Evaluation of the acute and sub-acute toxicity of the black caraway seed essential oil in Wistar rats

Acute oral toxicity and genotoxicity assessment of the essential oil from Croton pulegiodorus Baill (Euphorbiaceae) leaves in mice

Essential oils obtained from Croton pulegiodorus leaf are renowned for their biological activities; however, data on their toxicity are limited. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the acute oral toxicity and genotoxicity of a C. pulegiodorus leaf essential oil (CPLEO). Chemical characterization of CPLEO was conducted by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In vitro assay was performed to verify the hemolytic capacity of the oil in mice erythrocytes. Next, an acute oral toxicity study was conducted on female mice at CPLEO doses of 2000, 1000, 500, 250, 100, and 50 mg/kg. Hematological, biochemical, and histopathological markers were assessed in mice from groups were no death occurred. Relative consumption of water and food and the weight of animals and their organs were also recorded. Finally, a genotoxicity analysis was performed using the micronucleus and comet assays. The extraction yield of CPLEO was 1.149% and its major compounds were ascaridole (23.18%), eucalyptol (17.20%), camphor (14.20%), p-cymene (7.91%), α-terpineol (4.69%), and isobornyl acetate (4.57%). CPLEO showed a hemolytic effect only at high concentrations (185.5-1000 mg/mL). It showed acute oral toxicity in mice with a LD50 of 460.42 mg/kg. CPLEO (50-250 mg/kg) caused some significant changes in hematological and biochemical parameters. Histopathological evaluation indicated alterations in liver and kidneys but transaminases, urea and creatinine levels remained like the negative control. CPLEO administration impaired weight gain and reduced water and food consumption. Finally, it was not genotoxic by both comet and micronucleus tests. The results highlight the need for attention when choosing doses to evaluate the bioactivities of CPLEO.

Acute and subacute toxicological evaluation of the ethanol leaf extract of Morus mesozygia stapf. (Moraceae) in rodents

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Traditionally, the Morus mesozygia tree leaf has been used to manage maladies such as peptic ulcer, hyperglycemia, dermatitis, rheumatism, stomach-ache, arthritis, cough, malignancies, and malaria in parts of Africa.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aimed to evaluate the potential of ethanol leaf extract of Morus mesozygia (EEMm) to induce toxicity by employing both acute and sub-acute oral toxicity experimental models.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The extract's cytotoxicity was studied using brine shrimps (Artemia salina) lethality assay (BSLA), while in the acute toxicity test, male and female mice were administered a single oral dose of EEMm (2000 mg/kg). Male and female Wistar rats received repeated doses of 100 or 500 mg/kg EEMm orally for 28 days in the sub-acute toxicity experiment. The phytochemical analysis of EEMm was done using the HPLC.

RESULTS

The BSLA revealed a moderate cytotoxic potential of the extract, with an LC50 of 567.13 ± 0.27 μg/mL. All the animals survived the acute toxicity test, with no significant changes in the relative organ weights, suggesting that LD50 is greater than 2000 mg/kg. The animal weights did not vary significantly in the sub-acute toxicity test neither were the alterations in biochemical and hematological tests pronounced, although the histoarchitectures of the kidney, liver and spleen indicated slight anomalies in the evaluated animals. The HPLC analysis revealed the presence of quercetin, ferulic acid, rutin, caffeic acid, morin and gallic acid.

CONCLUSIONS

Ethanol leaf extract of Morus mesozygia demonstrated a safe toxicity profile in rodents, supporting its broad folkloric use in African ethnomedicine.

Subchronic Toxicity Evaluation of Idesia polycarpa Fruit Oil by 90-Day Oral Exposure in Wistar Rats

Idesia polycarpa, belonging to the Flacourtiaceae family, is a tall deciduous tree, widely distributed in some Asian countries. It is famous for its high yield of fruit known as oil grape, which is rich of linoleic acid and linolenic acid, and so on. To provide evidences for its safe use as food, subchronic toxicity of I. polycarpa fruit oil and no observed adverse effect level were performed in male and female specific pathogen-free Wistar rats. Based on the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development guidelines, the oil was orally administered to rats by gavage at 0, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0mL/kg.bw/day for 90 days, followed by a 28-day recovery period. The results showed that no sign of oil-related toxicity, clinically or histologically, was observed in both male and female rats. Although there was a slight increase or decrease in some indicators such as hematology, serum chemistry, and so on, those changes were all within the normal ranges, and as presented in the 90-day study, the oil exhibited no toxic effect compared to the control rats. I. polycarpa might be a potential excellent and healthy vegetable oil resource.

