Targeting the Tumor Microenvironment of Leukemia and Lymphoma

Antibody-Based Immunotherapies for the Treatment of Hematologic Malignancies

Hematologic malignancies (HMs), spanning an array of diverse neoplasms affecting the blood, bone marrow, and lymph nodes, pose a considerable clinical challenge. While conventional therapies, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation (HSCT), are effective in most cases, the treatment resistance and side effects remain unresolved. Immunotherapy, the strategy to harness a patient’s immune system to fight against cancer, has revolutionized the landscape of available armamentarium over recent decades. In particular, impressive progress has been achieved in developing monoclonal antibodies and improving their functionality for clinical use in hemato-oncology. This review provides an overview of the current status of immunotherapeutic strategies based on monoclonal antibodies and their derivatives approved for the treatment of various HMs.

Despite the great advancements in treatment strategies for hematological malignancies (HMs) over the years, their effective treatment remains challenging. Conventional treatment strategies are burdened with several serious drawbacks limiting their effectiveness and safety. Improved understanding of tumor immunobiology has provided novel anti-cancer strategies targeting selected immune response components. Currently, immunotherapy is counted as the fourth pillar of oncological treatment (together with surgery, chemo- and radiotherapy) and is becoming standard in the treatment regimen, alone or in combination therapy. Several categories of immunotherapies have been developed and are currently being assessed in clinical trials for the treatment of blood cancers, including immune checkpoint inhibitors, antigen-targeted antibodies, antibody–drug conjugates, tumor vaccines, and adoptive cell therapies. However, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and their derivatives have achieved the most notable clinical outcome so far. Since the approval of rituximab for treating B-cell malignancies, the availability of mAbs against tumor-specific surface molecules for clinical use has flourished. Antibody-based therapy has become one of the most successful strategies for immunotherapeutic cancer treatment in the last few decades, and many mAbs have already been introduced into standard treatment protocols for some hematologic malignancies. To further increase the efficacy of mAbs, they can be conjugated to radioisotopes or cytostatic drugs, so-called antibody–drug conjugates. Moreover, with the growing recognition of T-cell immunity’s role in cancer development, strategies aimed at enhancing T cell activation and inhibiting mechanisms that suppress T cell function are actively being developed. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current status of immunotherapeutic strategies based on monoclonal antibodies and their derivatives, including antibody–drug conjugates, bispecific T-cell engagers, and checkpoint inhibitors, approved for the treatment of various HMs.

ID1 and ID3 functions in the modulation of the tumour immune microenvironment in adult patients with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

Introduction

B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) in adults often presents a poor prognosis. ID1 and ID3 genes have been identified as predictors of poor response in Colombian adult B-ALL patients, contributing to cancer development. In various cancer models, these genes have been associated with immune regulatory populations within the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME). B-ALL progression alters immune cell composition and the bone marrow (BM) microenvironment, impacting disease progression and therapy response. This study investigates the relationship between ID1 and ID3 expression, TIME dynamics, and immune evasion mechanisms in adult B-ALL patients.

Methods

This exploratory study analysed BM samples from 10 B-ALL adult patients diagnosed at the National Cancer Institute of Colombia. First, RT-qPCR was used to assess ID1 and ID3 expression in BM tumour cells. Flow cytometry characterised immune populations in the TIME. RNA-seq evaluated immune genes associatedwith B-ALL immune response, while xCell and CytoSig analysed TIME cell profiles and cytokines. Pathway analysis, gene ontology, and differential gene expression (DEGs) were examined, with functional enrichment analysis performed using KEGG ontology.

Results

Patients were divided into two groups based on ID1 and ID3 expression, namely basal and overexpression. A total of 94 differentially expressed genes were identified between these groups, with top overexpressed genes associated with neutrophil pathways. Gene set enrichment analysis revealed increased expression of genes associated with neutrophil degranulation, immune response-related neutrophil activation, and neutrophil-mediated immunity. These findings correlated with xCell data. Overexpression group showed significant differences in neutrophils, monocytes and CD4+ naive T cells compared to basal group patients. Microenvironment and immune scores were also significantly different, consistent with the flow cytometry results. Elevated cytokine levels associated with neutrophil activation supported these findings. Validation was performed using the Therapeutically Applicable Research to Generate Effective Treatments (TARGET) TCGA B-ALL cohorts.

Discussion

These findings highlight significant differences in ID1 and ID3 expression levels and their impact on TIME populations, particularly neutrophil-related pathways. The results suggest a potential role for ID1 and ID3 in immune evasion in adult B-ALL, mediated through neutrophil activation and immune regulation.

Non-neoplastic cells as prognostic biomarkers in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: A system review and meta-analysis

The microenvironment of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is composed of various components, including immune cells and immune checkpoints, some of which have been correlated with the prognosis of DLBCL, but their results remain controversial. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the association between the microenvironment and prognosis in DLBCL. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE for relevant articles between 2001 and 2022. Twenty-five studies involving 4495 patients with DLBCL were included in the analysis. This meta-analysis confirmed that high densities of Foxp3+Tregs and PD-1+T cells are good indicators for overall survival (OS) in DLBCL, while high densities of programmed cell death protein ligand1(PD-L1)-positive expression cells and T-cell immunoglobulin-and mucin domain-3-containing molecule 3 (TIM-3)-positive expression tumor-infiltrating cells (TILs) play a contrary role in OS. Additionally, higher numbers of T-cell intracytoplasmic antigen-1(TIA-1)-positive expression T cells imply better OS and progression-free survival (PFS), while high numbers of lymphocyte activation gene(LAG)-positive expression TILs predict bad OS and PFS. Various non-tumoral cells in the microenvironment play important roles in the prognosis of DLBCL.

Development of Epigenetic Modifiers with Therapeutic Potential in FMS-Related Tyrosine Kinase 3/Internal Tandem Duplication (FLT3/ITD) Acute Myeloid Leukemia and Other Blood Malignancies

Blood cancers encompass a group of diseases affecting the blood, bone marrow, or lymphatic system, representing the fourth most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide. Leukemias are characterized by the dysregulated proliferation of myeloid and lymphoid cells with different rates of progression (acute or chronic). Among the chronic forms, hairy cell leukemia (HCL) is a rare disease, and no drugs have been approved to date. However, acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is one of the most aggressive malignancies, with a low survival rate, especially in cases with FLT3-ITD mutations. Epigenetic modifications have emerged as promising strategies for the treatment of blood cancers. Epigenetic modulators, such as histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, are increasingly used for targeted cancer therapy. New hydroxamic acid derivatives, preferentially inhibiting HDAC6 (5a-q), were developed and their efficacy was investigated in different blood cancers, including multiple myeloma (MM), HCL, and AML, pointing out their pro-apoptotic effect as the mechanism of cell death. Among the inhibitors described, 5c, 5g, and 5h were able to rescue the hematopoietic phenotype in vivo using the FLT3-ITD zebrafish model of AML. 5c (leuxinostat) proved its efficacy in cells from FLT3-ITD AML patients, promoting marked acetylation of α-tubulin compared to histone H3, thereby confirming HDAC6 as a preferential target for this new class of hydroxamic acid derivatives at the tested doses.

