1
|
Balzer AHA, Whitehurst CB. An Analysis of the Biotin-(Strept)avidin System in Immunoassays: Interference and Mitigation Strategies. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:8733-8754. [PMID: 37998726 PMCID: PMC10670868 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45110549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
An immunoassay is an analytical test method in which analyte quantitation is based on signal responses generated as a consequence of an antibody-antigen interaction. They are the method of choice for the measurement of a large panel of diagnostic markers. Not only are they fully automated, allowing for a short turnaround time and high throughput, but offer high sensitivity and specificity with low limits of detection for a wide range of analytes. Many immunoassay manufacturers exploit the extremely high affinity of biotin for streptavidin in their assay design architectures as a means to immobilize and detect analytes of interest. The biotin-(strept)avidin system is, however, vulnerable to interference with high levels of supplemental biotin that may cause elevated or suppressed test results. Since this system is heavily applied in clinical diagnostics, biotin interference has become a serious concern, prompting the FDA to issue a safety report alerting healthcare workers and the public about the potential harm of ingesting high levels of supplemental biotin contributing toward erroneous diagnostic test results. This review includes a general background and historical prospective of immunoassays with a focus on the biotin-streptavidin system, interferences within the system, and what mitigations are applied to minimize false diagnostic results.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy H. A. Balzer
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, New York Medical College, Basic Medical Science Building, 15 Dana Rd., Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
| | - Christopher B. Whitehurst
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, New York Medical College, Basic Medical Science Building, 15 Dana Rd., Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Vasina M, Kovar D, Damborsky J, Ding Y, Yang T, deMello A, Mazurenko S, Stavrakis S, Prokop Z. In-depth analysis of biocatalysts by microfluidics: An emerging source of data for machine learning. Biotechnol Adv 2023; 66:108171. [PMID: 37150331 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, the vastly increasing demand for novel biotechnological products is supported by the continuous development of biocatalytic applications which provide sustainable green alternatives to chemical processes. The success of a biocatalytic application is critically dependent on how quickly we can identify and characterize enzyme variants fitting the conditions of industrial processes. While miniaturization and parallelization have dramatically increased the throughput of next-generation sequencing systems, the subsequent characterization of the obtained candidates is still a limiting process in identifying the desired biocatalysts. Only a few commercial microfluidic systems for enzyme analysis are currently available, and the transformation of numerous published prototypes into commercial platforms is still to be streamlined. This review presents the state-of-the-art, recent trends, and perspectives in applying microfluidic tools in the functional and structural analysis of biocatalysts. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of available technologies, their reproducibility and robustness, and readiness for routine laboratory use. We also highlight the unexplored potential of microfluidics to leverage the power of machine learning for biocatalyst development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michal Vasina
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Centre, St. Anne's University Hospital, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - David Kovar
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Centre, St. Anne's University Hospital, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Centre, St. Anne's University Hospital, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Yun Ding
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Tianjin Yang
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland; Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrew deMello
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Stanislav Mazurenko
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Centre, St. Anne's University Hospital, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Stavros Stavrakis
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Zbynek Prokop
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Centre, St. Anne's University Hospital, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wang X, Zheng X, Song Z, Lin D, Li Q, Qi J, Xiang J, Chen L, Li B. Electric yo-yo centrifugation combining with paper-based microfluidic immunoassay chip for inflammatory biomarkers detection in whole blood. Talanta 2023; 253:123883. [PMID: 36137494 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
At present, most countries or regions use commercial centrifuges for centrifugation, but this is out of reaching for limited-resource areas. To overcome this problem, a portable electric yo-yo as centrifuge was firstly proposed to obtain serum, and this device can be combined with paper-based analytical devices for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis from human whole blood. In this study, inflammatory biomarkers C-reactive protein (CRP) and serum amyloid A (SAA) were used as target biomarker to verify the performance of the proposed method. The results shows good performance and their detection limits were determined to be 580 pg/mL for CRP and 800 pg/mL for SAA, respectively. We believe this method provides a new platform of low cost and fast detection for inflammatory biomarkers in the limited-resource settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolei Wang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Institute of Molecular and Nano Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, PR China
| | - Xiaoli Zheng
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Institute of Molecular and Nano Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, PR China
| | - Zhihua Song
- School of Pharmacy, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation, Ministry of Education, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, PR China
| | - Dong Lin
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, Research Center for Coastal Environmental Engineering and Technology, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, PR China
| | - Qingling Li
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Institute of Molecular and Nano Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, PR China
| | - Ji Qi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, Research Center for Coastal Environmental Engineering and Technology, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, PR China
| | - Jiawen Xiang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, Research Center for Coastal Environmental Engineering and Technology, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, PR China
| | - Lingxin Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, Research Center for Coastal Environmental Engineering and Technology, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, PR China.
