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Park SY, Kang JH, Jung HJ, Hwang JH, Chun HS, Yoon YS, Oh SH. Okadaic Acid Is at Least as Toxic as Dinophysistoxin-1 after Repeated Administration to Mice by Gavage. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:587. [PMID: 37888618 PMCID: PMC10611360 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15100587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Okadaic acid (OA) and its analogues cause diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) in humans, and risk assessments of these toxins require toxicity equivalency factors (TEFs), which represent the relative toxicities of analogues. However, no human death by DSP toxin has been reported, and its current TEF value is based on acute lethality. To properly reflect the symptoms of DSP, such as diarrhea without death, the chronic toxicity of DSP toxins at sublethal doses should be considered. In this study, we obtained acute oral LD50 values for OA and dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1) (1069 and 897 μg/kg, respectively) to set sublethal doses. Mice were treated with sublethal doses of OA and DTX-1 for 7 days. The mice lost body weight, and the disease activity index and intestinal crypt depths increased. Furthermore, these changes were more severe in OA-treated mice than in the DTX-1-treated mice. Strikingly, ascites was observed, and its severity was greater in mice treated with OA. Our findings suggest that OA is at least as toxic as DTX-1 after repeated oral administration at a low dose. This is the first study to compare repeated oral dosing of DSP toxins. Further sub-chronic and chronic studies are warranted to determine appropriate TEF values for DSP toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Se Yong Park
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea;
| | - Ju-Hee Kang
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21963, Republic of Korea; (J.-H.K.); (H.J.J.); (J.H.H.)
| | - Hyun Jin Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21963, Republic of Korea; (J.-H.K.); (H.J.J.); (J.H.H.)
| | - Jung Ho Hwang
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21963, Republic of Korea; (J.-H.K.); (H.J.J.); (J.H.H.)
| | - Hyang Sook Chun
- Food Toxicology Laboratory, School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea;
| | - Yeo Sung Yoon
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea;
| | - Seung Hyun Oh
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21963, Republic of Korea; (J.-H.K.); (H.J.J.); (J.H.H.)
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2
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Yang Y, Li A, Qiu J, Yan W, Han L, Li D, Yin C. Effects of lipophilic phycotoxin okadaic acid on the early development and transcriptional expression of marine medaka Oryzias melastigma. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2023; 260:106576. [PMID: 37196507 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2023.106576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The lipophilic okadaic acid (OA)-group toxins produced by some species of Dinophysis spp. and Prorocentrum spp. marine dinoflagellates have been frequently and widely detected in natural seawater environments, e.g. 2.1∼1780 ng/L in Spanish sea and 5.63∼27.29 ng/L in the Yellow Sea of China. The toxicological effects of these toxins dissolved in seawater on marine fish is still unclear. Effects of OA on the embryonic development and 1-month old larvae of marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) were explored and discussed in this study. Significantly increased mortality and decreased hatching rates occurred for the medaka embryos exposed to OA at 1.0 μg/mL. Diverse malformations including spinal curvature, dysplasia and tail curvature were also observed in the embryos exposed to OA and the heart rates significantly increased at 11 d post fertilization. The 96 h LC50 of OA for 1-month old larvae was calculated at 3.80 μg/mL. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) was significantly accumulated in medaka larvae. Catalase (CAT) enzyme activity was significantly increased in 1-month old larvae. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity significantly increased with a dose-dependent pattern in 1-month old larvae. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were enriched in 11 KEGG pathways with Q value < 0.05 in 1-month old medaka larvae exposed to OA at 0.38 μg/mL for 96 h, which were mainly related to cell division and proliferation, and nervous system. Most of DEGs involved in DNA replication, cell cycle, nucleotide excision repair, oocyte meiosis, and mismatch repair pathways were significantly up-regulated, while most of DEGs involved in synaptic vesicle cycle, glutamatergic synapse, and long-term potentiation pathways were markedly down-regulated. This transcriptome analysis demonstrated that a risk of cancer developing was possibly caused by OA due to DNA damage in marine medaka larvae. In addition, the neurotoxicity of OA was also testified for marine fish, which potentially cause major depressive disorder (MDD) via the up-regulated expression of NOS1 gene. The genotoxicity and neurotoxicity of OA to marine fish should be paid attention to and explored further in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongmeng Yang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China.