Detection of disease-specific signatures in B cell repertoires of lymphomas using machine learning

The classification of B cell lymphomas-mainly based on light microscopy evaluation by a pathologist-requires many years of training. Since the B cell receptor (BCR) of the lymphoma clonotype and the microenvironmental immune architecture are important features discriminating different lymphoma subsets, we asked whether BCR repertoire next-generation sequencing (NGS) of lymphoma-infiltrated tissues in conjunction with machine learning algorithms could have diagnostic utility in the subclassification of these cancers. We trained a random forest and a linear classifier via logistic regression based on patterns of clonal distribution, VDJ gene usage and physico-chemical properties of the top-n most frequently represented clonotypes in the BCR repertoires of 620 paradigmatic lymphoma samples-nodular lymphocyte predominant B cell lymphoma (NLPBL), diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)-alongside with 291 control samples. With regard to DLBCL and CLL, the models demonstrated optimal performance when utilizing only the most prevalent clonotype for classification, while in NLPBL-that has a dominant background of non-malignant bystander cells-a broader array of clonotypes enhanced model accuracy. Surprisingly, the straightforward logistic regression model performed best in this seemingly complex classification problem, suggesting linear separability in our chosen dimensions. It achieved a weighted F1-score of 0.84 on a test cohort including 125 samples from all three lymphoma entities and 58 samples from healthy individuals. Together, we provide proof-of-concept that at least the 3 studied lymphoma entities can be differentiated from each other using BCR repertoire NGS on lymphoma-infiltrated tissues by a trained machine learning model.

Metabolic pathway-based subtyping reveals distinct microenvironmental states associated with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma outcomes

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a biologically and clinically heterogeneous disease that requires personalized clinical treatment. Assigning patients to different risk categories and cytogenetic abnormality and genetic mutation groups has been widely applied for prognostic stratification of DLBCL. Increasing evidence has demonstrated that dysregulated metabolic processes contribute to the initiation and progression of DLBCL. Metabolic competition within the tumor microenvironment is also known to influence immune cell metabolism. However, metabolism- and immune-related stratification has not been established. Here, 1660 genes involved in 84 metabolic pathways were selected and tested to establish metabolic clusters (MECs) of DLBCL. MECs established based on independent lymphoma datasets distinguished different survival outcomes. The CIBERSORT algorithm and EcoTyper were applied to quantify the relative abundance of immune cell types and identify variation in cell states for 13 lineages comprising the tumor micro environment among different MECs, respectively. Functional characterization showed that MECs were an indicator of the immune microenvironment and correlated with distinctive mutational characteristics and oncogenic signaling pathways. The novel immune-related MECs exhibited promising clinical prognostic value and potential for informing DLBCL treatment decisions.

Dissecting causal links between gut microbiota, inflammatory cytokines, and DLBCL: a Mendelian randomization study

ABSTRACT

Causal relationships between gut microbiota, inflammatory cytokines, and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) remain elusive. In addressing this gap, our Mendelian randomization (MR) study used data from the MiBioGen consortium encompassing 211 microbiota taxa (n = 18 340), genome-wide association study meta-analyses of 47 inflammatory cytokines, and DLBCL cases and controls from the FinnGen consortium (cases, n = 1010; controls, n = 287 137). Through bidirectional MR analyses, we examined the causal links between gut microbiota and DLBCL and used mediation analyses, including 2-step MR and multivariable MR (MVMR), to identify potential mediating inflammatory cytokines. Our findings revealed that 4 microbiota taxa were causally associated with DLBCL, and conversely, DLBCL influenced the abundance of 20 taxa. Specifically, in the 2-step MR analysis, both the genus Ruminococcaceae UCG-002 (odds ratio [OR], 1.427; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.011-2.015; P = .043) and the inflammatory cytokine monokine induced by gamma (MIG) (OR, 1.244; 95% CI, 1.034-1.487; P = .020) were found to be causally associated with an increased risk of DLBCL. Additionally, a positive association was observed between genus Ruminococcaceae UCG-002 and MIG (OR, 1.275; 95% CI, 1.069-1.520; P = .007). Furthermore, MVMR analysis indicated that the association between genus Ruminococcaceae UCG-002 and DLBCL was mediated by MIG, contributing to 14.9% of the effect (P = .005). In conclusion, our MR study provides evidence that supports the causal relationship between genus Ruminococcaceae UCG-002 and DLBCL, with a potential mediating role played by the inflammatory cytokine MIG.

Epigenetic alterations and advancement of lymphoma treatment

Lymphomas, complex and heterogeneous malignant tumors, originate from the lymphopoietic system. These tumors are notorious for their high recurrence rates and resistance to treatment, which leads to poor prognoses. As ongoing research has shown, epigenetic modifications like DNA methylation, histone modifications, non-coding RNA regulation, and RNA modifications play crucial roles in lymphoma pathogenesis. Epigenetic modification-targeting drugs have exhibited therapeutic efficacy and tolerability in both monotherapy and combination lymphoma therapy. This review discusses pathogenic mechanisms and potential epigenetic therapeutic targets in common lymphomas, offering new avenues for lymphoma diagnosis and treatment. We also discuss the shortcomings of current lymphoma treatments, while suggesting potential areas for future research, in order to improve the prediction and prognosis of lymphoma.

High expression of B7-H3 on monocyte/macrophages in tumor microenvironment promotes lung cancer progression by inhibiting apoptosis

Monocyte/macrophages constitute a significant population of tumor-infiltrating immune cells and play a crucial role in tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. B7-H3, has immune regulatory functions, however, it is unclear whether B7-H3 expressed on monocyte/macrophages plays a significance role in tumor progression. We found B7-H3 was high-expressed on monocyte/macrophages in tumor microenvironment compared with adjacent tissues in lung cancer, and its expression level was positively correlated with the number of monocyte/macrophages. Furthermore, the expression of B7-H3 was related to clinical stage and lymph node metastasis. Moreover, miR-29a-3p negatively regulated B7-H3, and the expression of B7-H3 on THP-1-derived macrophages was regulated by secreting exosomes containing miR-29a-3p. In addition, knockdown of B7-H3 promoted macrophage apoptosis under hypoxia. Mechanistically, B7-H3 enhanced the antiapoptotic ability of macrophage by up-regulating HIF-1ɑ via activating NF-κB. Taken together, these results imply that B7-H3 as a therapeutic target could hold promise for enhancing anti-tumor immune responses in individuals diagnosed with lung cancer.

Decoding leukemia at the single-cell level: clonal architecture, classification, microenvironment, and drug resistance

Leukemias are refractory hematological malignancies, characterized by marked intrinsic heterogeneity which poses significant obstacles to effective treatment. However, traditional bulk sequencing techniques have not been able to effectively unravel the heterogeneity among individual tumor cells. With the emergence of single-cell sequencing technology, it has bestowed upon us an unprecedented resolution to comprehend the mechanisms underlying leukemogenesis and drug resistance across various levels, including the genome, epigenome, transcriptome and proteome. Here, we provide an overview of the currently prevalent single-cell sequencing technologies and a detailed summary of single-cell studies conducted on leukemia, with a specific focus on four key aspects: (1) leukemia's clonal architecture, (2) frameworks to determine leukemia subtypes, (3) tumor microenvironment (TME) and (4) the drug-resistant mechanisms of leukemia. This review provides a comprehensive summary of current single-cell studies on leukemia and highlights the markers and mechanisms that show promising clinical implications for the diagnosis and treatment of leukemia.

PSGL-1 decorated with sialyl Lewisa/x promotes high affinity binding of myeloma cells to P-selectin but is dispensable for E-selectin engagement

Dissemination of multiple myeloma into the bone marrow proceeds through sequential steps mediated by a variety of adhesion molecules and chemokines that eventually results in the extravasation of malignant plasma cells into this protective niche. Selectins are a class of C-type lectins that recognize carbohydrate structures exposed on blood borne cells and participate in the first step of the extravasation cascade, serving as brakes to slow down circulating cells enabling them to establish firm adhesion onto the endothelium. Myeloma cells enriched for the expression of selectin ligands present an aggressive disease in vivo that is refractory to bortezomib treatment and can be reverted by small molecules targeting E-selectin. In this study, we have defined the molecular determinants of the selectin ligands expressed on myeloma cells. We show that PSGL-1 is the main protein carrier of sialyl Lewisa/x-related structures in myeloma. PSGL-1 decorated with sialyl Lewisa/x is essential for P-selectin binding but dispensable for E-selectin binding. Moreover, sialylation is required for E-selectin engagement whereas high affinity binding to P-selectin occurs even in the absence of sialic acid. This study provides further knowledge on the biology of selectin ligands in myeloma, opening the way to their clinical application as diagnostic tools and therapeutic targets.

