Analytical studies on the environmental state of the Svalbard Archipelago provide a critical source of information about anthropogenic global impact

Mastering Snow Analysis: Enhancing Sampling Techniques and Introducing ACF Extraction Method with Applications in Svalbard

Semi-volatile organic contaminants (SVOCs) are known for their tendency to evaporate from source regions and undergo atmospheric transport to distant areas. Cold condensation intensifies dry deposition, particle deposition, and scavenging by snow and rain, allowing SVOCs to move from the atmosphere into terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in alpine and polar regions. However, no standardized methods exist for the sampling, laboratory processing, and instrumental analysis of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in snow. The lack of reference methods makes these steps highly variable and prone to errors. This study critically reviews the existing literature to highlight the key challenges in the sampling phase, aiming to develop a reliable, consistent, and easily reproducible technique. The goal is to simplify this crucial step of the analysis, allowing data to be shared more effectively through standardized methods, minimizing errors. Additionally, an innovative method for laboratory processing is introduced, which uses activated carbon fibers (ACFs) as adsorbents, streamlining the analysis process. The extraction method is applied to analyze polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs) and chlorinated pesticides (α-HCH, γ-HCH, p,p'-DDE, o,p'-DDT, HCB, and PeCB). The entire procedure, from sampling to instrumental analysis, is subsequently tested on snow samples collected on the Svalbard Islands. To validate the efficiency of the new extraction system, quality control measures based on the EPA methods 1668B and 1699 for aqueous methods are employed. This study presents a new, reliable method that covers both sampling and lab analysis, tailored for detecting POPs in snow.

Chronological distribution and potential sources of persistent toxic substances in soils from the glacier foreland of Midtre Lovénbreen, Svalbard

Despite its reputation as one of the cleanest regions globally, recent studies have identified the presence of various persistent toxic substances (PTSs) in the environmental matrices collected from Svalbard. This study investigated the chronological distribution and potential sources of 81 PTSs in soils from the glacier foreland of Midtre Lovénbreen. Soil samples (n = 45) were categorized by age based on exposure to the atmosphere due to glacier retreat in July 2014 into five age groups: 80-100 years (n = 7), 60-80 years (n = 12), 40-60 years (n = 16), 20-40 years (n = 7), and <20 years (n = 3). Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs, n = 32) in soils varied with age, ranging from 0.29 to 0.74 ng g-1 dw. In addition, the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, n = 28), perylene, and alkyl-PAHs (n = 20) in soils ranged from 21 to 80 ng g-1 dw, 2.9-62 ng g-1 dw, and 73-420 ng g-1 dw, respectively. The concentrations of PTSs were observed to be greater in older soils. Principal component analysis revealed that PCBs in soils originated from various product sources. Positive matrix factorization modeling estimated the association of PAHs in soils with potential origins, such as diesel emissions, petroleum and coal combustion, and coal. Potential sources of PAHs were mainly coal in younger soils and diesel emissions and petroleum combustion in older soils. Alkyl-PAH compositions in the soil were similar to those of bituminous coal, with a noteworthy degree of weathering observed in older soils. The accumulation rate and flux of PTSs in soils exhibited compound-specific patterns, reflecting factors such as long-range transport, fate, origin, and recent inputs. These findings can serve as baseline data for protecting and preserving polar environments.

The occurrence and sources of PAHs, oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs), and nitrated PAHs (NPAHs) in soil and vegetation from the Antarctic, Arctic, and Tibetan Plateau

Although the fate of PAHs in the three polar regions (Antarctic, Arctic, and Tibetan Plateau) has been investigated, the occurrence and contamination profiles of PAH derivatives such as oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs) and nitrated PAHs (NPAHs) remain unclear. Some of them are more toxic and can be transformed from PAHs in environment. This study explored and compared the concentrations composition profiles and potential sources of PAHs, OPAHs, and NPAHs in soil and vegetation samples from the three polar regions. The total PAH, OPAH, and NPAH concentrations were 3.55-519, n.d.-101, and n.d.-1.10 ng/g dry weight (dw), respectively. The compounds were dominated by three-ring PAHs, and the most abundant individual PAH and OPAH were phenanthrene (PHE) and 9-fluorenone (9-FO), respectively. The sources of PAHs and their derivatives were qualitatively analyzed by the diagnostic ratios and quantified using the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model. The ratios of PAH derivatives to parent PAHs (9-FO/fluorene and 9,10-anthraquinone/anthracene) were significantly higher in the Antarctic samples than in the Arctic and TP samples, implying a higher occurrence of secondary OPAH and NPAH formation in the Antarctic region. To our knowledge, this is the first comparative study that simultaneously investigated the contamination profiles of PAHs and their derivatives in the three polar regions. The findings of this study provide a scientific basis for the development of risk assessment and pollution control strategies in these fragile regions.