| | - Jiangbing Qiu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Wenhui Yan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Lilin Han
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Dongyue Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Chao Yin
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
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3
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Arteaga-Sogamoso E, Rodríguez F, Amato A, Ben-Gigirey B, Fraga S, Mafra LL, Fernandes LF, de Azevedo Tibiriçá CEJ, Chomérat N, Nishimura T, Homma C, Adachi M, Mancera-Pineda JE. Morphology and phylogeny of Prorocentrum porosum sp. nov. (Dinophyceae): A new benthic toxic dinoflagellate from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. HARMFUL ALGAE 2023; 121:102356. [PMID: 36639183 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2022.102356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
A new marine benthic toxic Prorocentrum species is described from the tropical/subtropical regions of the Atlantic (Colombian Caribbean Sea and Northeast Brazil) and Pacific (Southern Japan) oceans. Morphological cell structures were examined using light (LM) and scanning electron (SEM) microscopy. Prorocentrum porosum sp. nov. was characterized by 35.9-50.2 μm long and 25.4-45.7 μm deep cells, covered by broadly ovoid symmetric thecal plates. The surface of both thecal plates is smooth and covered by randomly scattered kidney-shaped pores (n = 102-149), rounder towards the center, absent in the central part, and surrounded by a conspicuous marginal ring of about 69-92 evenly spaced pores. Broad V-shaped periflagellar area exhibiting flagellar and accessory pores. The molecular phylogenetic position of P. porosum sp. nov. was inferred using partial LSU rRNA gene (rDNA) and rDNA ITS sequences. This new species branched with high support in a Prorocentrum clade including P. caipirignum, P. hoffmannianum and P. cf. lima (P. lima morphotype 5 sensuZhang et al., 2015). Pairwise comparison of ITS1 and ITS2 transcripts with these closest relatives revealed the presence of compensatory base changes (CBCs), with the exception of P. cf. lima (P. lima morphotype 5), which only showed in ITS2 a hemi-CBC (HCBC) and two base changes that possibly induce a structural modification. Toxin analyses performed in two Colombian and Brazilian strains in the present study detected the presence of low amounts of okadaic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Arteaga-Sogamoso
- Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras José Benito Vives de Andréis, INVEMAR, Santa Marta, Colombia. Calle 25 No. 2-55, Playa Salguero, Rodadero, Santa Marta, Colombia; Universidad Nacional de Colombia, sede Caribe, Santa Marta, Colombia. Calle 25 No. 2-55, Playa Salguero, Rodadero, Santa Marta, Colombia.
| | - Francisco Rodríguez
- Centro Nacional Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO-CSIC), Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo. Subida a Radio Faro 50, 36390 Vigo, Spain; European Union Reference Laboratory for Monitoring of Marine Biotoxins, Citexvi Campus Universitario de Vigo, 36310, Vigo, Spain
| | - Alberto Amato
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Cellulaire et Végétale, Université Grenoble-Alpes CEA CNRS INRA IRIG-CEA Grenoble, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38054 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Begoña Ben-Gigirey
- European Union Reference Laboratory for Monitoring of Marine Biotoxins, Citexvi Campus Universitario de Vigo, 36310, Vigo, Spain
| | | | - Luiz Laureno Mafra
- Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná, P.O. Box 61, 83255-976, Pontal do Paraná, PR, Brazil
| | - Luciano Felício Fernandes
- Departamento de Botânica, SCB, Centro Politécnico, Universidade Federal do Paraná, P.O. Box 19031, 81531-990, Curitiba, Paraná CEP Brazil
| | | | - Nicolas Chomérat
- Station de Biologie Marine, IFREMER, Littoral, LER BO, Place de la Croix, F-29900, Concarneau, France
| | - Tomohiro Nishimura
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, 7010 Nelson, New Zealand; Laboratory of Aquatic Environmental Science (LAQUES), Faculty of Agriculture and Marine Science, Kochi University, 200 Otsu, Monobe, Nankoku, 783-8502, Kochi Japan
| | - Chiho Homma
- Laboratory of Aquatic Environmental Science (LAQUES), Faculty of Agriculture and Marine Science, Kochi University, 200 Otsu, Monobe, Nankoku, 783-8502, Kochi Japan
| | - Masao Adachi
- Laboratory of Aquatic Environmental Science (LAQUES), Faculty of Agriculture and Marine Science, Kochi University, 200 Otsu, Monobe, Nankoku, 783-8502, Kochi Japan
