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Gonzalez-Gutierrez L, Motiño O, Barriuso D, de la Puente-Aldea J, Alvarez-Frutos L, Kroemer G, Palacios-Ramirez R, Senovilla L. Obesity-Associated Colorectal Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8836. [PMID: 39201522 PMCID: PMC11354800 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25168836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2024] [Revised: 08/02/2024] [Accepted: 08/07/2024] [Indexed: 09/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) affects approximately 2 million people worldwide. Obesity is the major risk factor for CRC. In addition, obesity contributes to a chronic inflammatory stage that enhances tumor progression through the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. In addition to an increased inflammatory response, obesity-associated cancer presents accrued molecular factors related to cancer characteristics, such as genome instability, sustained cell proliferation, telomere dysfunctions, angiogenesis, and microbial alteration, among others. Despite the evidence accumulated over the last few years, the treatments for obesity-associated CRC do not differ from the CRC treatments in normal-weight individuals. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on obesity-associated cancer, including its epidemiology, risk factors, molecular factors, and current treatments. Finally, we enumerate possible new therapeutic targets that may improve the conditions of obese CRC patients. Obesity is key for the development of CRC, and treatments resulting in the reversal of obesity should be considered as a strategy for improving antineoplastic CRC therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Gonzalez-Gutierrez
- Unidad de Excelencia Instituto de Biología y Genética Molecular (IBGM), Universidad de Valladolid–CSIC, 47003 Valladolid, Spain; (L.G.-G.); (O.M.); (D.B.); (J.d.l.P.-A.); (L.A.-F.); (R.P.-R.)
| | - Omar Motiño
- Unidad de Excelencia Instituto de Biología y Genética Molecular (IBGM), Universidad de Valladolid–CSIC, 47003 Valladolid, Spain; (L.G.-G.); (O.M.); (D.B.); (J.d.l.P.-A.); (L.A.-F.); (R.P.-R.)
| | - Daniel Barriuso
- Unidad de Excelencia Instituto de Biología y Genética Molecular (IBGM), Universidad de Valladolid–CSIC, 47003 Valladolid, Spain; (L.G.-G.); (O.M.); (D.B.); (J.d.l.P.-A.); (L.A.-F.); (R.P.-R.)
| | - Juan de la Puente-Aldea
- Unidad de Excelencia Instituto de Biología y Genética Molecular (IBGM), Universidad de Valladolid–CSIC, 47003 Valladolid, Spain; (L.G.-G.); (O.M.); (D.B.); (J.d.l.P.-A.); (L.A.-F.); (R.P.-R.)
| | - Lucia Alvarez-Frutos
- Unidad de Excelencia Instituto de Biología y Genética Molecular (IBGM), Universidad de Valladolid–CSIC, 47003 Valladolid, Spain; (L.G.-G.); (O.M.); (D.B.); (J.d.l.P.-A.); (L.A.-F.); (R.P.-R.)
| | - Guido Kroemer
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Equipe Labellisée par la Ligue Contre le Cancer, Université Paris Cité, Sorbonne Université, Inserm U1138, Institut Universitaire de France, 75006 Paris, France;
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Institut Gustave Roussy, 94805 Villejuif, France
- Institut du Cancer Paris CARPEM, Department of Biology, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Roberto Palacios-Ramirez
- Unidad de Excelencia Instituto de Biología y Genética Molecular (IBGM), Universidad de Valladolid–CSIC, 47003 Valladolid, Spain; (L.G.-G.); (O.M.); (D.B.); (J.d.l.P.-A.); (L.A.-F.); (R.P.-R.)
| | - Laura Senovilla
- Unidad de Excelencia Instituto de Biología y Genética Molecular (IBGM), Universidad de Valladolid–CSIC, 47003 Valladolid, Spain; (L.G.-G.); (O.M.); (D.B.); (J.d.l.P.-A.); (L.A.-F.); (R.P.-R.)