Impacts of anthropogenic activities and glacial processes on the distribution of chemical elements in Billefjord, Svalbard, Arctic

The Arctic region is undergoing rapid and extensive transformations due to global climate change. This study investigated the spatial distribution of 31 chemical elements in eight locations in Billefjord, Svalbard, Arctic, with varying degrees of anthropogenic and glacial influences. The west coast of Billefjord has experienced a greater historical anthropogenic impact, while the east coast has larger glaciers and shows less visible evidence of direct human impact. Over 450 topsoil samples collected in the west (abandoned mining town Pyramiden, and glacial valleys of Elsa, Ferdinand, Sven) and east coast of the fjord (glacial valleys of Ebba, Pollock, Ragnar and nearby the Nordenskiöld glacier). These samples were extracted and analyzed by ICP-OES. The results revealed complex distributions of elements among the locations. Nordenskiöld glacier area, along with other locations in the eastern part of the Billefjord, had significantly higher levels of most elements (20 out of 31; As, B, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, K, Li, Mg, Mo, Sb, Se, Sn, Sr, Ti, Tl, U, V, Zr). In contrast, Ferdinand Valley and other locations on the western side of the fjord had the lowest mean concentrations of most elements (18 out of 31; B, Ca, Cu, Cd, K, Li, P, Mg, Mo, Sb, Se, Sn, Sr, Ti, Tl, U, V, Zr). These findings highlight the significant influence of glacial processes on the elemental composition of soils within the region. The meltwater flow originating from glaciers in the sampled valleys contributes to the local element load, while the loss of glacier mass is associated with decreased element concentrations within these valleys. These results underscore the complexity of element distribution in the study area and emphasize the necessity for continuous monitoring efforts in this unique and environmentally sensitive region.

The seasonal change of PAHs in Svalbard surface snow

The Arctic region is threatened by contamination deriving from both long-range pollution and local human activities. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are environmental tracers of emission, transport and deposition processes. A first campaign has been conducted at Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, from October 2018 to May 2019, monitoring weekly concentrations of PAHs in Arctic surface snow. The trend of the 16 high priority PAH compounds showed that long-range inputs occurred mainly in the winter, with concentrations ranging from 0.8 ng L-1 to 37 ng L-1. In contrast to this, the most abundant analyte retene, showed an opposite seasonal trend with highest values in autumn and late spring (up to 97 ng L-1), while in winter this compound remained below 3 ng L-1. This is most likely due to local contributions from outcropping coal deposits and stockpiles. Our results show a general agreement with the atmospheric signal, although significant skews can be attributed to post-depositional processes, wind erosion, melting episodes and redistribution.

Rainwater chemistry composition in Bellsund: Sources of elements and deposition discrepancies in the coastal area (SW Spitsbergen, Svalbard)

Discrepancies in rainfall chemistry in Bellsund were found to be influenced by the orographic barrier and related to the variability in the inflow of air masses as well as to the distance of sampling sites from the sea and thus the extent of sea spray impact. This study covers measurements of rainfall (P) and air temperature (T), physicochemical parameters (pH, specific electrolytic conductivity (SEC), major ions (Cl^-, NO₃^-, SO₄^2-) and elements (Na, Ca, Mg,K), as well as trace elements (i.a. As, Cd, Cr, Fe, Co, Pb, Ni, Zn) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in 22 rainfall samples collected in August on the Calypsostranda marine terrace and in the forefield of a land-terminating glacier (NW Wedel Jarlsberg Land). The comparison of chemical parameters in the samples revealed major discrepancies, including statistically significant higher rainwater pH and SEC, and the levels of Ag, As, Bi, Ca, Co, Fe, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, and V, deposited near the seashore (Calypsostranda) than in the glacier forefield. Cluster analysis (CA) showed that elements deposited in lower concentrations at the glacier forefield site came from predominately anthropogenic sources. Conversely, CA results of metals and metalloids deposited on the Calypsostranda marine terrace indicate both natural and anthropogenic sources. A correlation matrix and principal component analysis (PCA) permitted identifying two primary factors affecting rainfall chemistry at each of the study sites. In Calypsostranda, these were the inflow of relatively unpolluted cold air (F1 = 35.1%) and sea spray (F2 = 27.6%), while in the glacier forefield the factors were an orographic barrier (F1 = 37.3%) and the inflow of polluted warm air (F2 = 25.2%).