| | - Bowei Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, Research Center for Coastal Environmental Engineering and Technology, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Fluorescence signal amplification by optical reflection in metal-coated nanowells. Mikrochim Acta 2022; 189:478. [DOI: 10.1007/s00604-022-05577-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
5
|
Enhanced immunoassay in a nanofluidic preconcentrator utilizing nano-interstices among self-assembled gold nanoparticles. Biomed Microdevices 2022; 24:19. [DOI: 10.1007/s10544-022-00619-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
|
6
|
Sathishkumar N, Toley BJ. Paper-microfluidic signal-enhanced immunoassays. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2022; 186:267-288. [PMID: 35033288 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2021.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, paper-based microfluidic devices have become popular for their simplicity and ability to conduct diagnostic tests at a low cost. An important class of diagnostic assays that paper-based analytical devices have been used for is immunoassays. The lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA), of which the home pregnancy test is the most prominent example, has been one of the most commercially successful membrane-based diagnostic tests. Yet, the analytical sensitivity of LFIAs is lower than the corresponding laboratory technique called ELISA (enzyme-linked immunoassay). As a consequence, traditional LFIAs fail to deliver on the promise of bedside diagnostic testing for many applications. Recognizing this shortcoming, several new developments have been made by researchers to enhance the sensitivity of membrane-based immunoassays. In this chapter, we present the various strategies that have been employed to this end. In the end, we present a brief SWOT analysis to guide future work in this area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N Sathishkumar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, KA, India
| | - Bhushan J Toley
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, KA, India.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Yang J, Xiao X, Xia L, Li G, Shui L. Microfluidic Magnetic Analyte Delivery Technique for Separation, Enrichment, and Fluorescence Detection of Ultratrace Biomarkers. Anal Chem 2021; 93:8273-8280. [PMID: 34061492 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c01130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A microfluidic magnetic analyte delivery (μMAD) technique was developed to realize sample preparation and ultrasensitive biomarker detection. A simply designed microfluidic device was employed to carry out this technique, including a poly(dimethylsiloxane)-glass hybrid microchip having four straight rectangular channels and a permanent magnet. In the μMAD process, functionalized magnetic beads (MBs) were used to recognize and isolate analytes from a complex sample matrix, deliver analytes into tiny microchannels, and preconcentrate analytes in the magnetic trapping/detection region for in situ fluorescence detection. In the feasibility study and sensitivity optimization, horseradish peroxidase-labeled MBs were used, and critical parameters for the signal amplification performance of μMAD were carefully evaluated. At optimized conditions, a sensitivity improvement of at least 2 orders of magnitude was achieved. As a proof of concept, μMAD was combined with the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), while carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) were selected as model biomarkers. The limits of detection (LODs) of μMAD-ELISA were as low as 0.29 pg/mL for CEA, 0.047 pg/mL for PSA, and 0.021 pg/mL for IL-6, which corresponded to an over 200-fold reduction compared to their commercial ELISA results. Meanwhile, μMAD-ELISA revealed high selectivity and reproducibility. In clinical sample analysis, good accuracy was acquired for human serum analysis relative to commercial ELISA kits, and satisfied recoveries of 85.1-102% with RSDs of 1.7-9.8% for IL-6 and 84.7-113% with RSDs of 3.2-8.3% for interferon-γ were obtained. This ultrasensitive and easy operation technique provides a valuable approach for trace-level biomarker detection for practical applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiani Yang
- School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Xiaohua Xiao
- School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Ling Xia
- School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Gongke Li
- School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Lingling Shui
- School of Information and Optoelectronic Science and Engineering, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Giri B, Pandey S, Shrestha R, Pokharel K, Ligler FS, Neupane BB. Review of analytical performance of COVID-19 detection methods. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 413:35-48. [PMID: 32944809 PMCID: PMC7498299 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02889-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In the recent SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, public health experts have emphasized testing, tracking infected people, and tracing their contacts as an effective strategy to reduce the spread of the virus. Several diagnostic methods are reported for detecting the coronavirus in clinical, research, and public health laboratories. Some tests detect the infection directly by detecting the viral RNA and other tests detect the infection indirectly by detecting the host antibodies. A diagnostic test during the pandemic should help make an appropriate clinical decision in a short period of time. Recently reported diagnostic methods for SARS-CoV-2 