Targeting CD47-SIRPα axis for Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma immunotherapy

The interaction between cluster of differentiation 47 (CD47) and signal regulatory protein α (SIRPα) protects healthy cells from macrophage attack, which is crucial for maintaining immune homeostasis. Overexpression of CD47 occurs widely across various tumor cell types and transmits the "don't eat me" signal to macrophages to avoid phagocytosis through binding to SIRPα. Blockade of the CD47-SIRPα axis is therefore a promising approach for cancer treatment. Lymphoma is the most common hematological malignancy and is an area of unmet clinical need. This review mainly described the current strategies targeting the CD47-SIRPα axis, including antibodies, SIRPα Fc fusion proteins, small molecule inhibitors, and peptides both in preclinical studies and clinical trials with Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

Engineering Versatile Nanomedicines for Ultrasonic Tumor Immunotherapy

Due to the specific advantages of ultrasound (US) in therapeutic disease treatments, the unique therapeutic US technology has emerged. In addition to featuring a low-invasive targeted cancer-cell killing effect, the therapeutic US technology has been demonstrated to modulate the tumor immune landscape, amplify the therapeutic effect of other antitumor therapies, and induce immunosensitization of tumors to immunotherapy, shedding new light on the cancer treatment. Tremendous advances in nanotechnology are also expected to bring unprecedented benefits to enhancing the antitumor efficiency and immunological effects of therapeutic US, as well as therapeutic US-derived bimodal and multimodal synergistic therapies. This comprehensive review summarizes the immunological effects induced by different therapeutic US technologies, including ultrasound-mediated micro-/nanobubble destruction (UTMD/UTND), sonodynamic therapy (SDT), and focused ultrasound (FUS), as well as the main underlying mechanisms involved. It is also discussed that the recent research progress of engineering intelligent nanoplatform in improving the antitumor efficiency of therapeutic US technologies. Finally, focusing on clinical translation, the key issues and challenges currently faced are summarized, and the prospects for promoting the clinical translation of these emerging nanomaterials and ultrasonic immunotherapy in the future are proposed.

Emerging Therapeutic Targets and Drug Resistance Mechanisms in Immunotherapy of Hematological Malignancies

CAR-T cell therapy has revolutionized the treatment of hematological malignancies with high remission rates in the case of ALL and NHL. This therapy has some limitations such as long manufacturing periods, persistent restricted cell sources and high costs. Moreover, combination regimens increase the risk of immune-related adverse events, so the identification new therapeutic targets is important to minimize the risk of toxicities and to guide more effective approaches. Cancer cells employ several mechanisms to evade immunosurveillance, which causes resistance to immunotherapy; therefore, a very important therapeutic approach is to focus on the development of rational combinations of targeted therapies with non-overlapping toxicities. Recent progress in the development of new inhibitory clusters of differentiation (CDs), signaling pathway molecules, checkpoint inhibitors, and immunosuppressive cell subsets and factors in the tumor microenvironment (TME) has significantly improved anticancer responses. Novel strategies regarding combination immunotherapies with CAR-T cells are the most promising approach to cure cancer.

DNA methylation of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells from donor peripheral blood to patient bone marrow: implications for allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (AHSCT) is a life-saving treatment for selected hematological malignancies. So far, it remains unclear whether transplanted hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSPCs) undergo epigenetic changes upon engraftment in recipient bone marrow (BM) after AHSCT and whether these changes might be useful in the transplant diagnostics. The purpose of this study was to characterize the whole genome methylation profile of HSPCs following AHSCT. Moreover, the relationship between the observed methylation signature and patient outcome was analyzed. Mobilized peripheral blood (mPB)-HSPCs from seven donors and BM-HSPCs longitudinally collected from transplanted patients with hematological malignancies up to one year from AHSCT (a total of twenty-eight samples) were analyzed using DNA methylation based-arrays. The obtained data showed that DNA methylation of mPB-HSPCs differs between young and adult donors and changes following HSPC engraftment in the BM of recipient patients. Looking at methylation in promoter regions, at 30 days post-AHSCT, BM-HSPCs showed a higher number of differentially methylated genes (DMGs) compared to those of mPB-HSPCs, with a prevalent hyper-methylation. These changes were maintained during all the analyzed time points, and methylation became like the donors after one year from transplant. Functional analysis of these DMGs showed an enrichment in cell adhesion, differentiation and cytokine (interleukin-2, -5 and -7) production and signaling pathways. Of note, DNA methylation analysis allowed to identify a potential "cancer/graft methylation signature" of transplant failure. It was evident in the latest available post-transplant BM-HSPC sample (at 160 days) and surprisingly already in early phase (at 30 days) in patients whose transplant was doomed to fail. Overall, the analysis of HSPC methylation profile could offer useful prognostic information to potentially assess engraftment success and predict graft failure in AHSCT.

Exploratory study on the efficacy of bortezomib combining mitoxantrone or CD22-CAR T therapy targeting CD19-negative relapse after CD19-CAR T cell therapy with a simpler cell-line-based model

Target-negative relapse after CD19 chimeric antigen receptor engineered (CAR) T cell therapy for patients with B lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) presents limited treatment options with dismal outcomes. Although CD22-CAR T cells mediate similarly potent antineoplastic effects in patients with CD19dim or even CD19-negative relapse following CD19-directed immunotherapy, a high rate of relapse associated with diminished CD22 cell surface expression has also been observed. Therefore, it is unclear whether any other therapeutic options are available. Mitoxantrone has shown significant antineoplastic activity in patients with relapsed or refractory leukemia over the past decades, and in some cases, the addition of bortezomib to conventional chemotherapeutic agents has demonstrated improved response rates. However, whether this mitoxantrone and bortezomib combination therapy is effective for those patients who have relapsed B-ALL after receiving CD19-CAR T cell therapy remains to be elucidated. In this study, we established a cellular model system using a CD19-positive B-ALL cell line Nalm-6 to investigate the treatment options for CD19-negative relapsed B-ALL after CD19-CAR T cell therapy. In addition to CD22-CAR T therapy, we observed that the combination of bortezomib and mitoxantrone exhibited effective anti-leukemia activity in the CD19-negative Nalm-6 cell line by downregulating p-AKT and p-mTOR. These results suggest that this combination therapy is a possible option for target-negative refractory leukemia cells after CAR-T cell treatment.

A dual-role for IL-10: From leukemogenesis to the tumor progression in acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is the most common pediatric cancer in the world, and accounts for 25% of all childhood cancers among children under 15 years of age. Longitudinal studies have shown that children with ALL are born with a deregulated immune response that, together with postnatal environmental exposures, favor the onset of the disease. In this context, IL-10, a key cytokine in the regulation of the immune response, presents itself as a paradoxical mediator, initially influencing the development of ALL through the regulation of inflammatory processes and later on the progression of malignancy, with the increase of this molecule in the leukemia microenvironment. According to the literature, this cytokine plays a critical role in the natural history of the disease and plays an important role in two different though complex scenarios. Thus, in this review, we explore the dual role of IL-10 in ALL, and describe its biological characteristics, immunological mechanisms and genetics, as well as its impact on the leukemia microenvironment and its clinical implications.