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Piletz JE, Cooper J, Chidester K, Erson K, Melton S, Osemeka A, Patterson M, Strickland K, Wan JX, Williams K. Transepithelial Effect of Probiotics in a Novel Model of Gut Lumen to Nerve Signaling. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14224856. [PMID: 36432542 PMCID: PMC9697698 DOI: 10.3390/nu14224856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that the gut microbiome changes brain function, behavior, and psychiatric and neurological disorders. The Gut-Brain Axis (GBA) provides a neuronal pathway to explain this. But exactly how do commensal bacteria signal through the epithelial layer of the large intestine to activate GBA nerve afferents? An in vitro model is described. We differentiated two human cell lines: Caco2Bbe1 into mature epithelium on 0.4-micron filters and then SH-SY5Y into mature neurons in 24-well plates. These were co-cultured by placing the epithelium-laden filters 1 mm above the neurons. Twenty-four hours later they were tri-cultured by apical addition of 107Lactobacillus rhamnosus or Lactobacillus fermentum which settled on the epithelium. Alone, the Caco2bbe1 cells stimulated neurite outgrowth in underlying SH-SY5Y. Beyond this, the lactobacilli were well tolerated and stimulated further neurite outgrowth by 24 h post-treatment, though not passing through the filters. The results provide face validity for a first-of-kind model of transepithelial intestinal lumen-to nerve signaling. The model displays the tight junctional barrier characteristics found in the large intestine while at the same time translating stimulatory signals from the bacteria through epithelial cells to attracted neurons. The model is easy to set-up with components widely available.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E. Piletz
- Office of Global Education, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(601)-925-7762 or +1-601-853-0966
| | - Jason Cooper
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA
| | - Kevin Chidester
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA
| | - Kyle Erson
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA
| | - Sydney Melton
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA
| | - Anthony Osemeka
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA
| | - Megan Patterson
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA
| | | | - Jing Xuan Wan
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA
| | - Kaitlin Williams
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA
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5
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Development of a Chemiluminescent Method in a Microfluidic Device for Ultrasensitive Determination of Okadaic Acid with Highly Efficient Aptamer-Based Isolation. SEPARATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/separations9110350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid detection of okadaic acid (OA) in shellfish is crucial for practical application in food safety analysis. In order to establish a rapid, delicate detection scheme, an OA aptamer was utilized to quickly capture OA from the sample solution with polystyrene microspheres as solid phase carriers, and an inner-microchannel dam structure was designed to intercept the aptamer-functionalized microspheres to achieve the separation of OA for detection. Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) is utilized to catalyze the luminescence reaction of luminol-H2O2 solution. Through the direct competition for the aptamer between OA and OA-HRP, the rapid detection of OA can be achieved. The dynamic range of this detection method is 41.3–4.02 ng/mL, and the limit of detection (LOD) and lowest limit of quantitation (LOQ) are 12.4 pg/mL and 41.3 pg/mL, respectively. This miniaturized device enables rapid, ultrasensitive detection of OA, and demonstrates the merits of its field portability and low reagent consumption. The device can be deployed for on-site detection and analysis of marine biotoxins thereof.
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6
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Costas C, Louzao MC, Raposo-García S, Vale C, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Intestinal secretory mechanisms in Okadaic acid induced diarrhoea. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 169:113449. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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7
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Liu Y, Xu S, Cai Q, Li D, Li H, Yang W. In Vitro Interactions between Okadaic Acid and Rat Gut Microbiome. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20090556. [PMID: 36135745 PMCID: PMC9500940 DOI: 10.3390/md20090556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Okadaic acid (OA) is a marine biotoxin associated with diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP), posing some threat to human beings. The oral toxicity of OA is complex, and the mechanism of toxicity is not clear. The interaction between OA and gut microbiota may provide a reasonable explanation for the complex toxicity of OA. Due to the complex environment in vivo, an in vitro study may be better for the interactions between OA and gut microbiome. Here, we conducted an in vitro fermentation experiment of gut bacteria in the presence of 0–1000 nM OA. The remolding ability of OA on bacterial composition was investigated by 16S rDNA sequencing, and differential metabolites in fermentation system with different concentration of OA was detected by LC-MS/MS. We found that OA inhibited some specific bacterial genera but promoted others. In addition, eight possible metabolites of OA, including dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX-2), were detected in the fermentation system. The abundance of Faecalitalea was strongly correlated with the possible metabolites of OA, suggesting that Faecalitalea may be involved in the metabolism of OA in vitro. Our findings confirmed the direct interaction between OA and gut bacteria, which helps to reveal the metabolic process of OA and provide valuable evidence for elucidating the complex toxicity of OA.
