Repeated dose 28-day oral toxicity study of moniliformin in rats

The Role of Nitrogen Fertilization on the Occurrence of Regulated, Modified and Emerging Mycotoxins and Fungal Metabolites in Maize Kernels

The European Food Safety Authority is currently evaluating the risks related to the presence of emerging mycotoxins in food and feeds. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of soil fertility, resulting from different nitrogen fertilization rates, on the contamination of regulated mycotoxins and emerging fungal metabolites in maize grains. The trial was carried out in the 2012–2013 growing seasons as part of a long-term (20-year) experimental platform area in North-West Italy, where five different N rates, ranging from 0 to 400 kg N ha−1, were applied to maize each year. Maize samples were analyzed by means of a dilute-and-shoot multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS method, and more than 25 of the most abundant mycotoxins and fungal metabolites were detected. Contamination by fumonisins and other fungal metabolites produced by Fusarium spp. of the section Liseola was observed to have increased in soils that showed a poor fertility status. On the other hand, an overload of nitrogen fertilization was generally associated with higher deoxynivalenol and zearalenone contamination in maize kernels, as well as a higher risk of other fungal metabolites produced by Fusarium spp. sections Discolor and Roseum. A balanced application of N fertilizer, in accordance with maize uptake, generally appears to be the best solution to guarantee an overall lower contamination by regulated mycotoxins and emerging fungal metabolites.

The Effect of Foliar Fungicide and Insecticide Application on the Contamination of Fumonisins, Moniliformin and Deoxynivalenol in Maize Used for Food Purposes

The fungal ear rot of maize cultivated in temperate areas is mainly due to the Fusarium species. The use of insecticides against European Corn Borer (ECB) reduces the severity of fungal ear rot as well as the fumonisin (FB) and moniliformin (MON) levels in maize kernels at harvest, which in turn results in a lowering of their effect on deoxynivalenol (DON) control. However, the direct fungicidal control of ear rot has rarely been implemented for maize, and the first studies reported conflicting results on the reduction of mycotoxins. In the present experiment, field trials were carried out in North Italy over three growing seasons to study the effect of fungicide application timings on maize to control mycotoxins, considering the interaction of the application with the insecticide treatment, according to a full factorial split plot design. The mycotoxin content was determined through LC−MS/MS analysis. The field trials showed a significant reduction in ECB severity (75%), fungal ear rot severity (68%), Fusarium Liseola section infection (46%), FBs (75%) and MON (79%) as a result of the insecticide application for all the years, while the DON content increased by 60%. On the other hand, a fungicide application alone or applied in plots protected by an insecticide was never effective for the fungal symptoms, infection or mycotoxin content. The results confirm that a correct insecticide application to control ECB damage is the most effective agrochemical solution for the control of fungal ear rot, FBs and MON.

Influence of H2O2-Induced Oxidative Stress on In Vitro Growth and Moniliformin and Fumonisins Accumulation by Fusarium proliferatum and Fusarium subglutinans

Fusarium proliferatum and Fusarium subglutinans are common pathogens of maize which are known to produce mycotoxins, including moniliformin (MON) and fumonisins (FBs). Fungal secondary metabolism and response to oxidative stress are interlaced, where hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) plays a pivotal role in the modulation of mycotoxin production. The objective of this study is to examine the effect of H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress on fungal growth, as well as MON and FBs production, in different isolates of these fungi. When these isolates were cultured in the presence of 1, 2, 5, and 10 mM H₂O₂, the fungal biomass of F. subglutinans isolates showed a strong sensitivity to increasing oxidative conditions (27–58% reduction), whereas F. proliferatum isolates were not affected or even slightly improved (45% increase). H₂O₂ treatment at the lower concentration of 1 mM caused an almost total disappearance of MON and a strong reduction of FBs content in the two fungal species and isolates tested. The catalase activity, surveyed due to its crucial role as an H₂O₂ scavenger, showed no significant changes at 1 mM H₂O₂ treatment, thus indicating a lack of correlation with MON and FB changes. H₂O₂ treatment was also able to reduce MON and FB content in certified maize material, and the same behavior was observed in the presence and absence of these fungi, highlighting a direct effect of H₂O₂ on the stability of these mycotoxins. Taken together, these data provide insights into the role of H₂O₂ which, when increased under stress conditions, could affect the vegetative response and mycotoxin production (and degradation) of these fungi.