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Equipe Labellisée par la Ligue Contre le Cancer, Université Paris Cité, Sorbonne Université, Inserm U1138, Institut Universitaire de France, 75006 Paris, France;
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Institut Gustave Roussy, 94805 Villejuif, France
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Cash T, Jonus HC, Tsvetkova M, Beumer JH, Sadanand A, Lee JY, Henry CJ, Aguilera D, Harvey RD, Goldsmith KC. A phase 1 study of simvastatin in combination with topotecan and cyclophosphamide in pediatric patients with relapsed and/or refractory solid and CNS tumors. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2023; 70:e30405. [PMID: 37158620 PMCID: PMC11225565 DOI: 10.1002/pbc.30405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors (statins) can inhibit tumor proliferation, angiogenesis, and restore apoptosis in preclinical pediatric solid tumor models. We conducted a phase 1 trial to determine the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of simvastatin with topotecan and cyclophosphamide in children with relapsed/refractory solid and central nervous system (CNS) tumors. METHODS Simvastatin was administered orally twice daily on days 1-21, with topotecan and cyclophosphamide intravenously on days 1-5 of a 21-day cycle. Four simvastatin dose levels (DLs) were planned, 140 (DL1), 180 (DL2), 225 (DL3), 290 (DL4) mg/m2 /dose, with a de-escalation DL of 100 mg/m2 /dose (DL0) if needed. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analyses were performed during cycle 1. RESULTS The median age of 14 eligible patients was 11.5 years (range: 1-23). The most common diagnoses were neuroblastoma (N = 4) and Ewing sarcoma (N = 3). Eleven dose-limiting toxicity (DLT)-evaluable patients received a median of four cycles (range: 1-6). There were three cycle 1 DLTs: one each grade 3 diarrhea and grade 4 creatine phosphokinase (CPK) elevations at DL1, and one grade 4 CPK elevation at DL0. All patients experienced at least one grade 3/4 hematologic toxicity. Best overall response was partial response in one patient with Ewing sarcoma (DL0) and stable disease for four or more cycles in four patients. Simvastatin exposure increased with higher doses and may have correlated with toxicity. Plasma interleukin 6 (IL-6) concentrations (N = 6) showed sustained IL-6 reductions with decrease to normal values by day 21 in all patients, indicating potential on-target effects. CONCLUSIONS The MTD of simvastatin with topotecan and cyclophosphamide was determined to be 100 mg/m2 /dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Cash
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Hunter C Jonus
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Maya Tsvetkova
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jan H Beumer
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Arhanti Sadanand
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Jasmine Y Lee
- Laney Graduate School Cancer Biology Program, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Curtis J Henry
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Laney Graduate School Cancer Biology Program, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Dolly Aguilera
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - R Donald Harvey
- Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Hematology/Medical Oncology and Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Kelly C Goldsmith
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Laney Graduate School Cancer Biology Program, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Pecoraro M, Marzocco S, Belvedere R, Petrella A, Franceschelli S, Popolo A. Simvastatin Reduces Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity: Effects beyond Its Antioxidant Activity. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087573. [PMID: 37108737 PMCID: PMC10141713 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate if Simvastatin can reduce, and/or prevent, Doxorubicin (Doxo)-induced cardiotoxicity. H9c2 cells were treated with Simvastatin (10 µM) for 4 h and then Doxo (1 µM) was added, and the effects on oxidative stress, calcium homeostasis, and apoptosis were evaluated after 20 h. Furthermore, we evaluated the effects of Simvastatin and Doxo co-treatment on Connexin 43 (Cx43) expression and localization, since this transmembrane protein forming gap junctions is widely involved in cardioprotection. Cytofluorimetric analysis showed that Simvastatin co-treatment significantly reduced Doxo-induced cytosolic and mitochondrial ROS overproduction, apoptosis, and cytochrome c release. Spectrofluorimetric analysis performed by means of Fura2 showed that Simvastatin co-treatment reduced calcium levels stored in mitochondria and restored cytosolic calcium storage. Western blot, immunofluorescence, and cytofluorimetric analyses showed that Simvastatin co-treatment significantly reduced Doxo-induced mitochondrial Cx43 over-expression and significantly increased the membrane levels of Cx43 phosphorylated on Ser368. We hypothesized that the reduced expression of mitochondrial Cx43 could justify the reduced levels of calcium stored in mitochondria and the consequent induction of apoptosis observed in Simvastatin co-treated cells. Moreover, the increased membrane levels of Cx43 phosphorylated on Ser368, which is responsible for the closed conformational state of the gap junction, let us to hypothesize that Simvastatin leads to cell-to-cell communication interruption to block the propagation of Doxo-induced harmful stimuli. Based on these results, we can conclude that Simvastatin could be a good adjuvant in Doxo anticancer therapy. Indeed, we confirmed its antioxidant and antiapoptotic activity, and, above all, we highlighted that Simvastatin interferes with expression and cellular localization of Cx43 that is widely involved in cardioprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Pecoraro
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | - Stefania Marzocco
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | | | - Antonello Petrella
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | | | - Ada Popolo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
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Bartkowiak A, Nazaruk E, Gajda E, Godlewska M, Gaweł D, Jabłonowska E, Bilewicz R. Simvastatin Coadministration Modulates the Electrostatically Driven Incorporation of Doxorubicin into Model Lipid and Cell Membranes. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2022; 8:4354-4364. [PMID: 36173110 PMCID: PMC9554873 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c00724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Understanding the interactions between drugs and lipid
membranes
is a prerequisite for finding the optimal way to deliver drugs into
cells. Coadministration of statins and anticancer agents has been
reported to have a positive effect on anticancer therapy. In this
study, we elucidate the mechanism by which simvastatin (SIM) improves
the efficiency of biological membrane penetration by the chemotherapeutic
agent doxorubicin (DOX) in neutral and slightly acidic solutions.
