, our platform should be very useful and have significant contributions in investigating some scientific or practical issues of crosstalks between multiple cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Suhaeri
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST) , Daejon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Ramesh Subbiah
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST) , Daejon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | - Sang-Heon Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST) , Daejon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwideok Park
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST) , Daejon 34113, Republic of Korea
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31
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Katz DP, Deruiter J, Bhattacharya D, Ahuja M, Bhattacharya S, Clark CR, Suppiramaniam V, Dhanasekaran M. Benzylpiperazine: "A messy drug". Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 164:1-7. [PMID: 27207154 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Revised: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Designer drugs are synthetic structural analogues/congeners of controlled substances with slightly modified chemical structures intended to mimic the pharmacological effects of known drugs of abuse so as to evade drug classification. Benzylpiperazine (BZP), a piperazine derivative, elevates synaptic dopamine and serotonin levels producing stimulatory and hallucinogenic effects, respectively, similar to the well-known drug of abuse, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Furthermore, BZP augments the release of norepinephrine by inhibiting presynaptic autoreceptors, therefore, BZP is a "messy drug" due to its multifaceted regulation of synaptic monoamine neurotransmitters. Initially, pharmaceutical companies used BZP as a therapeutic drug for the treatment of various disease states, but due to its contraindications and abuse potential it was withdrawn from the market. BZP imparts predominately sympathomimetic effects accompanied by serious cardiovascular implications. Addictive properties of BZP include behavioral sensitization, cross sensitization, conditioned place preference and repeated self-administration. Additional testing of piperazine derived drugs is needed due to a scarcity of toxicological data and widely abuse worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- D P Katz
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - J Deruiter
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - D Bhattacharya
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - M Ahuja
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - S Bhattacharya
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - C R Clark
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - V Suppiramaniam
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
| | - M Dhanasekaran
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
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32
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In vitro hepatotoxicity of 'Legal X': the combination of 1-benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 1-(m-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine (TFMPP) triggers oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment and apoptosis. Arch Toxicol 2016; 91:1413-1430. [PMID: 27358233 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1777-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
N-Benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine (TFMPP) are two synthetic phenylpiperazine analogues that have been frequently commercialized in combination as an alternative to ecstasy ('Legal X'). Despite reports of several clinical complications following the use of these drugs in association, few studies have been conducted so far to elucidate their combined toxicity. The present study was aimed at clarifying the cytotoxic effects of mixtures of BZP and TFMPP in vitro. Human-derived HepaRG cells and primary rat hepatocytes were exposed to the drugs, individually or combined at different mixture ratios, and cytotoxicity was assessed by the MTT assay. Mixture additivity expectations were calculated by the independent action and the concentration addition (CA) models and compared with the experimental outcomes. To delineate the mechanisms underlying the elicited effects, a range of stress endpoints was evaluated, including oxidative stress, energetic imbalance, and metabolic interactions. It was observed that primary rat hepatocytes are more sensitive than HepaRG cells to the toxicity of BZP (EC50 2.20 and 6.60 mM, respectively) and TFMPP (EC50 0.14 and 0.45 mM, respectively). For all BZP-TFMPP combinations tested, CA was the most appropriate model to predict the mixture effects. TFMPP proved to act additively with BZP to produce significant hepatotoxicity (p < 0.01). Remarkably, substantial mixture effects were observed even when each drug was present at concentrations that were harmless individually. In primary hepatocytes, a small deviation from additivity (antagonism) was observed toward the upper range of the concentration-response curve. GC/MS data suggest that a metabolic interaction may be at a play, as the mixture favors the metabolism of both substances, to a significant extent in the case of BZP (p < 0.05). Also, our results demonstrate the influence of oxidative stress and energetic imbalance on these effects (increase in RNS and ROS production, decrease in intracellular GSH/GSSG, ATP depletion and mitochondrial Δψm disruption). The present work clearly demonstrates that potentially harmful interactions among BZP and TFMPP are expected when these drugs are taken concomitantly.