Untargeted analysis of environmental contaminants in surface snow samples of Svalbard Islands by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry

In recent years, there is increasing attention on the contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), which include plasticizers, flame retardants, industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products, since they have been detected even far away from pollution sources. The polar regions are not exempt from the presence of anthropogenic contaminants, and they are employed as a model for understanding the pollutant fate and impact. During the 2021 spring campaign, sixteen surface snow samples were collected close to the research station of Ny-Ålesund located on the Spitsbergen Island of the Norwegian Svalbard Archipelago. The samples were extracted by solid-phase extraction and analyzed by liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS) following an untargeted approach. Compound tentative identification was obtained with the aid of the software Compound Discoverer, using both mass spectral database search and manual validation. Among the 114 compounds identified with a high confidence level in the snow samples, >80 have some commercial or industrial use (drugs, plasticizers, fragrances, etc.), therefore they could be of anthropogenic origin. Nonetheless, a clear contamination trend did not appear in the snow samples collected on eight different days during one month. The comparison with aerosol samples collected in the same area did not help identifying the source, either, since only a few compounds were in common, and they were mainly of natural origin. As such, the analysis of aerosol sample did not support possible long-range transport, also considering that compounds were detected mostly in the coarse fraction.

Effects of biotransport and hydro-meteorological conditions on transport of trace elements in the Scott River (Bellsund, Spitsbergen)

The shaping of surface water chemistry in the Svalbard Archipelago is strongly dependent on the geology of the catchment and the process of long-range transport of atmospheric pollutants (LRATP). It was found that the dissolved trace elements in the Scott River, which catchment is characterized by a decreasing degree of glaciation, were of the natural origin (i.a. weathering and dissolution of local geological substratum). The exception was Zn originated from LRATP. The paper describe the influence changes in hydro-meteorological conditions and the presence of a seabird colony on the variability in the transport of trace elements within the Scott River catchment. The work assesses long-time fluctuations in the concentration of twenty five trace elements (i.a. Al, Cr, Cu, Pb, Sr, and Zn) from eighty-four surface water samples and their relation to changes in water discharge (Q), precipitation (P), pH, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) at two river sites (with one being under the influence of the biotransport factor). Based on the results of matrix correlation and cluster analysis it was found that the additional load of DOC from the nesting site of Larus Argentatus in the mouth section of the river drastically changed the hydro-geochemical cycle of Co, Ni, Zn, Ga, Sr, Rb, Ba and U (0.30 < r < 0.51). Furthermore, the results of cluster analysis confirmed that the bird colony’s nesting site was strongly responsible for the presence of U, Rb, Zn, Ni and marine-derived nutrients (e.g. Se and Li). The discharge of glacier meltwater and the alkaline character of water have a negative effect on the dissolution of Li and Mn (−0.31 < r < −0.51), but positively affect the level of Rb and U (r = 0.31 and 0.35, respectively) due to it being washing out a seabird nesting colony in the mouth section of the Scott River. It was observed that the event of rises in air temperature and rain, which results in increased water discharge, caused an intense transport of the trace elements load. Moreover, results of the precipitation sensitivity coefficient factor (CF) proved that precipitation effect the occurrence of Li, Sr and U in the Scott River.

Arctic Freshwater Environment Altered by the Accumulation of Commonly Determined and Potentially New POPs

Chemical composition of Arctic freshwater ecosystems depends on several factors. They include characteristics of the surrounding landscape, its lithology, geomorphology, vegetation, and hydrological features, as well as accumulation of anthropogenic pollution. In the Arctic, the problem of environmental contamination is widespread. That is why research on lakes and river catchments in terms of their chemical composition has enjoyed increasing interest among scientists worldwide. The freshwater reservoirs of the Arctic are fragile and particularly vulnerable to the uptake of pollutants that become trapped in the water and sediments for an extended period. This review summarises selected studies of freshwater bodies in the Arctic to highlight the problem of the accumulation of pollutants in these reservoirs. Moreover, it emphasises the possible negative impact of chemical pollutants on both animal and human health.