have varying throughput, batching capacity, requirement of infrastructure setting, analytical performance, and turnaround times ranging from a few minutes to several hours. These factors should be considered while selecting a reliable and rapid diagnostic method to help make an appropriate decision and prompt public health interventions. This paper reviews recent SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic methods published in journals and reports released by regulatory agencies. We compared the analytical efficiency including limit of detection, sensitivity, specificity, and throughput. In addition, we also looked into ease of use, affordability, and availability of accessories. Finally, we discuss the limitations of the methods and provide our perspectives on priorities for future test development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Basant Giri
- Center for Analytical Sciences, Kathmandu Institute of Applied Sciences, Kathmandu, 44600, Nepal
| | - Shishir Pandey
- Center for Analytical Sciences, Kathmandu Institute of Applied Sciences, Kathmandu, 44600, Nepal
| | - Retina Shrestha
- Center for Analytical Sciences, Kathmandu Institute of Applied Sciences, Kathmandu, 44600, Nepal
| | - Krisha Pokharel
- Center for Analytical Sciences, Kathmandu Institute of Applied Sciences, Kathmandu, 44600, Nepal
| | - Frances S Ligler
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA.
| | - Bhanu B Neupane
- Center for Analytical Sciences, Kathmandu Institute of Applied Sciences, Kathmandu, 44600, Nepal
- Central Department of Chemistry, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, 44618, Nepal
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Li B, Qi J, Fu L, Han J, Choo J, deMello AJ, Lin B, Chen L. Integrated hand-powered centrifugation and paper-based diagnosis with blood-in/answer-out capabilities. Biosens Bioelectron 2020; 165:112282. [PMID: 32729467 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
To date, 55% of inhabitants of the developing world still live in rural regions and they have a very urgent need to improve the level of disease diagnosis, especially in resource-limited settings. Herein, we present a microfluidic system that centrifuges whole blood and quantifies contained biomarkers in a rapid, feasible and integrated way. Such a device provides a blood-in/answer-out capability and is small enough to be carried by any individual in any environment. The successful integration a hand-powered centrifuge and immunoassay unit within a rotational paper-based device allows for diagnostic application by untrained users and in environments where access to electricity cannot be assumed. In addition, the low cost (~$ 0.5), light weight and small instrumental footprint make the device ideally suited for rapid on-site detection. To validate the applicability of the system in a clinical diagnostic testing, we successfully perform enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis of carcinoembryonic antigen and alpha fetoprotein from human blood samples. We expect that this powerful platform technology will provide the opportunities for point-of-care diagnosis in resource-limited settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bowei Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, China
| | - Ji Qi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, China
| | - Longwen Fu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, China
| | - Jinglong Han
- School of Environment and Materials Engineering and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, China
| | - Jaebum Choo
- Department of Chemistry, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, South Korea.
| | - Andrew J deMello
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zürich, Vladimir Prelog Weg 1, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Bingcheng Lin
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Lingxin Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Shandong Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, China; School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, China.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Huang Y, Wang C, Huo Q, Song Y, Du G, Wang L, Yang X, Chen X. A time-resolved luminescence aptasensor of ofloxacin based on rolling circle amplification and magnetic separation. Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 412:4555-4563. [PMID: 32472145 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02708-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2019] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
A novel sensitive, competitive, and time-resolved luminescence sensor for the detection of ofloxacin (OFL) was developed in this study. The sensor used OFL-specific aptamer as a recognition molecule and rolling circle amplification (RCA) as a signal amplification tool. In this way, the time-resolved luminescence can not only avoid background noise from sample, but also provide robust luminescence for detection. Besides, the separation and enrichment of target veterinary drug can be conducted assisted by magnetic treatment. Under optimal conditions, the logarithmic correlation between the concentration of OFL and the luminescence intensity was found to be linear in the range of 5 × 10-11-5 × 10-8 mol L-1 (R2 = 0.9988), with a detection limit (LOD) of 32.1 pmol L-1. Furthermore, this method was applied to the determination of OFL in chicken and pork samples, exhibiting good recovery (72.5-100%) and repeatability (RSD < 10.0%). These results confirm that this novel established method has good application potential for the detection of OFL in food samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yukun Huang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu, 610039, China.