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Persona K, Polus A, Góralska J, Gruca A, Dembińska-Kieć A, Piekoszewski W. An In Vitro Study of the Neurotoxic Effects of N-Benzylpiperazine: A Designer Drug of Abuse. Neurotox Res 2016; 29:558-68. [PMID: 26861955 PMCID: PMC4820481 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-016-9604-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Recently, the number of new psychoactive substances has significantly increased. Despite the systematic introduction of prohibition in trade of medicinal products which mimic the effects of illegal drugs, the problem concerning this group of drugs is still important although knowledge about the mechanism of action of those types of substances is scarce. This study aimed to follow the neurotoxic effect of N-benzylpiperazine (BZP), the central nervous system psychostimulant, using the human cancer LN-18 cell model. The statistically significant elevation of LDH levels, increased mitochondrial membrane potential, decreased ATP and increased ROS production, increased levels of DNA damage marker (8-OHdG) and activation of caspases: -3 and -9 confirmed by Real-Time PCR imply the activation of mitochondrial proapoptotic pathways induced by BZP after 24 h incubation. This study is a novel, preliminary attempt to explain the toxicity of one of the most popular designer drug of abuse at the cellular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Persona
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Ingardena 3, 30-060, Kraków, Poland
| | - Anna Polus
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Jagiellonian University in Krakow - Medical College, Kraków, Poland
| | - Joanna Góralska
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Jagiellonian University in Krakow - Medical College, Kraków, Poland
| | - Anna Gruca
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Jagiellonian University in Krakow - Medical College, Kraków, Poland
| | - Aldona Dembińska-Kieć
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Jagiellonian University in Krakow - Medical College, Kraków, Poland
| | - Wojciech Piekoszewski
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Ingardena 3, 30-060, Kraków, Poland.
- School of Biomedicine, Far Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok, Russia.
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Hepatotoxicity of piperazine designer drugs: up-regulation of key enzymes of cholesterol and lipid biosynthesis. Arch Toxicol 2016; 90:3045-3060. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1665-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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35
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Arbo MD, Silva R, Barbosa DJ, Dias da Silva D, Silva SP, Teixeira JP, Bastos ML, Carmo H. In vitro neurotoxicity evaluation of piperazine designer drugs in differentiated human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. J Appl Toxicol 2015; 36:121-30. [PMID: 25900438 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2015] [Revised: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Abuse of synthetic drugs is widespread worldwide. Studies indicate that piperazine designer drugs act as substrates at dopaminergic and serotonergic receptors and/or transporters in the brain. This work aimed to investigate the cytotoxicity of N-benzylpiperazine, 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine, 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)piperazine and 1-(3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)piperazine in the differentiated human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line. Cytotoxicity was evaluated after 24 h incubations through the MTT reduction and neutral red uptake assays. Oxidative stress (reactive oxygen and nitrogen species production and glutathione content) and energetic (ATP content) parameters, as well as intracellular Ca(2+), mitochondrial membrane potential, DNA damage (comet assay) and cell death mode were also evaluated. Complete cytotoxicity curves were obtained after 24 h incubations with each drug. A significant decrease in intracellular total glutathione content was noted for all the tested drugs. All drugs caused a significant increase of intracellular free Ca(2+) levels, accompanied by mitochondrial hyperpolarization. However, ATP levels remained unchanged. The investigation of cell death mode revealed a predominance of early apoptotic cells. No genotoxicity was found in the comet assay. Among the tested drugs, 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine was the most cytotoxic. Overall, piperazine designer drugs are potentially neurotoxic, supporting concerns on risks associated with the abuse of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Arbo
- REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - R Silva
- REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - D J Barbosa
- REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Cell Division Mechanisms Group, Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology - IBMC, Porto, Portugal
| | - D Dias da Silva
- REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - S P Silva
- Instituto Nacional de Saúde Dr. Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Porto, Portugal
| | - J P Teixeira
- Instituto Nacional de Saúde Dr. Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Porto, Portugal
| | - M L Bastos
- REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - H Carmo
- REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Toxicologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
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36
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Hepatotoxicity of piperazine designer drugs: Comparison of different in vitro models. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 29:987-96. [PMID: 25863214 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2015.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Piperazine derived drugs emerged on the drug market in the last decade. The aim of this study was to investigate in vitro the potential hepatotoxicity of the designer drugs N-benzylpiperazine (BZP), 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine (TFMPP), 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)piperazine (MeOPP) and 1-(3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)piperazine (MDBP) in two human hepatic cell lines (HepaRG and HepG2) and in primary rat hepatocytes. Cell death was evaluated by the MTT assay, after 24 h-incubations. Among the tested drugs, TFMPP was the most cytotoxic. HepaRG cells and primary hepatocytes revealed to be the most and the least resistant cellular models, respectively. To ascertain whether the CYP450 metabolism could explain their higher susceptibility, primary hepatocytes were co-incubated with the piperazines and the CYP450 inhibitors metyrapone and quinidine, showing that CYP450-mediated metabolism contributes to the detoxification of these drugs. Additionally, the intracellular contents of reactive species, ATP, reduced (GSH) and oxidized (GSSG) glutathione, changes in mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) and caspase-3 activation were further evaluated in primary cells. Overall, an increase in reactive species formation, followed by intracellular GSH and ATP depletion, loss of Δψm and caspase-3 activation was observed for all piperazines, in a concentration-dependent manner. In conclusion, piperazine designer drugs produce hepatic detrimental effects that can vary in magnitude among the different analogues.
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