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8
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Louzao MC, Vilariño N, Vale C, Costas C, Cao A, Raposo-Garcia S, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Current Trends and New Challenges in Marine Phycotoxins. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20030198. [PMID: 35323497 PMCID: PMC8950113 DOI: 10.3390/md20030198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine phycotoxins are a multiplicity of bioactive compounds which are produced by microalgae and bioaccumulate in the marine food web. Phycotoxins affect the ecosystem, pose a threat to human health, and have important economic effects on aquaculture and tourism worldwide. However, human health and food safety have been the primary concerns when considering the impacts of phycotoxins. Phycotoxins toxicity information, often used to set regulatory limits for these toxins in shellfish, lacks traceability of toxicity values highlighting the need for predefined toxicological criteria. Toxicity data together with adequate detection methods for monitoring procedures are crucial to protect human health. However, despite technological advances, there are still methodological uncertainties and high demand for universal phycotoxin detectors. This review focuses on these topics, including uncertainties of climate change, providing an overview of the current information as well as future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
- Correspondence: (M.C.L.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Carmen Vale
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Celia Costas
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Alejandro Cao
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Sandra Raposo-Garcia
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Mercedes R. Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain;
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
- Correspondence: (M.C.L.); (L.M.B.)
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9
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Emery H, Traves W, Rowley AF, Coates CJ. The diarrhetic shellfish-poisoning toxin, okadaic acid, provokes gastropathy, dysbiosis and susceptibility to bacterial infection in a non-rodent bioassay, Galleria mellonella. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:3361-3376. [PMID: 34374792 PMCID: PMC8448676 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03132-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Diarrhetic shellfish-poisoning (DSP) toxins such as okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins harm the human gastrointestinal tract, and therefore, their levels are regulated to an upper limit of 160 μg per kg tissue to protect consumers. Rodents are used routinely for risk assessment and studies concerning mechanisms of toxicity, but there is a general move toward reducing and replacing vertebrates for these bioassays. We have adopted insect larvae of the wax moth Galleria mellonella as a surrogate toxicology model. We treated larvae with environmentally relevant doses of okadaic acid (80–400 μg/kg) via intrahaemocoelic injection or gavage to determine marine toxin-related health decline: (1) whether pre-exposure to a sub-lethal dose of toxin (80 μg/kg) enhances susceptibility to bacterial infection, or (2) alters tissue pathology and bacterial community (microbiome) composition of the midgut. A sub-lethal dose of okadaic acid (80 μg/kg) followed 24 h later by bacterial inoculation (2 × 105Escherichia coli) reduced larval survival levels to 47%, when compared to toxin (90%) or microbial challenge (73%) alone. Histological analysis of the midgut depicted varying levels of tissue disruption, including nuclear aberrations associated with cell death (karyorrhexis, pyknosis), loss of organ architecture, and gross epithelial displacement into the lumen. Moreover, okadaic acid presence in the midgut coincided with a shift in the resident bacterial population over time in that substantial reductions in diversity (Shannon) and richness (Chao-1) indices were observed at 240 μg toxin per kg. Okadaic acid-induced deterioration of the insect alimentary canal resembles those changes reported for rodent bioassays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Emery
- Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - William Traves
- Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Andrew F Rowley
- Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Christopher J Coates
- Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, SA2 8PP, UK.
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10
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Louzao MC, Costas C, Abal P, Suzuki T, Watanabe R, Vilariño N, Carrera C, Boente-Juncal A, Vale C, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Serotonin involvement in okadaic acid-induced diarrhoea in vivo. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:2797-2813. [PMID: 34148100 PMCID: PMC8298366 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03095-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The consumption of contaminated shellfish with okadaic acid (OA) group of toxins leads to diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP) characterized by a set of symptoms including nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. These phycotoxins are Ser/Thr phosphatase inhibitors, which produce hyperphosphorylation in cellular proteins. However, this inhibition does not fully explain the symptomatology reported and other targets could be relevant to the toxicity. Previous studies have indicated a feasible involvement of the nervous system. We performed a set of in vivo approaches to elucidate whether neuropeptide Y (NPY), Peptide YY (PYY) or serotonin (5-HT) was implicated in the early OA-induced diarrhoea. Fasted Swiss female mice were administered NPY, PYY(3-36) or cyproheptadine intraperitoneal prior to oral OA treatment (250 µg/kg). A non-significant delay in diarrhoea onset was observed for NPY (107 µg/kg) and PYY(3-36) (1 mg/kg) pre-treatment. On the contrary, the serotonin antagonist cyproheptadine was able to block (10 mg/kg) or delay (0.1 and 1 mg/kg) diarrhoea onset suggesting a role of 5-HT. This is the first report of the possible involvement of serotonin in OA-induced poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain.