Fate of regulated, masked, emerging mycotoxins and secondary fungal metabolites during different large-scale maize dry-milling processes

The use of maize in the food chain could be mainly limited due to its contamination by mycotoxins. As scarce information is available, the current study is aimed at collecting new data on the co-occurrence and the fate of the most frequent masked, modified and emerging mycotoxins and other second fungal metabolites in maize food products and by-products. Three maize lots, obtained in different growing seasons, were processed using two different degermination processes, a dry-degermination system or a tempering-degermination one, in order to compare the interaction between mycotoxins and the dry-milling management system. Whole grain before and after cleaning, and all the products and the by-products were sampled twice for each lot and were subjected to a multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS analysis. More than 30 mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites, including masked or modified forms, co-occurred in all the maize milling fractions. Grain cleaning reduced all the detected fungal metabolites by 1.2-2 times, compared to the grain before cleaning. Animal feed flour showed the highest content of almost all the mycotoxins and fungal metabolites, with a consequent negative impact on animal health. Considering that for all the mycotoxins and fungal metabolites an inverse relationship with particle size was observed, flaking grits represented the healthiest maize products with the least contamination level, while the abatement was always lower for maize flour. Furthermore, the metabolites were variably redistributed in the maize fractions. The total aflatoxins, kojic acid, deoxynivalenol and its modified form, culmorin, and its associated forms, butenolide, fusaproliferin, fusaric acid, fusarinolic acid and, in some cases, zearalenone and its modified forms, and fusarin C were found to be concentrated significantly in the germ. Some of them also had a greater permanence in the maize food fractions and a weaker decontamination, both of which point to a higher risk of exposure for the end consumers. The co-occurrence of a such a high number of mycotoxins and fungal metabolites and their different fates during the dry-milling process have never been described before.

Effects of Durum Wheat Cultivars with Different Degrees of FHB Susceptibility Grown under Different Meteorological Conditions on the Contamination of Regulated, Modified and Emerging Mycotoxins

The enhancement of Fusarium head blight (FHB) resistance is one of the best options to reduce mycotoxin contamination in wheat. This study has aimed to verify that the genotypes with high tolerance to deoxynivalenol could guarantee an overall minimization of the sanitary risk, by evaluating the contamination of regulated, modified and emerging mycotoxins on durum wheat cvs with different degrees of FHB susceptibility, grown under different meteorological conditions, in 8 growing seasons in North-West Italy. The years which were characterized by frequent and heavy rainfall in spring were also those with the highest contamination of deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, moniliformin, and enniatins. The most FHB resistant genotypes resulted in the lowest contamination of all the mycotoxins but showed the highest deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside/deoxynivalenol ratio and moniliformin/deoxynivalenol ratio. An inverse relationship between the amount of deoxynivalenol and the deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside/deoxynivalenol ratio was recorded for all the cvs and all the years. Conversely, the enniatins/deoxynivalenol ratio had a less intense relationship with cv tolerance to FHB. In conclusion, even though the more tolerant cvs, showed higher relative relationships between modified/emerging mycotoxins and native/target mycotoxins than the susceptible ones, they showed lower absolute levels of contamination of both emerging and modified mycotoxins.

Subacute oral toxicity of ayurvedic anti-diabetic preparation Jambadyarista in Sprague-Dawley rats

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Jambadyarista, an Ayurvedic formulation used in the management of diabetes and its related complications.

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This study investigated the subacute oral toxicity of Jambadyarista in a rat model.

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Biochemical and hematological parameters were studied after 28-day of treatment.

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Evidence of mortality and change in observed parameters were not seen that proves the oral safety of Jambadyarista.

Background

Jambadyarista is an Ayurvedic polyherbal formulation widely prescribed by Ayurvedic practitioners for the management of diabetes and its associated complications. About 39 companies have marketed this formulation in Bangladesh with consent from the Directorate General of Drug Administration (DGDA).

Aim

This study investigated the sub-acute oral toxicity of Jambadyarista in the Sprague-Dawley rat model.

Methods

The sub-acute toxicity studies were executed in Sprague-Dawley rats. Jambadyarista formulation was given for 28-days through oral gavage at 10 mL/kg and 20 mL/kg dose to two different groups comprising 6 rats of both sex/groups. Across the experimental period mortality, adverse reactions were closely monitored. After 28-day feeding hematological, biochemical, and relative organ weights were quantified.