Year-round measurements of size-segregated low molecular weight organic acids in Arctic aerosol

Organic acids in aerosols Earth's atmosphere are ubiquitous and they have been extensively studied across urban, rural and polar environments. However, little is known about their properties, transport, source and seasonal variations in the Svalbard Archipelago. Here, we present the annual trend of organic acids in the aerosol collected at Ny-Ålesund and consider their size-distributions to infer their possible sources and relative contributions. A series of carboxylic acids were detected with a predominance of C2-oxalic acid. Pinic acid and cis-pinonic acid were studied in order to better understand the oxidative and gas-to-particle processes occurred in the Arctic atmosphere. Since the water-soluble organic fraction is mainly composed by organic acids and ions, we investigated how the seasonal variation leads to different atmospheric transport mechanisms, focusing on the chemical variations between the polar night and boreal summer. Using major ions, levoglucosan and MSA, the Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) identified five different possible sources: a) sea spray; b) marine primary production; c) biomass burning; d) sea ice related process and e) secondary products.

Historical records and contamination assessment of potential toxic elements (PTEs) over the past 100 years in Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard

Ny-Ålesund has been significantly impacted by anthropogenic activities (e.g. coal mining, scientific research, tourist shipping) over the past 100 years. However, the studies of potential toxic elements (PTEs) contamination in Ny-Ålesund currently mainly focus on surface soil or surface fjord sediments, and little is known about the history and status of PTEs contamination over the past 100 years. In this study, we collected a palaeo-notch sediment profile YN, analyzed the contents of six typical PTEs (Cu, Pb, Cd, Hg, As, Se) in the sediments, and assessed the historical pollution status in Ny-Ålesund using the pollution load index, geo-accumulation index and enrichment factor. The results showed that the contents of PTEs over the past 100 years increased rapidly compared with those during the interval of 9400-100 BP. In addition, Pb, Cd and Hg showed a clear signal of enrichment and were the main polluters among the PTEs analyzed. The contamination was likely linked to gas-oil powered generators, coal mining, research station, tourist shipping and long-range transport of pollutants.

Distribution and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the water column of Kongsfjorden, Arctic

Kongsfjorden is known for its characteristic multi-layer water mass formed by the convergence of freshwaters from nearby glaciers and rivers and saline water from the Atlantic and Arctic. The distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the water column of Kongsfjorden was investigated and their potential sources were analyzed. The total concentrations of 16 PAHs in the surface seawater and river water were in the range of 33.4-79.8 ng/L (mean 48.5 ng/L) and 2.3-201.4 ng/L (mean 126.1 ng/L), respectively. Horizontally, PAHs were mainly concentrated around river estuaries and the glacier front in the dissolved phase. Vertically, the PAHs in the particulate phase followed surface-enrichment and depth-depletion patterns in most stations, with the maximum concentration found at 50 m depth in the central area of Kongsfjorden. The compositions of PAHs in seawater and rivers were similar, with two-ring and tricyclic PAHs comprising the majority of the dissolved and particulate phases. PAHs found in Kongsfjorden waters appeared to be derived from multiple sources such as petroleum and coal combustion. PAHs in the bay mouth of Kongsfjorden were mainly introduced by the West Spitsbergen Current and the Arctic waters, while in the inner bay, atmospheric deposition and local sources were the major contributors. The distribution of PAHs was mainly attributed to the suspended particulate distribution.

Contamination of Arctic Lakes with Persistent Toxic PAH Substances in the NW Part of Wedel Jarlsberg Land (Bellsund, Svalbard)

The expansion of glacier-free areas in polar regions favours the appearance of lakes in the non-glaciated parts of glacier basins. This paper presents the differentiation of organic compound concentrations in fifty-four Arctic lakes collected in four locations (Logne Valley, in the vicinity of the Scott, Renard and Antonia glaciers). We cover meteorological measurements, chemical analysis of sixteen dioxin-like compounds (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)), formaldehyde (HCHO), sum parameters of phenolic compounds (∑phenols) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). The most contaminated with PAH compounds were lakes exposed to the influence of the Greenland Sea (Logne Valley lakes) and to the prevailing winds (Scott and Renard lakes). Interpretation of the PAH compounds results allowed for identification of pyrogenic sources as the main sources of PAH compounds in the year 2012. The highest levels of HCHO and ∑phenols were observed for the Scott lakes, while the highest DOC levels were noted in Antonia lakes.