| | - Celia Costas
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Paula Abal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Toshiyuki Suzuki
- Fisheries Technology Institute, National Research and Development Agency, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, Yokohama, 236-8648, Japan
| | - Ryuichi Watanabe
- Fisheries Technology Institute, National Research and Development Agency, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, Yokohama, 236-8648, Japan
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Cristina Carrera
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Andrea Boente-Juncal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Carmen Vale
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
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11
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Piletz JE, Mao Y, Roy D, Qizilbash B, Nkamssi E, Weir E, Graham J, Emmanuel M, Iqbal S, Brue K, Sengupta B. Transepithelial Anti-Neuroblastoma Response to Kale among Four Vegetable Juices Using In Vitro Model Co-Culture System. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13020488. [PMID: 33540724 PMCID: PMC7913023 DOI: 10.3390/nu13020488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Juicing vegetables is thought to be an anticancer treatment. Support exists for a rank order of anticancer greens (kale > dandelion > lettuce > spinach) based on degrees of bioavailability of different phytochemicals, also offset by some noxious molecules (i.e., calcium-oxalate). We developed a new in vitro transepithelial anti-neuroblastoma model system. The juices were diluted as predicted once in the small intestine. They were applied to apical Caco-2Bbe1 cells atop dividing SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, and changes in transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and cell growth were considered with juice spectroscopies. Studied first in monoculture, kale and dandelion were the most cytostatic juices on SH-SY5Ys, lettuce showed no effect, and high (4.2%) spinach was cytotoxic. In co-culture, high (4.2%) kale was quickest (three days) to inhibit neuroblastoma growth. By five days, dandelion and kale were equally robust. Lettuce showed small anti-proliferative effects at five days and spinach remained cytotoxic. Spinach’s cytotoxicity corresponded with major infrared bands indicative of oxalate. Kale juice uniquely induced reactive oxygen species and S-phase cell cycle arrest in SH-SY5Y. The superiority of kale and dandelion was also apparent on the epithelium, because raising TEER levels is considered healthy. Kale’s unique features corresponded with a major fluorescent peak that co-eluted with kaempferol during high performance liquid chromatography. Because the anticancer rank order was upheld, the model appears validated for screening anticancer juices.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E. Piletz
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA; (Y.M.); (E.N.); (S.I.); (K.B.)
- Correspondence: (J.E.P.); (B.S.); Tel.: +1-(601)-925-7818 (J.E.P.); +1-(936)-468-2485 (B.S.)
| | - Yuhan Mao
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA; (Y.M.); (E.N.); (S.I.); (K.B.)
| | - Debarshi Roy
- Department of Biology, Alcorn State University, Lorman, MS 39096, USA;
| | - Bilal Qizilbash
- Qizilbash Labs, 345 Woodstone Road, Suite K6, Clinton, MS 39056, USA;
| | - Eurielle Nkamssi
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA; (Y.M.); (E.N.); (S.I.); (K.B.)
| | - Enleyona Weir
- Department of Chemistry, Tougaloo College, 500 West County Line Road, Tougaloo, MS 39174, USA; (E.W.); (J.G.); (M.E.)
| | - Jessica Graham
- Department of Chemistry, Tougaloo College, 500 West County Line Road, Tougaloo, MS 39174, USA; (E.W.); (J.G.); (M.E.)
| | - Mary Emmanuel
- Department of Chemistry, Tougaloo College, 500 West County Line Road, Tougaloo, MS 39174, USA; (E.W.); (J.G.); (M.E.)
| | - Suwaira Iqbal
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA; (Y.M.); (E.N.); (S.I.); (K.B.)
| | - Kellie Brue
- Department of Biology, Mississippi College, Clinton, MS 39058, USA; (Y.M.); (E.N.); (S.I.); (K.B.)
| | - Bidisha Sengupta
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX 75962, USA
- Correspondence: (J.E.P.); (B.S.); Tel.: +1-(601)-925-7818 (J.E.P.); +1-(936)-468-2485 (B.S.)