Cancer-associated fibroblasts in hematologic malignancies: elucidating roles and spotlighting therapeutic targets

Hematologic malignancies comprise a diverse range of blood, bone marrow, and organ-related disorders that present significant challenges due to drug resistance, relapse, and treatment failure. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) represent a critical component of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and have recently emerged as potential therapeutic targets. In this comprehensive review, we summarize the latest findings on the roles of CAFs in various hematologic malignancies, including acute leukemia, multiple myeloma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, myeloproliferative neoplasms, and lymphoma. We also explore their involvement in tumor progression, drug resistance, and the various signaling pathways implicated in their activation and function. While the underlying mechanisms and the existence of multiple CAF subtypes pose challenges, targeting CAFs and their associated pathways offers a promising avenue for the development of innovative treatments to improve patient outcomes in hematologic malignancies.

Fibroblast Activation Protein and Glycolysis in Lymphoma Diagnosis: Comparison of 68Ga-FAPI PET/CT and 18F-FDG PET/CT

Our objective was to compare the diagnostic performance of 68Ga-labeled fibroblast activation protein (FAP) inhibitor (FAPI) and 18F-labeled FDG PET/CT in diagnosing lymphomas and to characterize the influence of FAP and glycolytic markers on tracer uptake by involved lesions. Methods: Participants with different lymphoma subtypes who were prospectively recruited from May 2020 to December 2021 underwent 68Ga-FAPI and 18F-FDG PET/CT. Immunohistochemistry was performed to evaluate FAP, hexokinase 2, and glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) expression, and the paired-samples t test and Wilcoxon signed-rank test were used to compare parameters. The correlation between the immunochemistry results and tracer uptake was determined by the Spearman rank correlation coefficient. Results: In total, 186 participants (median age, 52 y [interquartile range, 41-64 y]; 95 women) were included. Dual-tracer imaging produced 3 types of imaging profiles. 18F-FDG PET possessed a higher staging accuracy (98.4%) than 68Ga-FAPI PET (86.0%). In 5,980 lymphoma lesions, 18F-FDG PET/CT detected more nodal (4,624 vs. 2,196) and extranodal (1,304 vs. 845) lesions than 68Ga-FAPI PET/CT. Additionally, 52 68Ga-FAPI-positive/18F-FDG-negative lesions and 2,939 68Ga-FAPI-negative/18F-FDG-positive lesions were observed. In many lymphoma subtypes, semiquantitative evaluation revealed no significant differences in SUVmax or target-to-liver ratios between 68Ga-FAPI and 18F-FDG PET/CT (P > 0.05). Interestingly, GLUT1 and hexokinase 2 were overexpressed both in lymphoma cells and in the tumor microenvironment, whereas FAP was expressed only in stromal cells. FAP and GLUT1 expression correlated positively with 68Ga-FAPI SUVmax (r = 0.622, P = 0.001) and 18F-FDG SUVmax (r = 0.835, P < 0.001), respectively. Conclusion: 68Ga-FAPI PET/CT was inferior to 18F-FDG PET/CT in diagnosing lymphomas with low FAP expression. However, the former may supplement the latter and help reveal the molecular profile of lymphomas.

Cytokine profiles in patients with newly diagnosed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: IL-6 and IL-10 levels are associated with adverse clinical features and poor outcomes

BACKGROUND

The development of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), a prevalent subgroup of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), potentially involves various cytokines. We aimed to determine the correlation between deregulated serum levels of cytokines and clinical features and investigate their impact on the prognosis of patients with DLBCL.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study of 77 patients with newly diagnosed DLBCL to explore the relationships between different cytokines, adverse clinical features, and poor outcomes. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the cytokine profiles between patients with DLBCL and healthy controls. The Kaplan-Meier method was used to analyze the probability of survival, and the log-rank tests were used to evaluate the differences between survival curves. The Cox proportional hazards regression model was used to performed univariate and multivariate analyses to evaluate prognostic variables for survival analyze.

RESULTS

Serum levels of interleukin-2 (IL-2), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-6, IL-10, and IFN-γ were significantly elevated in patients with untreated DLBCL. Serum levels of IL-6 and IL-10 were significantly higher in patients with an International Prognostic Index (IPI) of 3-5, bone marrow involvement, serum levels of LDH ≥ 250 U/L, and β2-microglobulin (β2-MG) levels ≥ 2.3 mg/L. Patients with B symptoms only had higher serum IL-10 levels, whereas patients with a partial response or no response to treatment had significantly elevated serum levels of IL-6 as well as IL-10. Significant positive correlations were observed between the levels of IL-6 and IL-10 with those of β2-MG and LDH. Patients with levels of IL-6 ≥ 4.5 or IL-10 ≥ 5.0 pg/mL, as well as combined elevated IL-6 and IL-10 levels, exhibited shorter progression-free survival and overall survival. Additionally, univariate and multivariate analyses revealed that serum levels of IL-6 ≥ 4.5 pg/mL and IL-10 ≥ 5.0 pg/mL and IPI 3-5 were independent prognostic factors for relapse and survival in patients with DLBCL.

CONCLUSIONS

Pre-treatment serum IL-6 and IL-10 levels in patients with newly diagnosed DLBCL might be powerful markers for determining treatment response and predicting the prognosis of DLBCL.

Modulation of T-cell function by myeloid-derived suppressor cells in hematological malignancies

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are pathologically activated neutrophils and monocytes that negatively regulate the immune response to cancer and chronic infections. Abnormal myelopoiesis and pathological activation of myeloid cells generate this heterogeneous population of myeloid-derived suppressor cells. They are characterized by their distinct transcription, phenotypic, biochemical, and functional features. In the tumor microenvironment (TME), myeloid-derived suppressor cells represent an important class of immunosuppressive cells that correlate with tumor burden, stage, and a poor prognosis. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells exert a strong immunosuppressive effect on T-cells (and a broad range of other immune cells), by blocking lymphocyte homing, increasing production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, promoting secretion of various cytokines, chemokines, and immune regulatory molecules, stimulation of other immunosuppressive cells, depletion of various metabolites, and upregulation of immune checkpoint molecules. Additionally, the heterogeneity of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in cancer makes their identification challenging. Overall, they serve as a major obstacle for many cancer immunotherapies and targeting them could be a favorable strategy to improve the effectiveness of immunotherapeutic interventions. However, in hematological malignancies, particularly B-cell malignancies, the clinical outcomes of targeting these myeloid-derived suppressor cells is a field that is still to be explored. This review summarizes the complex biology of myeloid-derived suppressor cells with an emphasis on the immunosuppressive pathways used by myeloid-derived suppressor cells to modulate T-cell function in hematological malignancies. In addition, we describe the challenges, therapeutic strategies, and clinical relevance of targeting myeloid-derived suppressor cells in these diseases.

Cell Encapsulation and 3D Bioprinting for Therapeutic Cell Transplantation

The promise of cell therapy has been augmented by introducing biomaterials, where intricate scaffold shapes are fabricated to accommodate the cells within. In this review, we first discuss cell encapsulation and the promising potential of biomaterials to overcome challenges associated with cell therapy, particularly cellular function and longevity. More specifically, cell therapies in the context of autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer are reviewed from the perspectives of preclinical findings as well as available clinical data. Next, techniques to fabricate cell-biomaterials constructs, focusing on emerging 3D bioprinting technologies, will be reviewed. 3D bioprinting is an advancing field that enables fabricating complex, interconnected, and consistent cell-based constructs capable of scaling up highly reproducible cell-biomaterials platforms with high precision. It is expected that 3D bioprinting devices will expand and become more precise, scalable, and appropriate for clinical manufacturing. Rather than one printer fits all, seeing more application-specific printer types, such as a bioprinter for bone tissue fabrication, which would be different from a bioprinter for skin tissue fabrication, is anticipated in the future.