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and other organic pollutants in freshwaters on the western shore of Admiralty Bay (King George Island, Maritime Antarctica)

Organic contamination in freshwater samples has never been investigated at the western shore of Admiralty Bay. Therefore, the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in five different sites distributed along a shore running from the Arctowski Station to the Baranowski Glacier was studied. Moreover, organic compounds such as n-alkanes, toluene and ethylbenzene were also noted. Increased ΣPAHs in late Austral summer 2016 are the result of long-range atmospheric transport of air masses from South America, confirmed by 10-day backward air mass trajectories analysis. The presence of n-alkanes and other hydrocarbons, as well as the evaluation of PAH indices (e.g. ΣLMW/ΣHMW* > 1), shows the use of fuel and indicate local human activity. As a final conclusion, our analysis indicates a mixed origin of PAHs (global and local). The presence of PAHs and other hydrocarbons in the water environment may constitute a potentially negative effect on the Antarctic ecosystem and it should be investigated in detail during further research (//*ΣLMW-sum of low molecular weight PAHs (two- and three-ring PAHs); ΣHMW-sum of high molecular weight PAHs (four- and five-ring PAHs)//). Graphical abstract.

Evaluation of the use of reindeer droppings for monitoring essential and non-essential elements in the polar terrestrial environment

Excess or toxic metals, non-metals and metalloids can be eliminated from the organism by deposition in inert tissue (e.g. fur) or excretion with body secretions, urine and faeces. Droppings are one of the main routes for the elimination of multiple elements and they can be collected without direct contact with the animal. Contaminant concentration has been examined in non-lethally collected tissues of several species (especially reptilian, avian and mammalian). However, studies on species residing in polar areas are still limited, especially of mammals from the European Arctic. Reindeers are the only large herbivores living in Svalbard, being an essential part of the Arctic terrestrial ecosystem. Although reindeer presence has a high impact on their surroundings, those huge mammals are rarely part of ecotoxicological studies regarding metal pollution. In this paper, the droppings of Svalbard reindeer were used as a non-invasively collected tissue to examine the excretion pathway of 30 elements. Samples were collected in mesic and moss tundra, representing summer, winter and winter-transitional excretion. For more than a half of the studied elements, significant differences occurred between the samples collected in the two tundra types. The feasibility of older and fresh samples was assessed based on summer droppings, and significant differences were found for K, As, Mn, Na, Ni, and Sb concentrations. No relevant differences in element levels were observed for samples collected from adult females, adult males and calves, except for zinc and potassium. Results show that reindeer droppings are an important vector for the transfer of many metals, non-metals and metalloids including calcium, phosphorus, zinc, aluminium and lead. As a sedentary species, feeding on local food sources, Svalbard reindeer is a valuable indicator of trace element presence in the polar terrestrial ecosystem.

Fragrances and PAHs in snow and seawater of Ny-Ålesund (Svalbard): Local and long-range contamination

Polar regions are fragile ecosystems threatened by both long-range pollution and local human contamination. In this context, the environmental distribution of the Personal Care Products (PCPs) represent a major knowledge gap. Following preliminary Antarctic studies, Fragrance Materials (FMs) were analyzed in the seawater and snow collected in the area of Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, to investigate local and long-range contamination. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), including Retene, were determined in parallel to help the identification of the governing processes. Concentrations of FMs up to 72 ng L^-1 were detected in the surface snow near the settlement and at increasing distances, in relation to the prevailing winds. PAHs follow a similar scheme, with levels of Retene up to 1.8 μg L^-1, likely deriving from the occurrence of this compound in the coal dust due to the previous mining activities in the area. The snow seasonal deposition of FMs and PAHs was estimated in a snowpit dug at the top of the Austre Brøggerbreen glacier, indicating the long-range atmospheric transport (LRAT) of these compounds.