The incorporation of DOX, SIM, or a combination of them (DOX:SIM)
into selected single-component lipid membranes, zwitterionic unsaturated
1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine
(POPC), neutral cholesterol, and negatively charged 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-l-serine (DMPS) was assessed
using the Langmuir method. The penetration of neutral lipid monolayers
by the codelivery of SIM and DOX was clearly facilitated at pH 5.5,
which resembles the pH conditions of the environment of cancer cells.
This effect was ascribed to partial neutralization of the DOX positive
charge as the result of intermolecular interactions between DOX and
SIM. On the other hand, the penetration of the negatively charged
DMPS monolayer was most efficient in the case of the positively charged
DOX. The efficiency of the drug delivery to the cell membranes was
evaluated under in vitro conditions using a panel
of cancer-derived cell lines (A172, T98G, and HeLa). MTS and trypan
blue exclusion assays were performed, followed by confocal microscopy
and spheroid culture tests. Cells were exposed to either free drugs
or drugs encapsulated in lipid carriers termed cubosomes. We demonstrated
that the viability of cancer cells exposed to DOX was significantly
impaired in the presence of SIM, and this phenomenon was greatly magnified
when DOX and SIM were coencapsulated in cubosomes. Overall, our results
confirmed the utility of the DOX:SIM combination delivery, which enhances
the interactions between neutral components of cell membranes and
positively charged chemotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ewa Nazaruk
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02093 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Gajda
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Centre of Postgraduate Medical Education, Marymoncka 99/103, 01-813 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Marlena Godlewska
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Centre of Postgraduate Medical Education, Marymoncka 99/103, 01-813 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Damian Gaweł
- Department of Cell Biology and Immunology, Centre of Postgraduate Medical Education, Marymoncka 99/103, 01-813 Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Renata Bilewicz
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02093 Warsaw, Poland
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Barbălată CI, Porfire AS, Sesarman A, Rauca VF, Banciu M, Muntean D, Știufiuc R, Moldovan A, Moldovan C, Tomuță I. A Screening Study for the Development of Simvastatin-Doxorubicin Liposomes, a Co-Formulation with Future Perspectives in Colon Cancer Therapy. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13101526. [PMID: 34683821 PMCID: PMC8537800 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13101526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
An increasing number of studies published so far have evidenced the benefits of Simvastatin (SIM) and Doxorubicin (DOX) co-treatment in colorectal cancer. In view of this, the current study aimed to investigate the pharmaceutical development of liposomes co-encapsulating SIM and DOX, by implementing the Quality by Design (QbD) concept, as a means to enhance the antiproliferative effect of the co-formulation on C26 murine colon cancer cells co-cultured with macrophages. It is known that the quality profile of liposomes is dependent on the critical quality attributes (CQAs) of liposomes (drug entrapped concentration, encapsulation efficiency, size, zeta potential, and drug release profile), which are, in turn, directly influenced by various formulation factors and processing parameters. By using the design of experiments, it was possible to outline the increased variability of CQAs in relation to formulation factors and identify by means of statistical analysis the material attributes that are critical (phospholipids, DOX and SIM concentration) for the quality of the co-formulation. The in vitro studies performed on a murine colon cancer cell line highlighted the importance of delivering the optimal drug ratio at the target site, since the balance antiproliferative vs. pro-proliferative effects can easily be shifted when the molar ratio between DOX and SIM changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Ioana Barbălată
- Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 41 Victor Babes Street, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (C.I.B.); (D.M.); (I.T.)
| | - Alina Silvia Porfire
- Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 41 Victor Babes Street, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (C.I.B.); (D.M.); (I.T.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Alina Sesarman
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Centre for Systems Biology, Biodiversity and Bioresources (3B), Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, 5-7 Clinicilor Street, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (A.S.); (V.-F.R.); (M.B.)