Heat-Shock Proteins in Leukemia and Lymphoma: Multitargets for Innovative Therapeutic Approaches

Heat-shock proteins (HSPs) are powerful chaperones that provide support for cellular functions under stress conditions but also for the homeostasis of basic cellular machinery. All cancer cells strongly rely on HSPs, as they must continuously adapt to internal but also microenvironmental stresses to survive. In solid tumors, HSPs have been described as helping to correct the folding of misfolded proteins, sustain oncogenic pathways, and prevent apoptosis. Leukemias and lymphomas also overexpress HSPs, which are frequently associated with resistance to therapy. HSPs have therefore been proposed as new therapeutic targets. Given the specific biology of hematological malignancies, it is essential to revise their role in this field, providing a more adaptable and comprehensive picture that would help design future clinical trials. To that end, this review will describe the different pathways and functions regulated by HSP27, HSP70, HSP90, and, not least, HSP110 in leukemias and lymphomas.

Endothelial cell-leukemia interactions remodel drug responses, uncovering T-ALL vulnerabilities

T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) is an aggressive and often incurable disease. To uncover therapeutic vulnerabilities, we first developed T-ALL patient-derived tumor xenografts (PDXs) and exposed PDX cells to a library of 433 clinical-stage compounds in vitro. We identified 39 broadly active drugs with antileukemia activity. Because endothelial cells (ECs) can alter drug responses in T-ALL, we developed an EC/T-ALL coculture system. We found that ECs provide protumorigenic signals and mitigate drug responses in T-ALL PDXs. Whereas ECs broadly rescued several compounds in most models, for some drugs the rescue was restricted to individual PDXs, suggesting unique crosstalk interactions and/or intrinsic tumor features. Mechanistically, cocultured T-ALL cells and ECs underwent bidirectional transcriptomic changes at the single-cell level, highlighting distinct "education signatures." These changes were linked to bidirectional regulation of multiple pathways in T-ALL cells as well as in ECs. Remarkably, in vitro EC-educated T-ALL cells transcriptionally mirrored ex vivo splenic T-ALL at single-cell resolution. Last, 5 effective drugs from the 2 drug screenings were tested in vivo and shown to effectively delay tumor growth and dissemination thus prolonging overall survival. In sum, we developed a T-ALL/EC platform that elucidated leukemia-microenvironment interactions and identified effective compounds and therapeutic vulnerabilities.

An immune risk score predicts survival of patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

PURPOSE

Providing accurate prognostic models is necessary for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, but there are still many uncertainties. So far, none of the models include immune cells. Therefore, an immune risk score was constructed to predict the survival of patients.

METHODS

CIBERSORTx was chosen to estimate the proportion of 22 human immune cell subsets from public datasets and generate an immune risk score to predict patients' survival in a training cohort using the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) Cox regression model.

RESULTS

The prognostic model had high predictive ability in the training and validation cohorts. Subjects in the training cohort with high scores had a worse prognosis compared with subjects with low scores. The same result was also found in the three validation cohorts. Multivariable analysis suggested that the immune risk score was an independent prognostic factor. The merged score, including the immune risk score and the international prognostic index (IPI) risk category, had better predictive accuracy.

CONCLUSIONS

Our immune risk score promises to be a complement to current prognostic models.

EBV dUTPase: A Novel Modulator of Inflammation and the Tumor Microenvironment in EBV-Associated Malignancies

There is increasing evidence that put into question the classical dogma that the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) exists in cells as either a lytic virus in which new progeny is produced or in a latent state in which no progeny is produced. Notably, a third state has now been described, known as the abortive-lytic phase, which is characterized by the expression of some immediate early (IE) and early (E) genes, but no new virus progeny is produced. While the function of these IE and E gene products is not well understood, several recent studies support the concept they may contribute to tumor promotion by altering the tumor microenvironment (TME). The mechanisms by which these viral gene products may contribute to tumorigenesis remain unclear; however, it has been proposed that some of them promote cellular growth, immune evasion, and/or inhibit apoptosis. One of these EBV early gene products is the deoxyuridine triphosphate nucleotidohydrolase (dUTPase) encoded by BLLF3, which not only contributes to the establishment of latency through the production of activin A and IL-21, but it may also alter the TME, thus promoting oncogenesis.

Immune-related matrisomes are potential biomarkers to predict the prognosis and immune microenvironment of glioma patients

The extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a vital role in the progression and metastasis of glioma and is an important part of the tumor microenvironment. The matrisome is composed of ECM components and related proteins. There have been several studies on the effects of matrisomes on the glioma immune microenvironment, but most of these studies were performed on individual glioma immune-related matrisomes rather than integral analysis. Hence, an overall analysis of all potential immune-related matrisomes in gliomas is needed. Here, we divided 667 glioma patients in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database into low, moderate, and high immune infiltration groups. Immune-related matrisomes differentially expressed among the three groups were analyzed, and a risk signature was established. Eight immune-related matrisomes were screened, namely, LIF, LOX, MMP9, S100A4, SRPX2, SLIT1, SMOC1, and TIMP1. Kaplan-Meier analysis, operating characteristic curve analysis, and nomogram were constructed to analyze the relationships between risk signatures and the prognosis of glioma patients. The risk signature was significantly correlated with the overall survival of glioma patients. Both high- and low-risk signatures were also associated with some immune checkpoints. In addition, analysis of somatic mutations and anti-PD1/L1 immunotherapy responses in the high- and low-risk groups showed that the high-risk group had worse prognosis and a higher response to anti-PD1/L1 immunotherapy. Our analysis of immune-related matrisomes may improve understanding of the characteristics of the glioma immune microenvironment and provide direction for glioma immunotherapy development in the future.

Drug Resistance: The Role of Exosomal miRNA in the Microenvironment of Hematopoietic Tumors

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, have an important role thanks to their ability to communicate and exchange information between tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment (TME), and have also been associated with communicating anti-cancer drug resistance (DR). The increase in proliferation of cancer cells alters oxygen levels, which causes hypoxia and results in a release of exosomes by the cancer cells. In this review, the results of studies examining the role of exosomal miRNA in DR, and their mechanism, are discussed in detail in hematological tumors: leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma. In conclusion, we underline the exosome's function as a possible drug delivery vehicle by understanding its cargo. Engineered exosomes can be used to be more specific for personalized therapy.

Prediction of prognosis and immunotherapy response of amino acid metabolism genes in acute myeloid leukemia

Background

Amino acid (AA) metabolism plays a crucial role in cancer. However, its role in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is still unavailable. We screened out AA metabolic genes, which related to prognosis, and analyzed their correlation with tumor immune microenvironment in AML.

Methods

We evaluated 472 amino acid metabolism-related genes in 132 AML patients. The predictive risk model was developed according to differentially expressed genes, univariate Cox and LASSO analyses. We validated the risk signature by survival analysis and independence tests. Single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA), tumor immune microenvironment (TME), tumor mutation burden (TMB), functional enrichment, and the IC50 of drugs were assessed to explore the correlations among the risk model, immunity, and drug sensitivity of AML.

Results

Six amino acid metabolism-related genes were confirmed to develop the risk model, including TRH, HNMT, TFEB, SDSL, SLC43A2, and SFXN3. The high-risk subgroup had an immune "hot" phenotype and was related to a poor prognosis. The high-risk group was also associated with more activity of immune cells, such as Tregs, had higher expression of some immune checkpoints, including PD1 and CTLA4, and might be more susceptible to immunotherapy. Xenobiotic metabolism, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) pathway, fatty acid metabolism, JAK/STAT3, and the inflammatory response were active in the high-risk subgroup. Furthermore, the high-risk subgroup was sensitive to sorafenib, selumetinib, and entospletinib. ssGSEA discovered that the processes of glutamine, arginine, tryptophan, cysteine, histidine, L-serine, isoleucine, threonine, tyrosine, and L-phenylalanine metabolism were more active in the high-risk subgroup.