- Key Laboratory of Food Non-Thermal Processing, Engineering Technology Research Center of Food Non-Thermal Processing, Yibin Xihua University Research Institute, Yibin, 644004, China.
| | - Chong Wang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu, 610039, China
| | - Qiuyu Huo
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu, 610039, China
| | - Yaning Song
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu, 610039, China
| | - Gang Du
- Sichuan Institute for Food and Drug Control, Chengdu, 611731, China
| | - Lijun Wang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu, 610039, China
| | - Xiao Yang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu, 610039, China
| | - Xianggui Chen
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu, 610039, China.
- Key Laboratory of Food Non-Thermal Processing, Engineering Technology Research Center of Food Non-Thermal Processing, Yibin Xihua University Research Institute, Yibin, 644004, China.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Emerging electrochemical biosensing approaches for detection of Listeria monocytogenes in food samples: An overview. Trends Food Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
|
12
|
Khnouf R, Han C. Isotachophoresis-Enhanced Immunoassays: Challenges and opportunities. IEEE NANOTECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE 2020. [DOI: 10.1109/mnano.2020.2966028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
13
|
Arvin NE, Dawod M, Lamb DT, Anderson JP, Furtaw MD, Kennedy RT. Fast Immunoassay for Microfluidic Western Blotting by Direct Deposition of Reagents onto Capture Membrane. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2020; 12:1606-1616. [PMID: 32661464 PMCID: PMC7357712 DOI: 10.1039/d0ay00207k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Western blotting is a widely used protein assay platform, but the technique requires long analysis times and multiple manual steps. Microfluidic systems are currently being explored for increased automation and reduction of analysis times, sample volumes, and reagent consumption for western blots. Previous work has demonstrated that proteins separated by microchip electrophoresis can be captured on membranes by dragging the microchip outlet across the membrane. This process reduces the separation and transfer time of a western blot to a few minutes. To further improve the speed and miniaturization of a complete western blot, a microscale immunoassay with direct deposition of immunoassay reagents has been developed. Flow deposition of antibodies is used to overcome diffusion limited binding kinetics so that the entire immunoassay can be completed in 1 h with detection sensitivity comparable to incubation steps requiring 20 h. The use of low microliter/min flow rates with antibody reagents applied directly and locally to the membrane where the target proteins have been captured, reduced antibody consumption ~30-fold. The complete western blot was applied to the detection of GAPDH and β-Tubulin from A431 cell lysate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalie E. Arvin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 N. University Ave., Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Mohamed Dawod
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 N. University Ave., Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Vaccine Analytical R&D, Merck Research Laboratories, 770 Sumneytown Pike, West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, United States
| | - Don T. Lamb
- LI-COR Biosciences, 4647 Superior St., Lincoln, Nebraska 68504, United States
| | - Jon P. Anderson
- LI-COR Biosciences, 4647 Superior St., Lincoln, Nebraska 68504, United States
| | - Michael D. Furtaw
- LI-COR Biosciences, 4647 Superior St., Lincoln, Nebraska 68504, United States
| | - Robert T. Kennedy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 N. University Ave., Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr., Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Corresponding author: Robert T. Kennedy, , Tel: 734-615-4363, Fax: 745-615-6462
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Reynoso EC, Torres E, Bettazzi F, Palchetti I. Trends and Perspectives in Immunosensors for Determination of Currently-Used Pesticides: The Case of Glyphosate, Organophosphates, and Neonicotinoids. BIOSENSORS 2019; 9:E20. [PMID: 30720729 PMCID: PMC6468886 DOI: 10.3390/bios9010020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Pesticides, due to their intensive use and their peculiar chemical features, can persist in the environment and enter the trophic chain, thus representing an environmental risk for the ecosystems and human health. Although there are several robust and reliable standard analytical techniques for their monitoring, the high frequency of contamination caused by pesticides requires methods for massive monitoring campaigns that are capable of rapidly detecting these compounds in many samples of different origin. Immunosensors represent a potential tool for simple, rapid, and sensitive monitoring of pesticides. Antibodies coupled to electrochemical or optical transducers have resulted in effective detection devices. In this review, the new trends in immunosensor development and the application of immunosensors for the detection of pesticides of environmental concern-such as glyphosate, organophosphates, and neonicotinoids-are described.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo C Reynoso
- Posgrado en Ciencias Ambientales, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla 72570, Mexico.