Essential oils: An eco-friendly alternative for controlling toxigenic fungi in cereal grains

Fungi are widely disseminated in the environment and are major food contaminants, colonizing plant tissues throughout the production chain, from preharvest to postharvest, causing diseases. As a result, grain development and seed germination are affected, reducing grain quality and nutritional value. Some fungal species can also produce mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites for vertebrate animals. Natural compounds, such as essential oils, have been used to control fungal diseases in cereal grains due to their antimicrobial activity that may inhibit fungal growth. These compounds have been associated with reduced mycotoxin contamination, primarily related to reducing toxin production by toxigenic fungi. However, little is known about the mechanisms of action of these compounds against mycotoxigenic fungi. In this review, we address important information on the mechanisms of action of essential oils and their antifungal and antimycotoxigenic properties, recent technological strategies for food industry applications, and the potential toxicity of essential oils.

Evaluation of physicochemical parameters, acute and subchronic toxicities, and anti-diabetic activity of Spondias venulosa (Engl.) Mart. ex Engl. leaf extract on alloxan-induced diabetic rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Spondias venulosa is a medicinal plant whose leaves are popularly used for decades in Northeast Nigeria as a first-choice medicinal plants for the treatment of diabetes. This claim has not been proven scientifically.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was carried out to determine the physicochemical profiles, acute, sub-chronic toxicities, and antidiabetic activity the leaf extract in alloxan-induced diabetic rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The physicochemical parameters of S. venulosa leaves, acute, subchronic toxicities, and antidiabetic activity in alloxan-induced diabetic rats were determined using standard procedures. All physicochemical parameters were carried out triplicate. Acute and subchronic toxicity studies were carried out following OECD guidelines by administering maximum extract dose of 2000 mg/kg orally to Wistar rats. Subchronic toxicity and antidiabetic studies were carried out in rats of opposite sexes at doses 300, 600, and 1200 mg/kg (orally).

RESULTS

Results obtained showed that the moisture content, water soluble extractive, and organic matter had values of 4.98 ± 1.01, 12.04 ± 1.24 and 1.01 ± 0.01% w/w respectively. The metallic contents of the methanol leaf extract revealed the presence of zinc with value of 12.01 ± 1.01 ppm (normal range:< 100 mg/kg DM) and copper with value of 6.24 ± 2.14 ppm (normal range:< 30 mg/kg DM). Oral median lethal dose (LD₅₀) was estimated to be greater than 2000 mg/kg since the extract did not produce any sign of toxicity or death in short term while, subchronic toxicity study showed that there was no significant weight loss in the rats after 28 days of extract administration. All hematology and biochemical parameters showed no elevated values when compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Histopathological examinations of major organs do not show signs of organ damages which indicate that the extract was safe at the doses administered. Oral administration of extract doses for 30 days reduced blood glucose levels in alloxan-induced diabetic rats in dose-dependent manner compared (p < 0.05) to standard drug (Glibenclamide).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study showed some physicochemical parameters of S. venulosa leaf which are essential for its identification from closely related species in traditional medicine. The study further showed that S. venulosa methanol leaf extract possessed antidiabetic activity, thus, justifying its use for the treatment of diabetes in Nigeria. However, there is need to identify and investigate the bioactive compound(s) responsible for the activity towards drug discovery.

Cytotoxicity, oral toxicity, genotoxicity, and mutagenicity evaluation of essential oil from Psidium glaziovianum Kiaersk leaves

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Members of the Psidium genus have been suggested in ethnobotanical research for the treatment of various human diseases, and some studies have already proven their popular uses through research, such as Psidium glaziovianum, which is found in Brazil's northeast and southeast regions and has antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties; however, the safety of use has not yet been evaluated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study investigated the safety of using essential oil obtained from P. glaziovianum leaves (PgEO) in vitro and in vivo models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cytotoxicity was evaluated in murine erythrocytes, while acute toxicity, genotoxicity (comet assay) and mutagenicity (micronucleus test) studies were performed using Swiss albino mice.