Conclusion

This study revealed that AA metabolism-related genes were correlated with the immune microenvironment of AML patients and could predict the prognosis and immunotherapy response of AML patients.

The Yin-Yang of myeloid cells in the leukemic microenvironment: Immunological role and clinical implications

The leukemic microenvironment has a high diversity of immune cells that are phenotypically and functionally distinct. However, our understanding of the biology, immunology, and clinical implications underlying these cells remains poorly investigated. Among the resident immune cells that can infiltrate the leukemic microenvironment are myeloid cells, which correspond to a heterogeneous cell group of the innate immune system. They encompass populations of neutrophils, macrophages, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). These cells can be abundant in different tissues and, in the leukemic microenvironment, are associated with the clinical outcome of the patient, acting dichotomously to contribute to leukemic progression or stimulate antitumor immune responses. In this review, we detail the current evidence and the many mechanisms that indicate that the activation of different myeloid cell populations may contribute to immunosuppression, survival, or metastatic dissemination, as well as in immunosurveillance and stimulation of specific cytotoxic responses. Furthermore, we broadly discuss the interactions of tumor-associated neutrophils and macrophages (TANs and TAMs, respectively) and MDSCs in the leukemic microenvironment. Finally, we provide new perspectives on the potential of myeloid cell subpopulations as predictive biomarkers of therapeutical response, as well as potential targets in the chemoimmunotherapy of leukemias due to their dual Yin-Yang roles in leukemia.

DDX1 is a prognostic biomarker and correlates with immune infiltrations in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading lethal malignant tumors worldwide. DEAD-box (DDX) family helicases are implicated in numerous human cancers. However, the role of DDX1 in HCC has not yet been fully elucidated. We downloaded gene expression data and clinical information data of HCC from The Cancer Genome Atlas and International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC) database and conducted subsequent analyses using the R package and online portal. The results revealed that HCC tissues had higher DDX1 expression compared with either paired or unpaired normal tissues. The increased DDX1 expression was closely related to the advanced pathological grade and histologic grade of HCC. Further analysis suggested that patients with high DDX1 expression contributed to poor prognosis The Cox regression analysis revealed that the expression level of DDX1 was an independent prognostic factor for HCC. In addition, an ICGC cohort was used for external validation. The cBio-Portal, MethSurv, and UALCAN database were used for evaluating the genomic mechanism. Moreover, the Tumor Immune Estimation Resource dataset and QUANTISEQ algorithm revealed that DDX1 expression positively correlates with immune infiltrating cells. We also identified the DDX1-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and explored their biological functions by GO, KEGG, and GSEA analyses, which indicated that DDX1 may regulate the progression of HCC. In general, increased DDX1 expression predicts a poor prognosis and drives the progression of HCC.

Factors Affecting the Cancer Immunotherapeutic Efficacy of T Cell Bispecific Antibodies and Strategies for Improvement

T-cell bispecific antibodies (T-BsAbs) are a new class of cancer immunotherapy drugs that can simultaneously bind to tumor-associated antigens on target cells and to the CD3 subunit of the T-cell receptor (TCR) on T cells. In the last decade, numerous T-BsAbs have been developed for the treatment of both hematological malignancies and solid tumors. Among them, blinatumomab has been successfully used to treat CD19 positive malignancies and has been approved by the FDA as standard care for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). However, in many clinical scenarios, the efficacy of T-BsAbs remains unsatisfactory. To further improve T-BsAb therapy, it will be crucial to better understand the factors affecting treatment efficacy and the nature of the T-BsAb-induced immune response. Herein, we first review the studies on the potential mechanisms by which T-BsAbs activate T-cells and how they elicit efficient target killing despite suboptimal costimulatory support. We focus on analyzing reports from clinical trials and preclinical studies, and summarize the factors that have been identified to impact the efficacy of T-BsAbs. Lastly, we review current and propose new approaches to improve the clinical efficacy of T-BsAbs.

Fatty acid metabolism predicts prognosis and NK cell immunosurveillance of acute myeloid leukemia patients

Background

Cell metabolic reprogramming is a hallmark of tumor prognosis, and fatty acid metabolism (FAM) plays a crucial role in the tumor microenvironment (TME). However, the relationship between FAM, TME, and prognosis of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients remains elusive.

Methods

We extracted the single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-Seq) and bulk transcriptome data of AML patients from the TCGA and GEO databases and assessed the relationship between FAM, TME, and AML patient prognosis. We also performed functional enrichment (FE) assay to evaluate the significance of FAM in anti-AML immunosurveillance.

Results

Our scRNA-Seq analysis revealed that the leukemic stem cell (LSC)-enriched population exhibited elevated levels of FAM-related genes. Using these FAM-related genes, we developed a prognostic model that accurately estimated AML patient outcome. FE analysis showed that FAM was strongly related to alterations of TME-based immunosurveillance in AML patients. More importantly, we demonstrated that FAM inhibition via pharmaceutical targeting of PLA2G4A, a highly expressed FAM gene in AML patients with poor prognosis, enhanced the NK cell-mediated immunosurveillance in leukemia cells.

Conclusions

Leukemic stem cell (LSC)-enriched population exhibited elevated levels of FAM-related genes. We have successfully established the FAM formula that predicts AML patient prognosis and alterations in the TME-based immunosurveillance. We also found that PLA2G4A was a highly expressed FAM gene in AML patients with poor prognoses. Pharmaceutical targeting of PLA2G4A increased the expression of NKG2DL in leukemia cells in vitro and thus enhanced the NK cell-mediated immunosurveillance.

Reshaping the tumor microenvironment: The versatility of immunomodulatory drugs in B-cell neoplasms

Immunomodulatory drugs (IMiDs) such as thalidomide, lenalidomide and pomalidomide are antitumor compounds that have direct tumoricidal activity and indirect effects mediated by multiple types of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). IMiDs have shown remarkable therapeutic efficacy in a set of B-cell neoplasms including multiple myeloma, B-cell lymphomas and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. More recently, the advent of immunotherapy has revolutionized the treatment of these B-cell neoplasms. However, the success of immunotherapy is restrained by immunosuppressive signals and dysfunctional immune cells in the TME. Due to the pleiotropic immunobiological properties, IMiDs have shown to generate synergetic effects in preclinical models when combined with monoclonal antibodies, immune checkpoint inhibitors or CAR-T cell therapy, some of which were successfully translated to the clinic and lead to improved responses for both first-line and relapsed/refractory settings. Mechanistically, despite cereblon (CRBN), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, is considered as considered as the major molecular target responsible for the antineoplastic activities of IMiDs, the exact mechanisms of action for IMiDs-based TME re-education remain largely unknown. This review presents an overview of IMiDs in regulation of immune cell function and their utilization in potentiating efficacy of immunotherapies across multiple types of B-cell neoplasms.

CCL8 as a promising prognostic factor in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma via M2 macrophage interactions: A bioinformatic analysis of the tumor microenvironment

Backgrounds

Prior investigations of the tumor microenvironment (TME) of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) have shown that immune and stromal cells are key contributing factors to patients’ outcome. However, challenges remain in finding reliable prognostic biomarkers based on cell infiltration. In this study, we attempted to shed some light on chemokine C–C motif chemokine ligand 8 (CCL8) in DLBCL via interaction with M2 macrophages.