Results

No mortality and/or signs of morbidity were observed for 28-day of repeated-dose sub-acute toxicity. Any pernicious change in body weight, biochemical, and hematological parameters along with relative organ weight were not observed for Jambadyarista. Correlation study among parameters of the renal profile, liver profile, lipid profile also metabolic hormones (T₃ and TSH), and enzymes showed the non-toxic rather beneficial role (hypolipidemic) of Jambadyarista in Sprague-Dawley rats.

Conclusion

Jambadyarista preparation did not cause any potential toxic effect in repeated dose subacute toxicity study over Sprague-Dawley rats orally. Therefore, low dose administration of Jambadyarista could have a beneficial effect on diabetes and can be considered safe before the chronic study.

Co-Occurrence of Moniliformin and Regulated Fusarium Toxins in Maize and Wheat Grown in Italy

The co-occurrence of moniliformin (MON), fumonisins (FBs), and deoxynivalenol (DON) was evaluated in maize, durum, and common wheat grown in different experimental fields located in several Italian regions. MON was quantified using a LC-MS/MS method adding lanthanum ions in the mobile phase. In maize, MON contamination was widespread and considerable; the toxin was detected in almost all the samples (95.1%) and exceeded 500 and 1000 µg kg-1 in 42.0% and in 18.5% of samples, respectively. Significant positive correlation was found between MON and FB contamination levels. When there were not droughty climate conditions, a positive significant correlation was found between growing degree days (GDD) and MON values. In wheat, MON contamination was not widespread like in maize and it was lower in common wheat than in durum wheat. In durum wheat, MON was detected in 45.0% of the samples with only 6 samples (7.5%) exceeding 500 µg kg-1, while in common wheat the toxin was detected above the LOD in 18.7% of samples exceeding 100 µg kg-1 in only two samples (2.5%). No correlation was found with DON contamination. Climate conditions influenced both MON and DON occurrence.

Chemiluminescence Studies of Lipoperoxidation Processes in Arterial Hypertension and Stress

Various pathologies, in particular hypertension, accompany violation of the processes of free radical oxidation. The state of the system lipid peroxidation – antioxidant protection can be assessed only by a complex of biochemical methods. The chemiluminescent method is used to obtain a faster result. The method has a number of advantages: measurement of chemiluminescence parameters is carried out in natural conditions and does not require sample preparation, is highly selective, it can be used to identify the presence of free radical pathology, analysis of the intensity of lipid peroxidation processes, the effectiveness of treatment with antioxidant medicament. The aim of the research was to study the lipid peroxidation under hypertension and stress by chemiluminescence. The experiment was conducted on male rats of the ISIAH line. The experiment consisted of 2 stages: stage of alarm and stage of chronic stress. We found that, depending on the type of stress, the state of the system lipid peroxidation-antioxidant protection differed. The role of stress in violation of the processes of lipoperoxidation in hypertension was established. The efficacy of the chemiluminescence method as an alternative to a complex of biochemical methods is shown. Express assessment of pro- and antioxidant status is possible for patients with hypertension.

Fusarium species and moniliformin occurrence in sorghum grains used as ingredient for animal feed in Argentina

BACKGROUND

A survey on Fusarium species and moniliformin (MON) occurrence in sorghum grains collected from one of the main sorghum-producing areas of Argentina was conducted. Also, growth of F. thapsinum, one of the main sorghum pathogens, and MON production under different water activity (a_w ) conditions on a sorghum-based medium were determined.

RESULTS

Infection of sorghum grains by Fusarium species ranged from 82.5 to 99%; closely related species F. verticillioides, F. thapsinum and F. andiyazi were the most frequently recovered, followed by F. proliferatum and F. subglutinans. By sequencing a portion of the translation elongation factor-1α (TEF-1α) gene and by maximum parsimony analysis, F. verticillioides and closely related species were identified as F. thapsinum, F. andiyazi and F. verticillioides. Species within the F. graminearum species complex (FGSC) were isolated in high frequency. Maximum growth rates of 12 F. thapsinum strains were obtained at 0.995 a_w . All evaluated strains were able to produce MON at all a_w values tested, but MON production was higher at 0.995-0.982 a_w . MON was detected in 41% of the samples at levels ranging from 363.2 to 914.2 µg kg^-1 .