RESULTS

In the cytotoxicity assay, the hemolysis rate indicated a low capacity of PgEO to cause cell lysis (0.33-1.78%). In the acute oral toxicity study, animals treated with up to up to 5000 mg/kg body weight did not observe mortality or physiological changes. Neither dosage caused behavioral problems or death in mice over 14 days. The control and 2,000 mg/kg groups had higher feed intake and body weight than the 5,000 mg/kg PgEO group. Erythrocyte count, hemoglobin level, mean corpuscular volume, and MCV decreased, but serum alanine and aspartate aminotransferases increased. In the genotoxic evaluation, 5000 mg/kg PgEO enhanced nucleated blood cell DI and DF.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study describes that PgEO can be considered well tolerated in acute exposure at doses up to 2000 mg/kg, however the dose of 5000 mg/kg of PgEO should be used with caution.

Toxicity Studies on Essential Oil from Phoenix dactylifera (L.) Seed in Wistar Rats

This study evaluated the toxicological effect of oral administration of Phoenix dactylifera seed essential oil (PDEO) in Wistar rats. PDEO was extracted through a steam-distillation technique. Acute toxicity study evaluated administration of a single dose of the oil in a group (n = 5) of rats followed by 24 h observation, for sub-acute toxicity evaluation, the animals were randomly divided into five groups (n = 3). Group 1 to 4 rats, respectively, received 62.5, 125, 250, and 500 mg/kg bw of PDEO for fourteen days, while the fifth group served as control. At the termination of the study, blood samples were obtained for biochemical and hematological analyses, while vital organs were histopathologically examined. Results from this study revealed no mortality or abnormal behavioral changes in the animals. A dose-related increase in bodyweight and hematological parameters was observed across the treated groups (p < 0.05). At a dosage of 500 mg/kg bw, PDEO caused slight elevation in biochemical marker levels and mild changes in histological architecture of liver and kidney of the test rats. This study revealed that PDEO exhibited significant hematopoietic attributes with no adverse effect on the experimental rats’ vital organs at concentrations below 500 mg/kg bw.

Joint association of meal frequency and diet quality with metabolic syndrome in Iranian adults

BACKGROUND

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a common complication that has been shown in various studies to be related to the frequency and timing of eating. We aimed to evaluate the relationship between meal timing and frequency with diet quality and prevalence of MetS.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional.

METHODS

We analyzed data from 850 adults (20 to 59 years) and divided the participants into different categories in terms of frequency of eating occasions (EO) (5 ≥ , 6-7 and 7 <), meal (2 ≥ and 3) and snack (2 ≥ , 3 and 4 ≤) in a day. Daily food consumption was assessed using the structured three 24-h recalls. The quality of diet we calculated using the food quality score (FQS). Metabolic syndrome was defined based on the guidelines of the national cholesterol education program adult treatment panel III (ATP III). The covariates-adjusted relationships between exposures and outcomes were investigated using a logistic regression test and two-way ANOVA.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of MetS in participants was 34.2%. The average FQS was 28.0. Increased frequency of EOs and snacks was related to the higher prevalence of MetS ((OR, 1.72; 95% CI, 1.24, 2.37; P < 0.01) and (OR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.07, 1.68; P, 0.01), respectively). The adjusted mean of FQS was not significantly different between the EO as well as meals and snack categories. The joint association of EO frequency and snack frequency with diet quality showed a higher chance of having MetS ( (OR, 2.36; 95% CI, 1.19, 4.66; P, 0.01 and (OR, 1.68; 95% CI, 1.06, 2.68; P,0.02), respectively). Also, we observed a higher mean of high density level cholesterol in people with the highest FQS and lowest EO frequency (P,0.02).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that the EO and snack frequency may be associated with the higher chance of MetS. We also found when the frequency of EO increases, the beneficial associations of the diet quality were overshadowed. To confirm our findings, well designed randomised clinical trials are needed.