| | - Eduardo Torres
- Posgrado en Ciencias Ambientales, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla 72570, Mexico.
| | - Francesca Bettazzi
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via della Lastruccia 3, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (Fi), Italy.
| | - Ilaria Palchetti
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via della Lastruccia 3, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (Fi), Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Felix FS, Baccaro ALB, Angnes L. Disposable Voltammetric Immunosensors Integrated with Microfluidic Platforms for Biomedical, Agricultural and Food Analyses: A Review. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18124124. [PMID: 30477240 PMCID: PMC6308430 DOI: 10.3390/s18124124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Disposable immunosensors are analytical devices used for the quantification of a broad variety of analytes in different areas such as clinical, environmental, agricultural and food quality management. They detect the analytes by means of the strong interactions between antibodies and antigens, which provide concentration-dependent signals. For the herein highlighted voltammetric immunosensors, the analytical measurements are due to changes in the electrical signals on the surface of the transducers. The possibility of using disposable and miniaturized immunoassays is a very interesting alternative for voltammetric analyses, mainly, when associated with screen-printing technologies (screen-printed electrodes, SPEs), and microfluidic platforms. The aim of this paper is to discuss a carefully selected literature about different examples of SPEs-based immunosensors associated with microfluidic technologies for diseases, food, agricultural and environmental analysis. Technological aspects of the development of the voltammetric immunoassays such as the signal amplification, construction of paper-based microfluidic platforms and the utilization of microfluidic devices for point-of-care testing will be presented as well.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana S Felix
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Lavras (UFLA), CP 3037, Lavras, CEP 37200-000 MG, Brazil.
| | - Alexandre L B Baccaro
- Departamento de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes, 748, 05508-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Lúcio Angnes
- Departamento de Química Fundamental, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes, 748, 05508-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Ruiz-Vega G, García-Robaina A, Ben Ismail M, Pasamar H, García-Berrocoso T, Montaner J, Zourob M, Othmane A, del Campo FJ, Baldrich E. Detection of plasma MMP-9 within minutes. Unveiling some of the clues to develop fast and simple electrochemical magneto-immunosensors. Biosens Bioelectron 2018; 115:45-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2018.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
|
17
|
Miller EA, Jabbour Al Maalouf Y, Sikes HD. Design Principles for Enhancing Sensitivity in Paper-Based Diagnostics via Large-Volume Processing. Anal Chem 2018; 90:9472-9479. [PMID: 29924932 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b02113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we characterize the impact of large-volume processing upon the analytical sensitivity of flow-through paper-based immunoassays. Larger sample volumes feature greater molar quantities of available analyte, but the assay design principles which would enable the rapid collection of this dilute target are ill-defined. We developed a finite-element model to explore the operating conditions under which processing large sample volumes via pressure-driven convective flow would yield an improved binding signal. Our simulation results underscore the importance of establishing a high local concentration of the analyte-binding species within the porous substrate. This elevated abundance serves to enhance the binding kinetics, matching the time scale of target capture to the period during which the sample is in contact with the test zone (i.e., the effective residence time). These findings were experimentally validated using the rcSso7d-cellulose-binding domain (CBD) fusion construct, a bifunctional binding protein which adsorbs to cellulose in high abundance. As predicted by our modeling efforts, the local concentration achieved using the rcSso7d-CBD species is uniquely enabling for sensitivity enhancement through large-volume processing. The rapid analyte depletion which occurs at this high surface density also permits the processing of large sample volumes within practical time scales and flow regimes. Using these findings, we present guidance for the optimal means of processing large sample volumes for enhanced assay sensitivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric A Miller
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02142 , United States
| | - Yara Jabbour Al Maalouf
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02142 , United States
| | - Hadley D Sikes
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02142 , United States
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Recent Advances in Enhancement Strategies for Electrochemical ELISA-Based Immunoassays for Cancer Biomarker Detection. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18072010. [PMID: 29932161 PMCID: PMC6069457 DOI: 10.3390/s18072010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based immunoassays for cancer biomarker detection have recently attracted much interest owing to their higher sensitivity, amplification of signal, ease of handling, potential for automation and combination with miniaturized analytical systems, low cost and comparative simplicity for mass production. Their developments have considerably improved the sensitivity required for detection of low concentrations of cancer biomarkers present in bodily fluids in the early stages of the disease. Recently, various attempts have been made in their development and several methods and processes have been described for their development, amplification strategies and testing. The present review mainly focuses on the development of ELISA-based electrochemical immunosensors that may be utilized for cancer diagnosis, prognosis and therapy monitoring. Various fabrication methods and signal enhancement strategies utilized during the last few years for the development of ELISA-based electrochemical immunosensors are described.