CONCLUSION

This study provides new data on the occurrence of Fusarium species in sorghum grains destined for animal consumption in Argentina. The production of MON at different a_w values showed that the toxin can be produced under field conditions. The risk to livestock exposed to daily low levels of MON associated with the toxin occurrence in the sorghum grains analyzed is unknown. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Multi-mycotoxin screening of feed and feed raw materials from Africa

As animal feed is prone to infestation with mycotoxin-producing fungi, mycotoxin contamination of feed should be monitored. Here, we report a multi-mycotoxin survey of feed samples from Africa. We determined the concentrations of aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, zearalenone and ochratoxin A in 1,045 samples of finished feed and feed raw materials (maize, maize silage, other cereals, etc.) from South Africa and 318 samples from Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Ghana, Namibia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and Madagascar. We compared the measured mycotoxin concentrations to regulatory limits or guidance values that are in effect in the European Union and analysed the co-occurrence of these mycotoxins. To determine the occurrence of other fungal secondary metabolites, a subset of the samples was analysed using a multi-analyte liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry-based method for the simultaneous detection of over 700 fungal metabolites. We found that 33.3% of maize samples and 54.4% of finished feed samples from Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Ghana, Namibia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania exceeded the European regulatory limit of 20 ng/g aflatoxins. The Fusarium mycotoxins zearalenone, fumonisins and deoxynivalenol were prevalent in all commodities from all countries, but concentrations were in most cases below European guidance values. Concentrations of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were correlated. Several other Fusarium metabolites occurred frequently (e.g. moniliformin, beauvericin, aurofusarin) or in high concentrations (e.g. aurofusarin, fusaproliferin). Furthermore, high levels of diplodiatoxin were occasionally detected in samples from South Africa and the Alternaria metabolite tenuazonic acid was prevalent and reached high concentrations. In conclusion, aflatoxins frequently occurred in African feed samples in potentially unsafe concentrations. While Fusarium mycotoxins mostly occurred in concentrations below European guidance values, a correlation between deoxynivalenol and zearalenone concentrations suggests that toxicological interactions of these compounds deserve attention. Several less investigated fungal secondary metabolites occurred frequently or reached high concentrations.

Risks to human and animal health related to the presence of moniliformin in food and feed

Moniliformin (MON) is a mycotoxin with low molecular weight primarily produced by Fusarium fungi and occurring predominantly in cereal grains. Following a request of the European Commission, the CONTAM Panel assessed the risk of MON to human and animal health related to its presence in food and feed. The limited information available on toxicity and on toxicokinetics in experimental and farm animals indicated haematotoxicity and cardiotoxicity as major adverse health effects of MON. MON causes chromosome aberrations in vitro but no in vivo genotoxicity data and no carcinogenicity data were identified. Due to the limitations in the available toxicity data, human acute or chronic health‐based guidance values (HBGV) could not be established. The margin of exposure (MOE) between the no‐observed‐adverse‐effect level (NOAEL) of 6.0 mg/kg body weight (bw) for cardiotoxicity from a subacute study in rats and the acute upper bound (UB) dietary exposure estimates ranged between 4,000 and 73,000. The MOE between the lowest benchmark dose lower confidence limit (for a 5% response ‐ BMDL₀₅) of 0.20 mg MON/kg bw per day for haematological hazards from a 28‐day study in pigs and the chronic dietary human exposure estimates ranged between 370 and 5,000,000 for chronic dietary exposures. These MOEs indicate a low risk for human health but were associated with high uncertainty. The toxicity data available for poultry, pigs, and mink indicated a low or even negligible risk for these animals from exposure to MON in feed at the estimated exposure levels under current feeding practices. Assuming similar or lower sensitivity as for pigs, the CONTAM Panel considered a low or even negligible risk for the other animal species for which no toxicity data suitable for hazard characterisation were identified. Additional toxicity studies are needed and depending on their outcome, the collection of more occurrence data on MON in food and feed is recommended to enable a comprehensive human risk assessment.

A critical review of producers of small lactone mycotoxins: patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin

A very large number of filamentous fungi has been reported to produce the small lactone mycotoxins patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin. Among the 167 reported fungal producers of patulin, only production by 29 species could be confirmed. Patulin is produced by 3 Aspergillus species, 3 Paecilomyces species, 22 Penicillium species from 7 sections of Penicillium, and one Xylaria species. Among 101 reported producers of penicillic acid, 48 species could produce this mycotoxin. Penicillic acid is produced by 23 species in section Aspergillus subgenus Circumdati section Circumdati, by Malbranchea aurantiaca and by 24 Penicillium species from 9 sections in Penicillium and one species that does not actually belong to Penicillium (P. megasporum). Among 40 reported producers of moniliformin, five species have been regarded as doubtful producers of this mycotoxin or are now regarded as taxonomic synonyms. Moniliformin is produced by 34 Fusarium species and one Penicillium species. All the accepted producers of patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin were revised according to the new one fungus – one name nomenclatural system, and the most recently accepted taxonomy of the species.