Assessment of the acute and sub-acute toxicity of the ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of Crassocephalum rabens (Asteraceae) in rats

This pioneering study was to assess the acute and sub-acute toxicity of the ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of Crassocephalum rabens (Asteraceae) in rats. C. rabens is a common vegetable and herb for treating inflammation-related syndromes in Taiwan. Pharmacological studies have unveiled that the extracts of C. rabens have potential to become hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, or anti-cancer agents. The toxicological effects of the aerial parts of C. rabens in rodents are still elusive. For the acute toxicity study, rats were administrated with a single dose of 5,000 mg/kg body weight (BW) and observed for 14 days in accordance with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guideline No. 420. For the sub-acute toxicity study, animals were orally treated with daily doses of 0, 416.7, 833.3, and 1,666.7 mg/kg BW for 28 days based on the OECD guideline No. 407. The toxicity of the repeated dose was observed with anthropometric, hematological, and biochemical parameters as well as histology. The mortality and critical pathological and biochemical abnormalities were not observed in the acute and/or sub-acute toxicity studies. The oral median lethal dose (LD₅₀) of the extract was greater than 5000 mg/kg BW. The no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) in male and female rats was greater than 1,666.7 mg/kg BW. As such, the extract of the aerial parts of C. rabens is considered a non-toxic substance.

Evaluation of Acute and Subchronic Toxicity Induced by the Crude Ethanol Extract of Plukenetia volubilis Linneo Leaves in Swiss Albino Mice

Plukenetia volubilis Linneo (P. volubilis), or Sacha inca, is an oleaginous plant from the Euphorbiaceae family. The presence of terpenoids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, phytosterols, and phenolic compounds in the ethanol extracts of P. volubilis L leaves has been reported, showing a range of bioactivities including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and analgesia. However, the safety of this plant has not yet been reported explicitly. This study thus is aimed at evaluating the toxicity of the ethanol extract of P. volubilis leaves (EtPV) by acute and subchronic toxicity tests in Swiss albino mice following standard procedures set by The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) with slight modifications. In the acute toxicity test, the treatment groups were administered orally with the EtPV at doses of 1000, 3000, 5000, and 7000 mg/kg body weight in small fractions during 16 hours, and the mice were then observed in 14 consecutive days. In the subchronic toxicity study, the EtPV was given at doses of 100, 300, 500, and 700 mg/kg body weight for 90 days. Changes in behavior, mortality rate, and body and the weights of vital organs, hematology, clinical biochemistry, urine analysis, and histologic morphology were evaluated. The acute toxicity study showed that the EtPV causes no sign of toxicity or mortality. The hematological, biochemical and urine analyses, changes in the weight of the body and vital organs (heart, liver and kidney), and histopathological analyses of organs indicated no evidence of toxicity at any doses. It was also revealed that oral administration of EtPV is safe at the oral doses set by acute and subchronic toxicity tests, and the oral lethal dose for the EtPV is higher than 7000 mg/kg. This study is the first to confirm the safety of P. volubilis leaf ethanol extract, and as a result, encouraging further investigation to examine EtPV potential for traditional medicine.

Riboflavin recovery of spermatogenic dysfunction via a dual inhibition of oxidative changes and regulation of the PINK1-mediated pathway in arsenic-injured rat model

Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) poisoning and associated potential lesions are of a global concern. Inversely, riboflavin (vitamin B2, VB2) as a component of flavoproteins could play a vital role in the spermatogenic enzymatic reactions. Thus, this research aimed to explore potential beneficial roles of VB2 during As2O3-injured-toxicity. Rats were randomly allocated into 4 groups (n=8/group) and challenged as follows (for 30 days continuously): Group 1 received normal saline; Group 2 was treated with 3 mg As2O3/L; Group 3 received 40 mg VB2/L; Group 4 received 3 mg As2O3/L + 40 mg VB2/L. Both As2O3 and VB2 were dissolved in deionized water. Malondialdehyde (MDA), Glutathione Peroxidase (GSH-Px), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), and Catalase (CAT) were assessed for the oxidative profile, while TAS (Total Antioxidative Status) levels were evaluated for the antioxidant system, in both serum and testicular tissue. P<0.05 was considered statistically significant. The results show that As2O3 significantly decreased the body weight, testicular weight and testis volume, semen quality and testicular cell count (p<0.05). Furthermore, MDA content in the testicular tissue of the As2O3 group rats was significantly higher in comparison to the vehicle group (p<0.05). Likewise, TAS and the activities of GSH-Px, CAT and SOD were reduced (p<0.05) when compared to the control. As(2)O(3) induced testicular damage and seminiferous tubular atrophy. Monodansylcadaverine assays mirrored the histopathology observations. Meanwhile, As2O3 upregulated the expression of mitophagy-related genes including PINK1, Parkin, USP8, LC3-I, Fis1 and Mfn2. The p38 gene, responsible to stress stimuli, was also upregulated by As2O3 administration. Meanwhile, exposure to VB2 led to a significant decrease of the expression levels of mitophagy related genes. Our study revealed that VB2 supplementation protected testicular structures against As2O3-induced injury via a dual inhibition of oxidative changes and a regulation of the PINK1-mediated pathway.

Acute and Sub-chronic Toxicity Study of Recombinant Bovine Interferon Alpha in Rodents

INTRODUCTION

Recombinant bovine interferon alpha (rBoIFN-α) has been demonstrated to have antiviral activity. However, no conduct of acute or chronic toxicity tests has been reported.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Specific pathogen-free Sprague Dawley rats were administered doses at different concentrations through intraperitoneal or intravenous injection. After the administration (single for an acute toxicity test over 14 days or daily for a sub-chronic toxicity test over 30 days), the rats' behaviour and other indicators and the degree of toxic reaction were continuously monitored. Blood was collected for haematological and serum biochemical examinations. At the end of the experiments, the rats were sacrificed for necropsy and histopathological tissue analysis.

RESULTS

The external performance, behaviour characteristics, and changes in body temperature and body weight of the rats in each subgroup were comparable to the normal control subgroup. Except for a few cases, there were no lesions in the viscera's pathological structures, and the blood parameters and biochemical indicators were not noticeably different from those of the control subgroup.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that rBoIFN-α seems to be safe for rats, and its use may foster the development of the cattle industry in China by protecting livestock health.

The effects of dietary supplementation of encapsulated thyme essential oil on growth, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and serum amino acid profiles of broiler chicks challenged with Salmonella typhimurium

Salmonella Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) causes inflammation and has adverse effects on the growth of broiler chicks. Meanwhile, plant derivations improve the growth performance and decrease inflammation, but they do not have enough stability. Encapsulation of essential oils is a new strategy for decreasing their instability. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary supplementation of encapsulated Thyme essential oil (ETEO) on growth, inflammatory cytokines, and amino acid profiles of broiler chicks challenged with S. Typhimurium. Three hundred one-d-old broiler chicks were assigned into 6 groups, and 5 replications per group. The broiler chicks (3 groups) were challenged with S. Typhimurium, on day 21 and birds received basal diet (positive control), encapsulated Thyme (P-ETEO), and non-capsulated Thyme (P-NETEO), while other groups received the same diets, but under normal as a negative control, encapsulated Thyme (N-ETEO) and non-capsulated Thyme (N-NETEO). Growth performance, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and serum amino acid profiles were assessed on day 42. The challenged birds in positive control showed lower growth performance, higher concentration for inflammatory cytokines, and disturbed blood serum concentrations for amino acid profiles compared to the negative control (P<0.05). The result showed that dietary supplementation of the ETEO could improve growth performance and amino acid profiles, and also decrease inflammatory responses (P<0.05). In sum, S. Typhimurium had negative effects on growth, immunity, and inflammation, but dietary inclusion of the ETEO could decrease its negative effects.