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12
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DSP Toxin Distribution across Organs in Mice after Acute Oral Administration. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19010023. [PMID: 33430011 PMCID: PMC7826939 DOI: 10.3390/md19010023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Okadaic acid (OA) and its main structural analogs dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1) and dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX2) are marine lipophilic phycotoxins distributed worldwide that can be accumulated by edible shellfish and can cause diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP). In order to study their toxicokinetics, mice were treated with different doses of OA, DTX1, or DTX2 and signs of toxicity were recorded up to 24 h. Toxin distribution in the main organs from the gastrointestinal tract was assessed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) analysis. Our results indicate a dose-dependency in gastrointestinal absorption of these toxins. Twenty-four hours post-administration, the highest concentration of toxin was detected in the stomach and, in descending order, in the large intestine, small intestine, and liver. There was also a different toxicokinetic pathway between OA, DTX1, and DTX2. When the same toxin doses are compared, more OA than DTX1 is detected in the small intestine. OA and DTX1 showed similar concentrations in the stomach, liver, and large intestine tissues, but the amount of DTX2 is much lower in all these organs, providing information on DSP toxicokinetics for human safety assessment.
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13
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Camacho-Muñoz D, Lawton LA, Edwards C. Degradation of okadaic acid in seawater by UV/TiO 2 photocatalysis - Proof of concept. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 733:139346. [PMID: 32447082 PMCID: PMC7298613 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The consumption of contaminated shellfish with marine toxins causes adverse socioeconomical, environmental and health impacts. The marine toxin okadaic acid (OA) provokes diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) syndrome characterized by severe gastrointestinal symptoms. Therefore, there is increasing interest in removing these toxins from the marine environment to protect shellfish harvesting sites. Photocatalysis is proposed as an efficient method to detoxify the marine environment. In this study, Prorocentrum lima was used to produce high purity DSP toxins, in particular OA, for degradation studies. The profiling, characterization and quantification of DSP toxins in the culture of P. lima were achieved by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MSE) for accurate-mass full spectrum acquisition data. The effectiveness of UV/TiO2 system to degrade OA in seawater was assessed in lab-scale experiments and identification of transformation products was proposed based on the data obtained during analysis by UPLC-QTOF-MSE. The detoxification potential of the UV/TiO2 system was investigated using the phosphatase inhibition assay. Sufficient amount of high-purity OA (25 mg, >90% purity) was produced in-house for use in photocatalysis experiments by simple reversed-phase flash chromatography. Complete degradation of OA was observed in seawater after 30 min and 7.5 min in deionized water. The rate constants fitted with the pseudo-first order kinetic model (R2 > 0.96). High-resolution mass spectrometry analysis of the photocatalyzed OA allowed tentative identification of four transformation products. Detoxification was achieved in parallel with the degradation of OA in deionized water and artificial ocean water (≤20 min) but not for seawater. Overall, results suggest that UV/TiO2 photocatalysis can be an effective approach for degrading OA and their TPs in the marine environment. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the use of photocatalysis to degrade marine toxins and its promising potential to protect shellfish harvesting sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dolores Camacho-Muñoz
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen AB10 7GJ, UK.
| | - Linda Ann Lawton
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen AB10 7GJ, UK
| | - Christine Edwards
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen AB10 7GJ, UK
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Toxins of Okadaic Acid-Group Increase Malignant Properties in Cells of Colon Cancer. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12030179. [PMID: 32183214 PMCID: PMC7150798 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) is a syndrome caused by the intake of shellfish contaminated with a group of lipophilic and thermostable toxins, which consists of okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1) and dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX-2). These toxins are potent protein Ser/Thr phosphatase inhibitors, mainly type 1 protein phosphatase (PP1) and type 2A protein phosphatase (PP2A). Different effects have been reported at the cellular, molecular and genetic levels. In this study, changes in cell survival and cell mobility induced by OA, DTX-1 and DTX-2 were determined in epithelial cell lines of the colon and colon cancer. The cell viability results showed that tumoral cell lines were more resistant to toxins than the nontumoral cell line. The results of the functional assays for testing cell migration, evaluation of cell death and the expression of proteins associated with cell adhesion showed a dual effect of toxins since in the nontumoral cell line, a greater induction of cell death, presumably by anoikis, was detected. In the tumoral cell lines, there was an induction of a more aggressive phenotype characterized by increased resistance to toxins, increased migration and increased FAK activation. In tumoral cell lines of colon cancer, OA, DTX-1/DTX-2 induce a more aggressive phenotype.