- Molecular Biology Center, Institute for Interdisciplinary Research in Bio-Nano-Sciences of Babes-Bolyai University, 42 Treboniu Laurian Street, 400271 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Valentin-Florian Rauca
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Centre for Systems Biology, Biodiversity and Bioresources (3B), Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, 5-7 Clinicilor Street, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (A.S.); (V.-F.R.); (M.B.)
- Molecular Biology Center, Institute for Interdisciplinary Research in Bio-Nano-Sciences of Babes-Bolyai University, 42 Treboniu Laurian Street, 400271 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Manuela Banciu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Centre for Systems Biology, Biodiversity and Bioresources (3B), Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, 5-7 Clinicilor Street, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (A.S.); (V.-F.R.); (M.B.)
- Molecular Biology Center, Institute for Interdisciplinary Research in Bio-Nano-Sciences of Babes-Bolyai University, 42 Treboniu Laurian Street, 400271 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Dana Muntean
- Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 41 Victor Babes Street, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (C.I.B.); (D.M.); (I.T.)
| | - Rareș Știufiuc
- MedFuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 4-6 Louis Pasteur Street, 400337 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (R.Ș.); (A.M.); (C.M.)
| | - Alin Moldovan
- MedFuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 4-6 Louis Pasteur Street, 400337 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (R.Ș.); (A.M.); (C.M.)
| | - Cristian Moldovan
- MedFuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 4-6 Louis Pasteur Street, 400337 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (R.Ș.); (A.M.); (C.M.)
| | - Ioan Tomuță
- Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 41 Victor Babes Street, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (C.I.B.); (D.M.); (I.T.)
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Anderson CC, Marentette JO, Prutton KM, Rauniyar AK, Reisz JA, D'Alessandro A, Maclean KN, Saba LM, Roede JR. Trisomy 21 results in modest impacts on mitochondrial function and central carbon metabolism. Free Radic Biol Med 2021; 172:201-212. [PMID: 34129926 PMCID: PMC8355208 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Down syndrome (DS) is the most common genetic cause of intellectual disability. Mechanistically, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are reported to be etiological factors for many of the DS-related comorbidities and have previously been reported in a number of in vitro and in vivo models of DS. The purpose of this study was to test for the presence of mitochondrial dysfunction in fibroblast cells obtained via skin biopsy from individuals with DS, and to assess the impact of trisomy 21 on central carbon metabolism. Using extracellular flux assays in matched dermal fibroblasts from euploid and DS individuals, we found that basal mitochondrial dysfunction is quite mild. Stressing the cells with a cocktail of mitochondrial stressors revealed a significant mitochondrial deficit in DS cells compared to euploid controls. Evaluation of extracellular acidification rate did not reveal a baseline abnormality in glycolysis; however, metabolomic assessments utilizing isotopically labeled glucose and glutamine revealed altered central carbon metabolism in DS cells. Specifically, we observed greater glucose dependency, uptake and flux into the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway in DS fibroblasts. Furthermore, using induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) we found that mitochondrial function in DS iPSCs was similar to the previously published studies employing fetal cells. Together, these data indicate that aberrant central carbon metabolism is a candidate mechanism for stress-related mitochondrial dysfunction in DS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin C Anderson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, USA
| | - John O Marentette
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, USA
| | - Kendra M Prutton
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, USA; Linda Crnic Institute for Down Syndrome, School of Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Abhishek K Rauniyar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, USA
| | - Julie A Reisz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, USA
| | | | - Kenneth N Maclean
- Department of Pediatrics, USA; Linda Crnic Institute for Down Syndrome, School of Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Laura M Saba
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, USA
| | - James R Roede
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, USA; Linda Crnic Institute for Down Syndrome, School of Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA.
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