Nanoencapsulation of essential oils and their bioactive constituents: A novel strategy to control mycotoxin contamination in food system

Spoilage of food by mycotoxigenic fungi poses a serious risk to food security throughout the world. In view of the negative effects of synthetic preservatives, essential oils (EOs) and their bioactive constituents are gaining momentum as suitable substitute to ensure food safety by controlling mycotoxins. However, despite their proven preservative potential against mycotoxins, the use of EOs/bioactive constituents in real food system is still restricted due to instability caused by abiotic factors and negative impact on organoleptic attributes after direct application. Nanoencapsulation in this regard could be a promising approach to address these problems, since the process can increase the stability of EOs/bioactive constituents, barricades their loss and considerably prevent their interaction with food matrices, thus preserving their original organoleptic qualities. The aim of this review is to provide wider and up-to-date overview on recent advances in nanoencapsulation of EOs/bioactive constituents with the objective to control mycotoxin contamination in food system. Further, the information on polymer characteristics, nanoencapsulation techniques, factors affecting the nanoencapsulation, applications of nanoencapsulated formulations, and characterization along with the study on their release kinetics and impacts on organoleptic attributes of food are discussed. Finally, the safety aspects of nanoencapsulated formulations for their safe utilization are also explored.

Acute and repeated-dose toxicity of Echinops kebericho Mesfin essential oil

Echinops kebericho Mesfin is used for the management of various diseases and fumigation during child birth. This study investigated acute and repeated-dose toxicity of E. kebericho M. essential oils (EOs). The study was conducted in Swiss albino mice. Organ weight, histopathology and clinical chemistry were analyzed. The dose and duration of treatment were defined in accordance with Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guideline. No mortality was observed in acute oral dose toxicity study up to 2000 mg/kg per body weight. Compared to control group, treated groups did not show significant abnormalities in body weight and most parameters of clinical chemistry parameters and relative organ weight in repeated-dose toxicity study. However, urea, albumin, aspartate aminotransferase, and relative organ weight of right kidney showed variations in treated groups compared to control group. All treated groups and control group showed normal histology except lymphocytic infiltrates observed on the kidney with 200 mg/kg treated female group. The current study revealed that EO of E. kebericho M. could be considered well tolerated in acute and repeated-dose exposure. Further, teratogenic, mutagenic, carcinogenic, and sub-chronic and chronic toxicity studies are warranted.

Biological Evaluation of Azetidine-2-One Derivatives of Ferulic Acid as Promising Anti-Inflammatory Agents

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the in vivo biological potential of new azetidine-2-one derivatives of ferulic acid (6a–f). First, the in vivo acute toxicity of azetidine-2-one derivatives of ferulic acid on Swiss white mice was investigated and, based on the obtained results, it can be stated that the studied derivatives belong to compounds with moderate toxicity. The in vivo anti-inflammatory potential of these derivatives was determined in a model of acute inflammation induced by carrageenan in rats and in a chronic inflammation model induced in rats using the granuloma test. In the acute inflammation model, all the studied compounds had a maximum anti-inflammatory effect 24 h after administration, which suggests that these compounds may be classified, from a pharmacokinetic point of view, in the category of long-acting compounds. The most active compound in the series was found to be compound 6b. In the case of the chronic inflammation model, it was observed that the studied compounds (6a–f) reduced the formation of granulation tissue compared to the control group, having an intense effect of inhibiting the proliferative component. The most important inhibitory effect of inhibiting the proliferative component was recorded for compound 6b. Additionally, the investigation of liver function was performed by determining the serum levels of liver enzymes aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and bilirubin (total and direct). The results showed that, in the series of azetidin-2-one derivatives, the liver enzymes concentration values were close to those recorded for the reference anti-inflammatories (diclofenac sodium and indomethacin) and slightly higher compared to the values for the healthy control group. At the end of the experiment, the animals were euthanized and fragments of liver, lung, and kidney tissue were taken from all groups in the study. These were processed for histopathological examination, and we noticed no major changes in the groups treated with the azetidine 2-one derivatives of ferulic acid compared to the healthy groups.

Evaluation of acute and sub-chronic toxicity of lithothamnion sp. in mice and rats

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Lithothamnion sp. is widely available as a marine algae-derived calcium and multi-mineral dietary supplement.

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In an acute toxicity test, Lithothamnion sp. was deemed non-toxic with a LD₅₀ >10 g/kg BW.

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In a standard sub-chronic toxicity study, the no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) of Lithothamnion sp. in rats was >2 g/kg BW.