A rapid LC-MS/MS method for the determination of moniliformin and occurrence of this mycotoxin in maize products from the Bavarian market

A simple LC-MS/MS method was developed for the determination of moniliformin (MON) in maize and applied for the analysis of samples within the official food surveillance. The homogenized samples were extracted with acetonitrile/water 50/50 (v/v) which proved to have the highest extraction efficiency compared to other tested solvents. The centrifuged extracts were diluted with acetonitrile and were measured after chromatographic separation by HILIC (hydrophobic interaction liquid chromatography)-HPLC without any cleanup (dilute and shoot approach). The LOD and LOQ achieved by this procedure were 2.6 and 8.8 μg/kg, respectively. Thirty-nine samples of popcorn, maize meal, and semolina were collected in 2014 and 2015 at mills, cinemas, wholesale, and retail from the Bavarian market (Germany). The rate of contamination with MON was very high (97%) with levels ranging between the LOD and 847 μg/kg. The mean level was 118 μg/kg and the median, 39 μg/kg. The maximum value was detected in maize meal. The results are discussed with respect to possible health implications for the consumer.

Emerging Mycotoxins: Beyond Traditionally Determined Food Contaminants

Modern analytical techniques can determine a multitude of fungal metabolites contaminating food and feed. In addition to known mycotoxins, for which maximum levels in food are enforced, also currently unregulated, so-called "emerging mycotoxins" were shown to occur frequently in agricultural products. The aim of this review is to critically discuss the relevance of selected emerging mycotoxins to food and feed safety. Acute and chronic toxicity as well as occurrence data are presented for enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, fusaproliferin, fusaric acid, culmorin, butenolide, sterigmatocystin, emodin, mycophenolic acid, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, and tenuazonic acid. By far not all of the detected compounds are toxicologically relevant at their naturally occurring levels and are therefore of little or no health concern to consumers. Still, gaps in knowledge have been identified for several compounds. These gaps should be closed by the scientific community in the coming years to allow a proper risk assessment.

The Response of Phagocytes to Indoor Air Toxicity

This perspective presents a viewpoint on potential methods assessing toxicity of indoor air. Until recently, the major techniques to document moldy environment have been microbial isolation using conventional culture techniques for fungi and bacteria as well as in some instances polymerase chain reaction to detect microbial genetic components. However, it has become increasingly evident that bacterial and fungal toxins, their metabolic products, and volatile organic substances emitted from corrupted constructions are the major health risks. Here, we illustrate how phagocytes, especially neutrophils can be used as a toxicological probe. Neutrophils can be used either in vitro as probe cells, directly exposed to the toxic agent studied, or they can act as in vivo indicators of the whole biological system exposed to the agent. There are two convenient methods assessing the responses, one is to measure chemiluminescence emission from activated phagocytes and the other is to measure quantitatively by flow cytometry the expression of complement and immunoglobulin receptors on the phagocyte surface.

Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria Mycotoxins: Occurrence, Toxicity and Toxicokinetics

Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins gain more and more interest due to their frequent contamination of food and feed, although in vivo toxicity and toxicokinetic data are limited. Whereas the Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin, moniliformin and enniatins particularly contaminate grain and grain-based products, Alternaria mycotoxins are also detected in fruits, vegetables and wines. Although contamination levels are usually low (µg/kg range), higher contamination levels of enniatins and tenuazonic acid may occasionally occur. In vitro studies suggest genotoxic effects of enniatins A, A1 and B1, beauvericin, moniliformin, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altertoxins and stemphyltoxin-III. Furthermore, in vitro studies suggest immunomodulating effects of most emerging toxins and a reproductive health hazard of alternariol, beauvericin and enniatin B. More in vivo toxicity data on the individual and combined effects of these contaminants on reproductive and immune system in both humans and animals is needed to update the risk evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority. Taking into account new occurrence data for tenuazonic acid, the complete oral bioavailability, the low total body clearance in pigs and broiler chickens and the limited toxicity data, a health risk cannot be completely excluded. Besides, some less known Alternaria toxins, especially the genotoxic altertoxins and stemphyltoxin III, should be incorporated in risk evaluation as well.