Collapse
|
19
|
Miller EA, Baniya S, Osorio D, Al Maalouf YJ, Sikes HD. Paper-based diagnostics in the antigen-depletion regime: High-density immobilization of rcSso7d-cellulose-binding domain fusion proteins for efficient target capture. Biosens Bioelectron 2018; 102:456-463. [PMID: 29182928 PMCID: PMC5983361 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2017.11.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Revised: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we report the development of a general strategy for enhancing the efficiency of target capture in immunoassays, using a bifunctional fusion protein construct which incorporates a substrate-anchoring moiety for the high-abundance immobilization of an antigen-binding domain. This approach was informed by the development of a pseudo first-order rate constant model, and tested in a paper-based assay format using a fusion construct consisting of an rcSso7d binding module and a cellulose-binding domain. These rcSso7d-CBD fusion proteins were solubly expressed and purified from bacteria in high molar yields, and enable oriented, high-density adsorption of the rcSso7d binding species to unmodified cellulose within a 30-second incubation period. These findings were validated using two distinct, antigen-specific rcSso7d variants, which were isolated from a yeast surface display library via flow cytometry. Up to 1.6 micromoles of rcSso7d-CBD was found to adsorb per gram of cellulose, yielding a volume-averaged binder concentration of up to 760μM within the resulting active material. At this molar abundance, the target antigen is captured from solution with nearly 100% efficiency, maximizing the attainable sensitivity for any given diagnostic system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric A Miller
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Subha Baniya
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Daniel Osorio
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Yara Jabbour Al Maalouf
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Hadley D Sikes
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Metal sulfide quantum dots-aggregated PAMAM dendrimer for cadmium ion-selective electrode-based immunoassay of alpha-fetoprotein. Sci China Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11426-017-9211-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
|
21
|
Li J, Zhao J, Li S, Zhang L, Huang Y, Zhao S, Liu YM. Electrophoresis separation assisted G-quadruplex DNAzyme-based chemiluminescence signal amplification strategy on a microchip platform for highly sensitive detection of microRNA. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 52:12806-12809. [PMID: 27711307 DOI: 10.1039/c6cc06327f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
We have developed an electrophoresis separation assisted G-quadruplex DNAzyme-based chemiluminescence (CL) signal amplification strategy on a microchip platform for the detection of trace microRNA. This strategy exhibits high sensitivity and specificity for detection of target molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Li
- State Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China.
| | - Jingjin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China.
| | - Shuting Li
- State Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China.
| | - Liangliang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China.
| | - Yong Huang
- State Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China.
| | - Shulin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China.
| | - Yi-Ming Liu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Jackson State University, 1400 Lynch St, Jackson, MS 39217, USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Nosrati R, Golichenari B, Nezami A, Taghdisi SM, Karimi B, Ramezani M, Abnous K, Shaegh SAM. Helicobacter pylori point-of-care diagnosis: Nano-scale biosensors and microfluidic systems. Trends Analyt Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2017.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
23
|
Sharma N, Barstis T, Giri B. Advances in paper-analytical methods for pharmaceutical analysis. Eur J Pharm Sci 2017; 111:46-56. [PMID: 28943443 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2017.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 09/10/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Paper devices have many advantages over other microfluidic devices. The paper substrate, from cellulose to glass fiber, is an inexpensive substrate that can be readily modified to suit a variety of applications. Milli- to micro-scale patterns can be designed to create a fast, cost-effective device that uses small amounts of reagents and samples. Finally, well-established chemical and biological methods can be adapted to paper to yield a portable device that can be used in resource-limited areas (e.g., field work). Altogether, the paper devices have grown into reliable analytical devices for screening low quality pharmaceuticals. This review article presents fabrication processes, detection techniques, and applications of paper microfluidic devices toward pharmaceutical screening.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Niraj Sharma
- Center for Analytical Sciences, Kathmandu Institute of Applied Sciences, PO Box 23002, Kalanki-13, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Toni Barstis
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, College of Saint Mary, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
| | - Basant Giri
- Center for Analytical Sciences, Kathmandu Institute of Applied Sciences, PO Box 23002, Kalanki-13, Kathmandu, Nepal.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Recent advances in microfluidic sample preparation and separation techniques for molecular biomarker analysis: A critical review. Anal Chim Acta 2017; 986:1-11. [PMID: 28870312 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.07.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Microfluidics is a vibrant and expanding field that has the potential for solving many analytical challenges. Microfluidics show promise to provide rapid, inexpensive, efficient, and portable diagnostic solutions that can be used in resource-limited settings. Researchers have recently reported various microfluidic platforms for biomarker analysis applications. Sample preparation processes like purification, preconcentration and labeling have been characterized on-chip. Additionally, improvements in microfluidic separation techniques have been reported for molecular biomarkers. This review critically evaluates microfluidic sample preparation platforms and separation methods for biomarker analysis reported in the last two years. Key advances in device operation and ability to process different sample matrices in a variety of device materials are highlighted. Finally, current needs and potential future directions for microfluidic device development to realize its full diagnostic potential are discussed.