Lithothamnion sp., a red algae of the Corallinaceae family, when harvested in its calcareous form, is rich in calcium, magnesium and a variety of trace minerals. It is used as a beneficial dietary mineral supplement across the world (Aquamin F). This study was designed to evaluate the acute and sub-chronic toxicity of Lithothamnion sp. according to the Procedure and Methods of Food Safety Toxicological Assessment GB-15193 (China). In an acute toxicity test, mice (n = 20, 10 male, 10 female) were administered a single dose of 10 g/kg BW of Lithothamnion sp. No mortality, or signs of toxicity were observed. In the sub-chronic toxicity arm of the study, SD rats (n = 80, 40 male, 40 female) were randomly divided into four groups with 10 rats in each group and provided pelleted food containing the algae at either 0.00 %, 0.625 %, 1.25 %, 2.50 % inclusion rates for 90 days. Lithothamnion sp. at all inclusion rates did not cause any mortality, and no treatment-related changes were observed in body weight, organ weight, feed consumption, feed utilization rate, urinalysis, hematological and biochemical blood analysis, gross necropsy or histopathologic examinations. In summary, the median lethal dose (LD₅₀) of Lithothamnion sp. was >10 g/kg BW. The no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) for female and male rats of Lithothamnion sp. under these experimental conditions was 2.69 g/kg BW and 2.10 g/kg BW respectively.

A Concise Overview of Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Clinical Aspects of Persian Cumin; Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B.Fedtsch

Bunium persicum is one of the most medically and economically important species of the Apiaceae family. Despite a variety of phytochemical and experimental research on this species, there is no considerable update on all related outcomes. Accordingly, current work compiles an overview of Cumin's phytochemical and pharmacological activities. Papers related to phytochemistry, pharmacology and clinical properties of B. persicum were filtered from databases as PubMed, ScienceDirect and Scopus with the term "Bunium persicum" till 15th May 2020. Genetic, pure pharmaceutical and agriculture papers were excluded. Moreover, traditional applications of this herb in Persian medicine were studied and included. In all, 54 papers reporting the compositions, Anticonvulsant, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-glycation, antidiarrhea, anti-hematotoxic, anti-toxoplasmosis, hypoglycemic, larvicidal, scolicidal, anticholinergic and antihistaminic activities of B. persicum as well as reducing and stabilizing effects in nanoparticles. Three clinical trials have also been conducted on B. persicum. There are also numerous effects, cited in traditional manuscripts such as gastroprotective, kidney tonic, slimming activity and antidote for poisons. The most dominant chemical composition of Cumin is the essential oil, responsible for various potent antimicrobial and antifungal activities. The herb also contains phenolic and flavonoid compounds that reflect the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Many of the experimental and pharmacological studies on B. persicum have traces in traditional manuscripts. There are also medical aspects that have not yet been evaluated. Despite various experimental investigations, lack of extensive clinical studies, which is currently limited to few trials on remarked activities of B. persicum is still remained to be covered.

Effects of COX inhibitors on responsiveness of the tracheal tract to acetylcholine and histamine and their relationship with LTC4 and PGE2 levels of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in allergic Guinea pigs

Introduction: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) intervene in the COX (cyclooxygenase) pathways which generate two important inflammation mediators, prostaglandins (PGs) and leukotriene (LTs). Contradictory claims regarding the effect of NSAIDs in asthmatic patients continues to be an issue. The present study investigated the effects of COX inhibitors on the responsiveness of the tracheal tract and on the levels of LTC4 and PGE2 in cells of the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in an allergic guinea pig model.Materials and Methods: Adult male Dunkin-Hartley guinea pigs (250 - 300 g) were divided into seven groups of six animals each. Four COX inhibitors, aspirin (200 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg), indomethacin (10 mg/kg), ketoprofen (10 mg/kg), and celecoxib (25 mg/kg), were given orally on day 17 to allergy induced guinea pigs at 0, 12, and 24 h before ovalbumin challenge on day 18. PGF2 and LT4 were measured in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid as well as inflammatory cell count and total protein. Tracheal responsiveness to acetylcholine (Ach) and histamine (His) also was evaluated.Results: An augment in the response of the trachea to Ach and His, as well as overt allergenic signs including short breath, wheezing and sneezing, was observed. The most significant increase in tracheal hyper-responsiveness was observed in the ketoprofen-treated group with similar but less pronounced changes observed in the indomethacin-treated group. Although some variables increased with the aspirin and celecoxib treatments, overall the tracheal sensitivity was reduced. Inflammatory cells including eosinophils and neutrophils corresponded to the changes observed for each treatment group.Conclusion: Ketoprofen and indomethacin increased the tracheal sensibility to Ach and His; therefore, their administration is not recommended in patients susceptible to allergy.