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15
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Novel Insights on the Toxicity of Phycotoxins on the Gut through the Targeting of Enteric Glial Cells. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17070429. [PMID: 31340532 PMCID: PMC6669610 DOI: 10.3390/md17070429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that phycotoxins can impact intestinal epithelial cells and can cross the intestinal barrier to some extent. Therefore, phycotoxins can reach cells underlying the epithelium, such as enteric glial cells (EGCs), which are involved in gut homeostasis, motility, and barrier integrity. This study compared the toxicological effects of pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2), yessotoxin (YTX), okadaic acid (OA), azaspiracid-1 (AZA1), 13-desmethyl-spirolide C (SPX), and palytoxin (PlTX) on the rat EGC cell line CRL2690. Cell viability, morphology, oxidative stress, inflammation, cell cycle, and specific glial markers were evaluated using RT-qPCR and high content analysis (HCA) approaches. PTX2, YTX, OA, AZA1, and PlTX induced neurite alterations, oxidative stress, cell cycle disturbance, and increase of specific EGC markers. An inflammatory response for YTX, OA, and AZA1 was suggested by the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Caspase-3-dependent apoptosis and induction of DNA double strand breaks (γH2AX) were also observed with PTX2, YTX, OA, and AZA1. These findings suggest that PTX2, YTX, OA, AZA1, and PlTX may affect intestinal barrier integrity through alterations of the human enteric glial system. Our results provide novel insight into the toxicological effects of phycotoxins on the gut.
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Abal P, Louzao MC, Vilariño N, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Acute Toxicity Assessment: Macroscopic and Ultrastructural Effects in Mice Treated with Oral Tetrodotoxin. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E305. [PMID: 31146400 PMCID: PMC6628385 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is an extremely toxic marine compound produced by different genera of bacteria that can reach humans through ingestion mainly of pufferfish but also of other contaminated fish species, marine gastropods or bivalves. TTX blocks voltage-gated sodium channels inhibiting neurotransmission, which in severe cases triggers cardiorespiratory failure. Although TTX has been responsible for many human intoxications limited toxicological data are available. The recent expansion of TTX from Asian to European waters and diversification of TTX-bearing organisms entail an emerging risk of food poisoning. This study is focused on the acute toxicity assessment of TTX administered to mice by oral gavage following macroscopic and microscopic studies. Necropsy revealed that TTX induced stomach swelling 2 h after administration, even though no ultrastructural alterations were further detected. However, transmission electron microscopy images showed an increase of lipid droplets in hepatocytes, swollen mitochondria in spleens, and alterations of rough endoplasmic reticulum in intestines as hallmarks of the cellular damage. These findings suggested that gastrointestinal effects should be considered when evaluating human TTX poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Abal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
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17
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Rytel L, Snarska A, Gonkowski S, Wojtkiewicz J, Szenci O, Sobiech P. Identification of neuropeptide y in superior cervical ganglion neurons that project to the oesophagus - A combined immunohistochemical labelling and retrograde tracing study in pigs. Acta Vet Hung 2019; 67:98-105. [PMID: 30922095 DOI: 10.1556/004.2019.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a neuronal active substance taking part in the regulation of gastrointestinal (GI) tract activity. This study used retrograde neuronal tracing and immunofluorescence methods to analyse NPY-positive neurons located in superior cervical ganglion and supplying the cervical oesophagus in the pig. The presence of NPY was observed in 30% of all neurons supplying the part of oesophagus studied. Probably the number of Fast Blue (FB) positive cells depends on the area of the wall injected with FB and the fragment of oesophagus studied. Therefore, the obtained results indicate that the described peptide is an important factor in the extrinsic innervation of this part of the GI tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana Rytel
- 1 Division of Internal Disease with Clinic, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego Str. 13, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Anna Snarska
- 1 Division of Internal Disease with Clinic, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego Str. 13, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Slawomir Gonkowski
- 2 Division of Clinical Physiology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Joanna Wojtkiewicz
- 3 Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Ottó Szenci
- 4 MTA-SZIE Large Animal Clinical Research Group, Üllő, Hungary
| | - Przemyslaw Sobiech
- 1 Division of Internal Disease with Clinic, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego Str. 13, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
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18
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Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Abal P, Cagide E, Carrera C, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Human Poisoning from Marine Toxins: Unknowns for Optimal Consumer Protection. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E324. [PMID: 30096904 PMCID: PMC6116008 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10080324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine biotoxins are produced by aquatic microorganisms and accumulate in shellfish or finfish following the food web. These toxins usually reach human consumers by ingestion of contaminated seafood, although other exposure routes like inhalation or contact have also been reported and may cause serious illness. This review shows the current data regarding the symptoms of acute intoxication for several toxin classes, including paralytic toxins, amnesic toxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, tetrodotoxins, diarrheic toxins, azaspiracids and palytoxins. The information available about chronic toxicity and relative potency of different analogs within a toxin class are also reported. The gaps of toxicological knowledge that should be studied to improve human health protection are discussed. In general, gathering of epidemiological data in humans, chronic toxicity studies and exploring relative potency by oral administration are critical to minimize human health risks related to these toxin classes in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Paula Abal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Eva Cagide