Production of the Fusarium Mycotoxin Moniliformin by Penicillium melanoconidium

Moniliformin is a mycotoxin produced by several cereal associated Fusaria. Here, we show for the first time that moniliformin can be produced by the cereal fungus, Penicillium melanoconidium (4 out of 4 strains), but not in the related species in the Viridicata series. Moniliformin was detected in 10 out of 11 media: two agars and several cereal and bean types. Moniliformin was identified by a novel mixed-mode anionic exchange reversed phase chromatographic method which was coupled to both tandem mass spectrometry (MS) and high resolution MS. Mixed-mode chromatography showed superior peak shape compared to that of HILIC and less matrix interference compared to that of reversed phase chromatography, but during a large series of analyses, the column was fouled by matrix interferences. Wheat and beans were artificially infected by P. melanoconidium containing up to 64 and 11 mg/kg moniliformin, respectively, while penicillic acid, roquefortine C, and penitrem A levels in wheat were up to 1095, 38, and 119 mg/kg, respectively.

Blood-Brain Barrier Effects of the Fusarium Mycotoxins Deoxynivalenol, 3 Acetyldeoxynivalenol, and Moniliformin and Their Transfer to the Brain

BACKGROUND

Secondary metabolites produced by Fusarium fungi frequently contaminate food and feed and have adverse effects on human and animal health. Fusarium mycotoxins exhibit a wide structural and biosynthetic diversity leading to different toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics. Several studies investigated the toxicity of mycotoxins, focusing on very specific targets, like the brain. However, it still remains unclear how fast mycotoxins reach the brain and if they impair the integrity of the blood-brain barrier. This study investigated and compared the effects of the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol and moniliformin on the blood-brain barrier. Furthermore, the transfer properties to the brain were analyzed, which are required for risk assessment, including potential neurotoxic effects.

METHODS

Primary porcine brain capillary endothelial cells were cultivated to study the effects of the examined mycotoxins on the blood-brain barrier in vitro. The barrier integrity was monitored by cellular impedance spectroscopy and 14C radiolabeled sucrose permeability measurements. The distribution of the applied toxins between blood and brain compartments of the cell monolayer was analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to calculate transfer rates and permeability coefficients.

RESULTS

Deoxynivalenol reduced the barrier integrity and caused cytotoxic effects at 10 μM concentrations. Slight alterations of the barrier integrity were also detected for 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol. The latter was transferred very quickly across the barrier and additionally cleaved to deoxynivalenol. The transfer of deoxynivalenol and moniliformin was slower, but clearly exceeded the permeability of the negative control. None of the compounds was enriched in one of the compartments, indicating that no efflux transport protein is involved in their transport.

Ecophysiology of Fusarium temperatum isolated from maize in Argentina

The effect of water activity (aw = 0.95, 0.98 and 0.995), temperature (15, 25 and 30°C), incubation time (7, 14, 21 and 28 days), and their interactions on growth and moniliformin (MON), beauvericin (BEA), fusaproliferin (FUS) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) production by two strains of Fusarium temperatum isolated from Argentinean maize were determined in vitro on sterile layers of maize grains. The results showed that there was a wide range of conditions for growth and mycotoxins production by F. temperatum. Both strains were found to grow faster with increasing aw and at 30°C. In relation to mycotoxin production, the two strains produced more FUS than the other mycotoxins regardless of aw or temperature evaluated (maximum = 50,000 μg g(-1)). For FUS, MON and BEA, the maximum levels were observed at 0.98 aw and 30°C (50,000, 5000 and 2000 μg g(-1) respectively). The lowest levels for these three mycotoxins were detected at 15°C and 0.95 aw (1700 and 100 μg g(-1) for FUS and MON respectively), and at 0.98 aw (400 μg g(-1) for BEA). The maximum levels of FB1 were produced at 15°C and 0.98 aw (1000 μg g(-1)). At all aw and temperatures combinations evaluated there was an increase in toxin concentrations with time incubation. The maximum levels were detected at 21 days. Statistical analyses of aw, temperature, incubation time, and the two- and three-way interactions between them showed significant effects on mycotoxins production by F. temperatum. For its versatility on growth and mycotoxin production, F. temperatum represents a toxicological risk for maize in the field and also during grain storage.