Water chemistry of tundra lakes in the periglacial zone of the Bellsund Fiord (Svalbard) in the summer of 2013

Climate changes observed in the Arctic (e.g. permafrost degradation, glacier retreat) may have significant influence on sensitive polar wetlands. The main objectives of this paper are defining chemical features of water within six small arctic lakes located in Bellsund (Svalbard) in the area of continuous permafrost occurrence. The unique environmental conditions of the study area offer an opportunity to observe phenomena influencing water chemistry, such as: chemical weathering, permafrost thawing, marine aerosols, atmospheric deposition and biological inputs. In the water samples collected during the summer 2013, detailed tundra lake water chemistry characteristics regarding ions, trace elements, pH and specific electrolytic conductivity (SEC₂₅) analysis were determined. Moreover, water chemistry of the studied lakes was compared to the water samples from the Tyvjobekken Creek and precipitation water samples. As a final step of data analysis, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed. Detailed chemical analysis allowed us to conclude what follows: (1) Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, SO₄^2-, Sr are of geogenic origin, (2) NO₃^- present in tundra lakes and the Tyvjobekken Creek water samples (ranging from 0.31 to 1.69mgL^-1 and from 0.25 to 1.58mgL^-1 respectively) may be of mixed origin, i.e. from biological processes and permafrost thawing, (3) high contribution of non-sea-salt SO₄^2->80% in majority of studied samples indicate considerable inflow of sulphate-rich air to the study area, (4) high content of chlorides in tundra lakes (range: 25.6-32.0% meqL^-1) indicates marine aerosol influence, (5) PCA result shows that atmospheric transport may constitute a source of Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Ga, Ba and Cd. However, further detailed inter-season and multi-seasonal study of tundra lakes in the Arctic are recommended. Especially in terms of detailed differentiation of sources influence (atmospheric transport vs. permafrost degradation).

Comparison of hydrochemistry and organic compound transport in two non-glaciated high Arctic catchments with a permafrost regime (Bellsund Fjord, Spitsbergen)

An increase in air temperature related to climate change results in the retreat of glaciers, the degradation of permafrost, and the expansion of glacier-free areas in the polar regions. All these processes lead to changes in the Arctic landscape. They influence the hydrochemistry of streams and rivers fed by glaciers and thawing permafrost. In this study, we examine eighty two water samples from two non-glaciated catchments with snow-permafrost regime: the Tyvjobekken Creek and the Reindeer Creek (NW Wedel-Jarlsberg Land, Spitsbergen). We cover hydrometeorological measurements, fluctuations of physicochemical parameters (pH, specific electrolytic conductivity (SEC)), and the presence of selected organic compounds (dissolved organic carbon (DOC), formaldehyde (HCHO), ∑phenols). The obtained levels of DOC (0.061-0.569mgCL^-1) and HCHO (<LOD-0.140mgL^-1) in water samples of these two high Arctic creeks confirm the role of the melting permafrost as a rich source of terrestrial organic carbon and organic pollutants, as well as the impact of rainfall on surface water chemistry. It was found that fluctuations of physicochemical indices (pH, SEC, DOC) were related to changes in mean daily discharge of Reindeer Creek (0.012-0.034m³s^-1) and Tyvjobekken Creek (0.011-0.015m³s^-1) (r>0.40). The Tyvjobekken Creek catchment, in contrast to Reindeer Creek catchment, turned out to be resistant to rapid changes in meteorological conditions (r<0.10) and surface runoff. The processes of permafrost thawing, calcium carbonate dissolution, and biogeochemical "breathing" of soils proved to be crucial for the development of water chemistry. In conclusion, the surface water chemistry of the Reindeer Creek was found to result from the mutual influence of hydrometeorological indices and the biogeochemical environment of the catchment.

Hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of pollutants as a factor influencing their redistribution during snowpack melt

Glaciers accumulate organic pollutants delivered by snow. However, our understanding of the exact dynamics of organic pollutants in the snowpack relies primarily on laboratory experiments and mathematical models. To fill the gap related to the detailed field data, we have conducted observations of melting snow profiles in two locations and three different stages of melting on one High Arctic glacier, as well as in superimposed ice. We monitored the chemical concentrations of formaldehyde, phenols, short-chain carboxylic acids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and snow water equivalents to derive chemical loads. The obtained organic contaminant redistribution patterns are compared to the meltwater removal model by Meyer and Wania (2011), in order to link the behaviour of chemicals to their hydrophilic or hydrophobic properties. Both the later snowpits and the superimposed ice layer were generally more abundant in particulate organics and hydrophobic compounds, despite the initial prevalence of hydrophilic organic chemicals. The chemical species with high water solubility also showed less predictable elution patterns, due to their chemical reactivity and possible photochemical reactions in the snowpack. Finally, ice layers in the snowpack showed very different chemical characteristics to the underlying superimposed ice, so one cannot be used as a chemical proxy for another. In order to interpret the ice core records correctly, the temporal changes in concentration of different pollutant types should be considered, as glaciers may preferentially accumulate hydrophobic organics that tarry in the snow cover.