Methods

The Estimation of STromal and Immune cells in MAlignant Tumor tissues using Expression data (ESTIMATE) algorithm was applied to evaluate immune and stromal scores from transcriptomic profiles of 443 DLBCL samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and GSE10846 datasets. Immune cell infiltration (ICI) clusters were obtained based on different immune cell infiltrations of each sample, and gene clusters were derived through differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the distinct ICI clusters. Five immune-related hub genes related to overall survival (OS) and clinical stages were obtained by COX regression analysis and protein–protein interaction (PPI) network construction then verified by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and immunofluorescence staining in the FFPE tissues. The Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and TIMER websites were employed to explore the biological functions of CCL8-related DEGs. Uni- and multivariable Cox regression analyses were performed to analyze CCL8 as an independent prognostic risk factor in GSE10846 and were verified in other independent GEO cohorts.

Results

A higher stromal score was associated with favorable prognosis in DLBCL. Patients in the ICI B cluster and gene B clusters had a better follow-up status with a higher programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA4) expression. Most of ICI-related DEGs were enriched for immune-related signaling pathways. Five hub genes with a distinct prognosis association were identified, including CD163, which is a biomarker of M2 macrophages, and CCL8. Abundant M2 macrophages were discovered in the high-CCL8 expression group. The functional analysis indicated that CCL8 is a key component of immune-related processes and secretory granule groups. Cox regression analysis and data from other GSE datasets yielded additional evidence of the prognostic value of CCL8 in DLBCL.

Conclusions

CCL8 has been implicated in macrophage recruitment in several solid tumors, and only a few reports have been published on the role of CCL8 in the pathogenesis of hematological malignancies. This article attempted to find out TME-related genes that associated with the survival in DLBCL patients. CCL8 was identified to be involved in immune activities. Importantly, a series of bioinformatics analysis indicated that CCL8 might become an effective target for DLBCL, which interacts with M2 macrophage and immune checkpoint. The potential related mechanisms need to be further elucidated.

Amino acid metabolism: challenges and opportunities for the therapeutic treatment of leukemia and lymphoma

Leukemia and lymphoma-the most common hematological malignant diseases-are often accompanied by complications such as drug resistance, refractory diseases and relapse. Amino acids (AAs) are important energy sources for malignant cells. Tumor-mediated AA metabolism is associated with the immunosuppressive properties of the tumor microenvironment, thereby assisting malignant cells to evade immune surveillance. Targeting abnormal AA metabolism in the tumor microenvironment may be an effective therapeutic approach to address the therapeutic challenges of leukemia and lymphoma. Here, we review the effects of glutamine, arginine and tryptophan metabolism on tumorigenesis and immunomodulation, and define the differences between tumor cells and immune effector cells. We also comment on treatments targeting these AA metabolism pathways in lymphoma and leukemia and discuss how these treatments have profound adverse effects on tumor cells, but leave the immune cells unaffected or mildly affected.

A 9-LncRNA Signature for Predicting Prognosis and Immune Response in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a biologically and clinically heterogeneous disease that requires personalized clinical treatment. To assign patients into different risk categories, cytogenetic abnormalities and genetic mutations have been widely applied to the prognostic stratification of DLBCL. Increasing evidence has demonstrated that deregulated epigenetic modifications and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) contribute to the initiation and progression of DLBCL. However, specific lncRNAs that affect epigenetic regulation and their value in predicting prognosis and therapy response remain uncertain. Here, 2,025 epigenetic-related genes were selected, and 9 lncRNAs (PRKCQ-AS1, C22orf34, HCP5, AC007389.3, APTR, SNHG19, ELFN1-AS1, LINC00487, and LINC00877) were tested and validated to establish an lncRNA-regulating epigenetic event signature (ELncSig). ELncSig, which was established based on independent lymphoma datasets, could distinguish different survival outcomes. Functional characterization of ELncSig showed that it could be an indicator of the immune microenvironment and is correlated with distinctive mutational characteristics. Univariate and multivariate analyses showed that ELncSig was independent of traditional prognostic factors. The novel immune-related ELncSig exhibits promising clinical prognostic value for DLBCL.

Nanomedicine as a magic bullet for combating lymphoma

Hematological malignancy like lymphoma originates in lymph tissues and has a propensity to spread across other organs. Managing such tumors is challenging as conventional strategies like surgery and local treatment are not plausible options and there are high chances of relapse. The advent of novel targeted therapies and antibody-mediated treatments has proven revolutionary in the management of these tumors. Although these therapies have an added advantage of specificity in comparison to the traditional chemotherapy approach, such treatment alternatives suffer from the occurrence of drug resistance and dose-related toxicities. In past decades, nanomedicine has emerged as an excellent surrogate to increase the bioavailability of therapeutic moieties along with a reduction in toxicities of highly cytotoxic drugs. Nanotherapeutics achieve targeted delivery of the therapeutic agents into the malignant cells and also have the ability to carry genes and therapeutic proteins to the desired sites. Furthermore, nanomedicine has an edge in rendering personalized medicine as one type of lymphoma is pathologically different from others. In this review, we have highlighted various applications of nanotechnology-based delivery systems based on lipidic, polymeric and inorganic nanomaterials that address different targets for effectively tackling lymphomas. Moreover, we have discussed recent advances and therapies available exclusively for managing this malignancy.

CXCR4 mediates leukemic cell migration and survival in the testicular microenvironment

The testis is the second most frequent extramedullary site of relapse in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). The mechanism for B-cell (B) ALL cell migration towards and survival within the testis remains elusive. Here, we identified CXCL12-CXCR4 as the leading signaling axis for B-ALL cell migration and survival in the testicular leukemic niche. We combined analysis of primary human ALL with a novel patient-derived xenograft (PDX)-ALL mouse model with testicular involvement. Prerequisites for leukemic cell infiltration in the testis were pre-pubertal age of the recipient mice, high surface expression of CXCR4 on PDX-ALL cells, and CXCL12 secretion from the testicular stroma. Analysis of primary pediatric patient samples revealed that CXCR4 was the only chemokine receptor being robustly expressed on B-ALL cells both at the time of diagnosis and relapse. In affected patient testes, leukemic cells localized within the interstitial space in close proximity to testicular macrophages. Mouse macrophages isolated from affected testes, in the PDX model, revealed a macrophage polarization towards a M2-like phenotype in the presence of ALL cells. Therapeutically, blockade of CXCR4-mediated functions using an anti-CXCR4 antibody treatment completely abolished testicular infiltration of PDX-ALL cells and strongly impaired the overall development of leukemia. Collectively, we identified a pre-pubertal condition together with high CXCR4 expression as factors affecting the leukemia permissive testicular microenvironment. We propose CXCR4 as a promising target for therapeutic prevention of testicular relapses in childhood B-ALL. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Molecular Diagnostic Review of Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma and Its Tumor Microenvironment

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is a clinically and morphologically heterogeneous entity that has continued to resist complete subtyping. Molecular subtyping efforts emerged in earnest with the advent of gene expression profiling (GEP). This molecular subtyping approach has continued to evolve simultaneously with others including immunohistochemistry and more modern genomic approaches. Recently, the veritable explosion of genomic data availability and evolving computational methodologies have provided additional avenues, by which further understanding and subclassification of DBLCLs is possible. The goal of this review is to provide a historical overview of the major classification timepoints in the molecular subtyping of DLBCL, from gene expression profiling to present day understanding.