Public Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice on Herbal Remedies Used During Pregnancy and Lactation in West Bank Palestine

The use of herbal products by pregnant and lactating mothers without awareness of their harmful effects may expose both mother and fetus or infant to great dangers, such as abortion, premature delivery, uterine bleeding, and physical and mental retardation of the fetus. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the extent to which herbal product treatment is used and the reason for which such products are used and to ensure that these reasons are correct. An ethnopharmacological survey (cross-sectional observational design study) using a pre-piloted questionnaire was undertaken on herbal products used by pregnant and lactating women in the West Bank area of Palestine. A questionnaire was distributed to 350 pregnant and lactating women. The informed consent forms, ethics, and aims of the present study were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at An-Najah National University. To identify the most important species used, the use value (UV) index was employed, while the SPSS program was used to analyze the data. Collected data revealed that 13 medicinal plants are utilized, while 12 plants are not used during pregnancy. Moreover, 15 plants are utilized and 9 plants are not used during lactation for treating and dealing with various problems. The most commonly used plants belonged to 14 families, including Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, Leguminosae, and Rubiaceae. The plants most used during pregnancy were sage (Salvia fruticosa), anise (Pimpinella anisum), and peppermint (Mentha × piperita). Castor (Ricinus communis) oil, ginger (Zingiber officinale), saffron (Crocus sativus), and senna (Senna alexandrina) mostly were not used by pregnant women. Moreover, cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), anise (P. anisum), peppermint (M. piperita), and sage (S. fruticosa) were mostly used during lactation. Castor (R. communis) oil, ginger (Z. officinale), garlic (Allium sativum), and aloe (Aloe vera) mostly were not used during lactation. This study is of great importance in order to decrease the possibility of endangering the lives of fetuses and infants. A combined effort among researchers, scientists, lactating women, and pregnant women may help in changing wrong uses and thoughts about medicinal plants and help to improve the overall health of both mother and fetus.

Phytochemical analysis and evaluation of skin irritation, acute and sub-acute toxicity of Cymbopogon citratus essential oil in mice and rabbits

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C. citrates essential oil contains about 71.297 % citral.

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10 % ointment formulation of C. citratus oils did not cause skin irritation.

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Oral LD₅₀ of C. citratus essential oil was greater than 2000 mg/kg.

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C. citratus essential oil didn’t produce any toxicity sign.

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No histopathological changes were detected in the organs tested.

Cymbopogon citratus has been used by the local people in Ankober district, northern Ethiopia, as traditional medicine to treat various ailments. Its essential oil has been shown to have antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities amongst others. This study was conducted to determine skin irritation, acute and subacute toxicity of C. citratus essential oil in mice and rabbits. The essential oil was analyzed using GC–MS. The essential oil at dose of 2000 mg/kg body weight was administered to mice for 21 consecutive days. The mice mortality, behavioral change, injury and other signs of illness were recorded once daily. Biochemical parameters were evaluated. Liver and kidney were taken after sacrifice for gross findings and histological analyses. 10 % ointment formulation of C. citratus oils was applied on the rabbit skin to determine skin irritation effects. The result revealed, the presence of citral (71.297%), myrcene (19.034%), 4, 5-epoxycarene (2.780%), linalool (1.713%), ((S)-cis-verbenol (1.110 %), linalool (1.713 %), ((S)-cis-verbenol (1.110 %) and undecan-2-one (1.001 %) in the C. citratus essential oil. There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the body weights, gross abnormalities of the organs and biochemical parameters compared to the control. No histopathological changes were detected in the organs tested. 10 % ointment formulation of C. citratus oils did not cause skin irritation. Analysis of results leads to the conclusion that Ethiopian C. citratus essential oil may be considered as relatively safe and non-toxic.