Temporal variation in circulating concentrations of organochlorine pollutants in a pelagic seabird breeding in the high Arctic

The present study explored short-term temporal variations in circulating concentrations of 3 legacy organochlorines with different physicochemical properties (polychlorinated biphenyl 153 [PCB-153], p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene [DDE], and hexachlorobenzene [HCB]) in breeding kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla) in a colony in Svalbard (78°N), Norwegian Arctic. Concentrations were measured in blood of a large number (n = 412-521 blood samples, depending on the data analyses) of prebreeding, incubating, and chick-rearing birds over a period of 5 yr (2007-2011). The PCB-153 concentrations were equal in male and female blood in the prebreeding period, whereas females had significantly lower concentrations during incubation and chick rearing, probably because of their ability to eliminate organochlorines through egg laying. A similar temporal pattern was observed with DDE, although the lower concentrations in incubating females were not significant. Males and females had similar concentrations of HCB over all reproductive stages. The concentrations of all 3 compounds varied greatly between years. The concentrations of PCB-153 tended to decline over the study period, whereas concentrations of HCB showed an increasing trend, especially among chick-rearing males late in the season. Concentrations of PCB-153 increased approximately 2.5 times from the prebreeding to the chick-rearing period, concurrent with mobilization of body lipids (reduced body mass). A similar, but less pronounced trend was found for HCB. For DDE, however, kittiwakes had the highest concentrations in the prebreeding period, suggesting relatively high exposure in their winter areas. The present study documented large variations in circulating concentrations of legacy organochlorines among and within breeding seasons in kittiwakes, but the alterations within seasons were relatively consistent from year to year. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:442-448. © 2016 SETAC.

How Important Is Research on Pollution Levels in Antarctica? Historical Approach, Difficulties and Current Trends

Despite the fact that Antarctica is a continent notably free from large negative impact of human activities, literature data can be the basis for concluding that this is not an area free from anthropogenic pollutants. Pollutants, which are identified in various elements of the environment of Antarctica, are mostly connected with long-range atmospheric transport (LRAT) and deposition in this area. The study presents: a historical overview of research pertaining to the presence of pollutants in entire Antarctica; a description of the development of research on pollutants in various environmental samples conducted in this area since 1960; a detailed description of contemporary analytical research (2000-2014); information on concentration levels of a broad range of pollutants present in various elements of the environment. The data collected can provide grounds for concluding that pollutants present in this area can contribute to gradual degradation of Antarctic ecosystem.

Do morphometric parameters and geological conditions determine chemistry of glacier surface ice? Spatial distribution of contaminants present in the surface ice of Spitsbergen glaciers (European Arctic)

The chemism of the glaciers is strongly determined by long-distance transport of chemical substances and their wet and dry deposition on the glacier surface. This paper concerns spatial distribution of metals, ions, and dissolved organic carbon, as well as the differentiation of physicochemical parameters (pH, electrical conductivity) determined in ice surface samples collected from four Arctic glaciers during the summer season in 2012. The studied glaciers represent three different morphological types: ground based (Blomlibreen and Scottbreen), tidewater which evolved to ground based (Renardbreen), and typical tidewater glacier (Recherchebreen). All of the glaciers are functioning as a glacial system and hence are subject to the same physical processes (melting, freezing) and the process of ice flowing resulting from the cross-impact force of gravity and topographic conditions. According to this hypothesis, the article discusses the correlation between morphometric parameters, changes in mass balance, geological characteristics of the glaciers and the spatial distribution of analytes on the surface of ice. A strong correlation (r = 0.63) is recorded between the aspect of glaciers and values of pH and ions, whereas dissolved organic carbon (DOC) depends on the minimum elevation of glaciers (r = 0.55) and most probably also on the development of the accumulation area. The obtained results suggest that although certain morphometric parameters largely determine the spatial distribution of analytes, also the geology of the bed of glaciers strongly affects the chemism of the surface ice of glaciers in the phase of strong recession.