Collapse
|
25
|
Multiplexed Electrochemical Immunosensors for Clinical Biomarkers. SENSORS 2017; 17:s17050965. [PMID: 28448466 PMCID: PMC5464191 DOI: 10.3390/s17050965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Management and prognosis of disease requires the accurate determination of specific biomarkers indicative of normal or disease-related biological processes or responses to therapy. Moreover since multiple determinations of biomarkers have demonstrated to provide more accurate information than individual determinations to assist the clinician in prognosis and diagnosis, the detection of several clinical biomarkers by using the same analytical device hold enormous potential for early detection and personalized therapy and will simplify the diagnosis providing more information in less time. In this field, electrochemical immunosensors have demonstrated to offer interesting alternatives against conventional strategies due to their simplicity, fast response, low cost, high sensitivity and compatibility with multiplexed determination, microfabrication technology and decentralized determinations, features which made them very attractive for integration in point-of-care (POC) devices. Therefore, in this review, the relevance and current challenges of multiplexed determination of clinical biomarkers are briefly introduced, and an overview of the electrochemical immunosensing platforms developed so far for this purpose is given in order to demonstrate the great potential of these methodologies. After highlighting the main features of the selected examples, the unsolved challenges and future directions in this field are also briefly discussed.
Collapse
|
26
|
Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Armbrecht
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Bettazzi F, Marrazza G, Minunni M, Palchetti I, Scarano S. Biosensors and Related Bioanalytical Tools. PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE CHALLENGES OF BIOSENSORS AND BIOANALYTICAL TOOLS IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY: A TRIBUTE TO PROFESSOR MARCO MASCINI 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.coac.2017.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
|
28
|
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wen
- School of Mechanical and Material Engineering, Washington State University , Pullman, Washington 99164, United States
| | - Xu Yan
- School of Mechanical and Material Engineering, Washington State University , Pullman, Washington 99164, United States
| | - Chengzhou Zhu
- School of Mechanical and Material Engineering, Washington State University , Pullman, Washington 99164, United States
| | - Dan Du
- School of Mechanical and Material Engineering, Washington State University , Pullman, Washington 99164, United States.,Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University , Wuhan, Hubei 430079, P.R. China
| | - Yuehe Lin
- School of Mechanical and Material Engineering, Washington State University , Pullman, Washington 99164, United States
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Justino CI, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos TA. Critical overview on the application of sensors and biosensors for clinical analysis. Trends Analyt Chem 2016; 85:36-60. [PMID: 32287540 PMCID: PMC7112812 DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Sensors and biosensors have been increasingly used for clinical analysis due to their miniaturization and portability, allowing the construction of diagnostic devices for point-of-care testing. This paper presents an up-to-date overview and comparison of the analytical performance of sensors and biosensors recently used in clinical analysis. This includes cancer and cardiac biomarkers, hormones, biomolecules, neurotransmitters, bacteria, virus and cancer cells, along with related significant advances since 2011. Some methods of enhancing the analytical performance of sensors and biosensors through their figures of merit are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Celine I.L. Justino
- Department of Chemistry & CESAM, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
- ISEIT/Viseu, Instituto Piaget, Estrada do Alto do Gaio, Galifonge, 3515-776 Lordosa, Viseu, Portugal
| | - Armando C. Duarte
- Department of Chemistry & CESAM, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Teresa A.P. Rocha-Santos
- Department of Chemistry & CESAM, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|