- Laboratorio CIFGA S.A., Plaza Santo Domingo 20-5°, 27001 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Cristina Carrera
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
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20
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Abal P, Louzao MC, Cifuentes JM, Vilariño N, Rodriguez I, Alfonso A, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Characterization of the dinophysistoxin-2 acute oral toxicity in mice to define the Toxicity Equivalency Factor. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 102:166-175. [PMID: 28223118 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Ingestion of shellfish with dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX2) can lead to diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP). The official control method of DSP toxins in seafood is the liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis (LC-MS). However in order to calculate the total toxicity of shellfish, the concentration of each compound must be multiplied by individual Toxicity Equivalency Factor (TEF). Considering that TEFs caused some controversy and the scarce information about DTX2 toxicity, the aim of this study was to characterize the oral toxicity of DTX2 in mice. A 4-Level Up and Down Procedure allowed the characterization of DTX2 effects and the estimation of DTX2 oral TEF based on determination of the lethal dose 50 (LD50). DTX2 passed the gastrointestinal barrier and was detected in urine and feces. Acute toxicity symptoms include diarrhea and motionless, however anatomopathology study and ultrastructural images restricted the toxin effects to the gastrointestinal tract. Nevertheless enterocytes microvilli and tight junctions were not altered, disconnecting DTX2 diarrheic effects from paracellular epithelial permeability. This is the first report of DTX2 oral LD50 (2262 μg/kg BW) indicating that its TEF is about 0.4. This result suggests reevaluation of the present TEFs for the DSP toxins to better determine the actual risk to seafood consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Abal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - José Manuel Cifuentes
- Departamento de Anatomía, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Ines Rodriguez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
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Botana LM, Hess P, Munday R, Nathalie A, DeGrasse SL, Feeley M, Suzuki T, van den Berg M, Fattori V, Garrido Gamarro E, Tritscher A, Nakagawa R, Karunasagar I. Derivation of toxicity equivalency factors for marine biotoxins associated with Bivalve Molluscs. Trends Food Sci Technol 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2016.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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The Mechanism of Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning Toxin Production in Prorocentrum spp.: Physiological and Molecular Perspectives. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8100272. [PMID: 27669302 PMCID: PMC5086633 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8100272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) is a gastrointestinal disorder caused by the consumption of seafood contaminated with okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxins (DTXs). OA and DTXs are potent inhibitors of protein phosphatases 2A, 1B, and 2B, which may promote cancer in the human digestive system. Their expression in dinoflagellates is strongly affected by nutritional and environmental factors. Studies have indicated that the level of these biotoxins is inversely associated with the growth of dinoflagellates at low concentrations of nitrogen or phosphorus, or at extreme temperature. However, the presence of leucine or glycerophosphate enhances both growth and cellular toxin level. Moreover, the presence of ammonia and incubation in continuous darkness do not favor the toxin production. Currently, studies on the mechanism of this biotoxin production are scant. Full genome sequencing of dinoflagellates is challenging because of the massive genomic size; however, current advanced molecular and omics technologies may provide valuable insight into the biotoxin production mechanism and novel research perspectives on microalgae. This review presents a comprehensive analysis on the effects of various nutritional and physical factors on the OA and DTX production in the DSP toxin-producing Prorocentrum spp. Moreover, the applications of the current molecular technologies in the study on the mechanism of DSP toxin production are discussed.
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How Safe Is Safe for Marine Toxins Monitoring? Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8070208. [PMID: 27399774 PMCID: PMC4963841 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8070208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Current regulation for marine toxins requires a monitoring method based on mass spectrometric analysis. This method is pre-targeted, hence after searching for pre-assigned masses, it identifies those compounds that were pre-defined with available calibrants. Therefore, the scope for detecting novel toxins which are not included in the monitoring protocol are very limited. In addition to this, there is a poor comprehension of the toxicity of some marine toxin groups. Also, the validity of the current approach is questioned by the lack of sufficient calibrants, and by the insufficient coverage by current legislation of the toxins reported to be present in shellfish. As an example, tetrodotoxin, palytoxin analogs, or cyclic imines are mentioned as indicators of gaps in the system that require a solid comprehension to assure consumers are protected.
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Effect of the industrial canning on the toxicity of mussels contaminated with diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins. Toxicon 2016; 112:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.01.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Revised: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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