Determination of selected chemical parameters in surface water samples collected from the Revelva catchment (Hornsund fjord, Svalbard)

ABSTRACT

Surface water samples (river and lake) were collected from the Revelva catchment every summer from 2010 to 2013. This study concerns importance of the use of some analytical techniques for pollutants and parameters determination in Arctic environmental samples based on the example of total organic carbon, phenols, and formaldehyde determination and measurement of pH and electrical conductivity parameters. Significant average concentration levels of formaldehyde were observed in 2012 and reached 0.26 mg/dm3. Furthermore, the highest determined levels of total organic carbon and electrical conductivity were observed in samples collected in summer 2013. The average value of total organic carbon in that year was 9.54 mg/dm3, and electrical conductivity increased to 63.0 µS/cm. The results of surface water samples analyses show an increasing trend in pollutants concentration levels over the years what may suggest that each year the emission of contaminants from lower latitudes is bigger and, consequently, more of them are deposited in the Arctic.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Phytoplankton communities of polar regions--Diversity depending on environmental conditions and chemical anthropopressure

The polar regions (Arctic and Antarctic) constitute up to 14% of the biosphere and offer some of the coldest and most arid Earth's environments. Nevertheless several oxygenic phototrophs including some higher plants, mosses, lichens, various algal groups and cyanobacteria, survive that harsh climate and create the base of the trophic relationships in fragile ecosystems of polar environments. Ecosystems in polar regions are characterized by low primary productivity and slow growth rates, therefore they are more vulnerable to disturbance, than those in temperate regions. From this reason, chemical contaminants influencing the growth of photoautotrophic producers might induce serious disorders in the integrity of polar ecosystems. However, for a long time these areas were believed to be free of chemical contamination, and relatively protected from widespread anthropogenic pressure, due their remoteness and extreme climate conditions. Nowadays, there is a growing amount of data that prove that xenobiotics are transported thousands of kilometers by the air and ocean currents and then they are deposed in colder regions and accumulate in many environments, including the habitats of marine and freshwater cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria (blue green algae), as a natural part of phytoplankton assemblages, are globally distributed, but in high polar ecosystems they represent the dominant primary producers. These microorganisms are continuously exposed to various concentration levels of the compounds that are present in their habitats and act as nourishment or the factors influencing the growth and development of cyanobacteria in other way. The most common group of contaminants in Arctic and Antarctic are persistent organic pollutants (POPs), characterized by durability and resistance to degradation. It is important to determine their concentrations in all phytoplankton species cells and in their environment to get to know the possibility of contaminants to transfer to higher trophic levels, considering however that some strains of microalgae are capable of metabolizing xenobiotics, make them less toxic or even remove them from the environment.

Multiple Stressors in a Top Predator Seabird: Potential Ecological Consequences of Environmental Contaminants, Population Health and Breeding Conditions

Environmental contaminants may have impacts on reproduction and survival in wildlife populations suffering from multiple stressors. This study examined whether adverse effects of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) increased with poor population health and breeding conditions in three colonies (60–74°N) of great skua (Stercorarius skua) in the north-eastern Atlantic (Shetland, Iceland and Bjørnøya [Bear Island]). POPs (organochlorines [OCs] and polybrominated diphenyl ethers [BDEs]) were measured in plasma of incubating birds (n = 222), concentrations differing nearly tenfold among colonies: Bjørnøya (2009) > Bjørnøya (2010) > Iceland (2009) > Shetland (2009). Reproductive success (hatching success and chick survival) showed that breeding conditions were favourable in Shetland and at Bjørnøya (2010), but were very poor in Iceland and at Bjørnøya (2009). Biomarkers indicated that health was poor in the Shetland population compared to the other populations. Females whose chicks hatched late had high POP concentrations in all colonies except at Bjørnøya (2010), and females losing their eggs at Bjørnøya (2009) tended to have higher concentrations than those hatching. Moreover, there was a negative relationship between female POP concentrations and chick body condition at hatching in Iceland and at Bjørnøya (2010). Supplementary feeding experiments were conducted, and in Iceland where feeding conditions were poor, significant negative relationships were found between female POP concentrations and daily growth-rate in first-hatched chicks of control nests, but not in food supplemented nests. This suggests that negative impacts of POPs were mitigated by improved feeding conditions. For second-chicks, there was a strong negative relationship between the female POP concentrations and growth-rate, but no effects of supplementary feeding. Lowered adult return-rate between breeding seasons with increasing POP loads were found both at Bjørnøya (2009) and in Shetland, especially related to BDEs. This indicates stronger fitness consequences of POPs following seasons with very poor breeding conditions and/or high reproductive effort. This study suggests that the impacts of POPs may differ depending on population health and breeding conditions, and that even low concentrations of POPs could have ecological consequences during adverse circumstances. This is important with regard to risk assessment of biomagnifying contaminants in marine ecosystems.