Leukemia's Next Top Model? Syngeneic Models to Advance Adoptive Cellular Therapy

In recent years, there has been an emphasis on harnessing the immune system for therapeutic interventions. Adoptive cell therapies (ACT) have emerged as an effective option for B-cell derived hematological malignancies. Despite remarkable successes with ACT, immune dysregulation and the leukemia microenvironment can critically alter clinical responses. Therefore, preclinical modeling can contribute to the advancement of ACT for leukemias. Human xenografts, the current mainstay of ACT in vivo models, cannot evaluate the impact of the immunosuppressive leukemia microenvironment on adoptively transferred cells. Syngeneic mouse models utilize murine tumor models and implant them into immunocompetent mice. This provides an alternative model, reducing the need for complicated breeding strategies while maintaining a matched immune system, stromal compartment, and leukemia burden. Syngeneic models that evaluate ACT have analyzed the complexity of cytotoxic T lymphocytes, T cell receptor transgenics, and chimeric antigen receptors. This review examines the immunosuppressive features of the leukemia microenvironment, discusses how preclinical modeling helps predict ACT associated toxicities and dysfunction, and explores publications that have employed syngeneic modeling in ACT studies for the improvement of therapy for leukemias.

A single-cell atlas of non-haematopoietic cells in human lymph nodes and lymphoma reveals a landscape of stromal remodelling

The activities of non-haematopoietic cells (NHCs), including mesenchymal stromal cells and endothelial cells, in lymphomas are reported to underlie lymphomagenesis. However, our understanding of lymphoma NHCs has been hampered by unexplained NHC heterogeneity, even in normal human lymph nodes (LNs). Here we constructed a single-cell transcriptome atlas of more than 100,000 NHCs collected from 27 human samples, including LNs and various nodal lymphomas, and it revealed 30 distinct subclusters, including some that were previously unrecognized. Notably, this atlas was useful for comparative analyses with lymphoma NHCs, which revealed an unanticipated landscape of subcluster-specific changes in gene expression and interaction with malignant cells in follicular lymphoma NHCs. This facilitates our understanding of stromal remodelling in lymphoma and highlights potential clinical biomarkers. Our study largely updates NHC taxonomy in human LNs and analysis of disease status, and provides a rich resource and deeper insights into LN and lymphoma biology to advance lymphoma management and therapy.

Abe et al. profile, characterize and compare non-haematopoietic cells in normal human lymph nodes versus nodal lymphomas from patients, providing insights into stromal modelling in health and disease.

Generation of Redirected Engineered Human Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T Cells

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy that involves genetic engineering a patient's own immune cells with antigen-specific receptors has shown remarkable efficacy in blood cancer treatment. Numerous clinical studies with CAR T cells targeting the blood cell surface protein CD19 led to the FDA 's first approval of a genetically engineered cell therapy. The process of generating potent CAR T cells involves several carefully performed manufacturing steps. Here, we describe the generation of redirected engineered human CAR T cells for preclinical studies starting with the CAR design, retroviral gene transfer, detection of CAR expression, and expansion of transduced T cells.

Immunology 101: fundamental immunology for the practicing hematologist

From an evolutionary perspective, the immune system developed primarily to protect the host from pathogens. In the continuous balance between killing pathogens and protecting host tissues, selective pressures have shaped the discriminatory functions of the immune system. In addition to protection against microbial pathogens, the immune system also plays a critical role in antitumor immunity. Immune dysfunction, either under- or overactivity, is found in a wide range of hematologic disorders. Here we review the fundamental features of the immune system and the key concepts critical to understanding the impact of immune dysfunction on hematologic disorders.

Bioinformatics analysis identifying FBXO45 gene as a potential oncogene in esophageal cancer

BACKGROUND

F-box protein 45 (FBXO45) is a member of the F-box protein family, and is reportedly involved in the progression of many diseases. However, its role in esophageal cancer (ESCA) remains unclear.

METHODS

The expression, clinical characteristics, gene function, pathway, and correlation between the infiltration of different immune cells were analyzed using public data. The pan-cancer expression of FBXO45 was assessed using the TIMER2 database. The expression of FBXO45 in different tumor stages and histology subtypes were evaluated using the UALCAN database. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed using the STRING database. Immune cell infiltration data were downloaded from the ImmuCellAI database.

RESULTS

The top 300 genes most positively correlated with FBXO45 were screened into the enrichment analysis. The functional enrichment results showed that FBXO45 was mainly associated with proteasomal protein catabolic process and the regulation of DNA metabolic processing in the biological process (BP) category; spindle, chromosomal region, and focal adhesion in the cellular component category; and ATPase activity and ubiquitin-protein transferase activity terms in the molecular function category. FBXO45 was overexpressed in ESCA and other cancer types. FBXO45 expression was positively associated with the infiltration levels of immunosuppressive cells, such as CD8+ (cluster of differentiation 8+) T cells and NK (natural killer cell) cells, in ESCA. MYCBP2 and SKP1 were most associated with FBXO45.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggested that FBXO45 is a potential oncogene in ESCA. Elevated FBXO45 expression indicates a relatively immunosuppressive microenvironment.

Tumour Microenvironment Stress Promotes the Development of Drug Resistance

Multi-drug resistance (MDR) is a leading cause of cancer-related death, and it continues to be a major barrier to cancer treatment. The tumour microenvironment (TME) has proven to play an essential role in not only cancer progression and metastasis, but also the development of resistance to chemotherapy. Despite the significant advances in the efficacy of anti-cancer therapies, the development of drug resistance remains a major impediment to therapeutic success. This review highlights the interplay between various factors within the TME that collectively initiate or propagate MDR. The key TME-mediated mechanisms of MDR regulation that will be discussed herein include (1) altered metabolic processing and the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) axis; (2) changes in stromal cells; (3) increased cancer cell survival via autophagy and failure of apoptosis; (4) altered drug delivery, uptake, or efflux and (5) the induction of a cancer stem cell (CSC) phenotype. The review also discusses thought-provoking ideas that may assist in overcoming the TME-induced MDR. We conclude that stressors from the TME and exposure to chemotherapeutic agents are strongly linked to the development of MDR in cancer cells. Therefore, there remains a vast area for potential research to further elicit the interplay between factors existing both within and outside the TME. Elucidating the mechanisms within this network is essential for developing new therapeutic strategies that are less prone to failure due to the development of resistance in cancer cells.

International Prognostic Index-Based Immune Prognostic Model for Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma

Background

The International Prognostic Index (IPI) is widely used to discriminate the prognosis of patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). However, there is a significant need to identify novel valuable biomarkers in the context of targeted therapy, such as immune checkpoint blockade (ICB).

Methods

Gene expression data and clinical DLBCL information were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Gene Expression Omnibus datasets. A total of 371 immune-related genes in DLBCL patients associated with different IPI risk groups were identified by weighted gene co-expression network analysis, and eight genes were selected to construct an IPI-based immune prognostic model (IPI-IPM). Subsequently, we analyzed the somatic mutation and transcription profiles of the IPI-IPM subgroups as well as the potential clinical response to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) in IPI-IPM subgroups.

Results

The IPI-IPM was constructed based on the expression of CMBL, TLCD3B, SYNDIG1, ESM1, EPHA3, HUNK, PTX3, and IL12A, where high-risk patients had worse overall survival than low-risk patients, consistent with the results in the independent validation cohorts. The comprehensive results showed that high IPI-IPM risk scores were correlated with immune-related signaling pathways, high KMT2D and CD79B mutation rates, and upregulation of inhibitory immune checkpoints, including PD-L1, BTLA, and SIGLEC7, indicating a greater potential response to ICB therapy.

Conclusion

The IPI-IPM has independent prognostic significance for DLBCL patients, which provides an immunological perspective to elucidate the mechanisms of tumor progression and sheds light on the development of immunotherapy for DLBCL.

Steering Mast Cells or Their Mediators as a Prospective Novel Therapeutic Approach for the Treatment of Hematological Malignancies

Tumor cells require signaling and close interaction with their microenvironment for their survival and proliferation. In the recent years, Mast cells have earned a greater importance for their presence and role in cancers. It is known that mast cells are attracted towards tumor microenvironment by secreted soluble chemotactic factors. Mast cells seem to exert a pro-tumorigenic role in hematological malignancies with a few exceptions where they showed anti-cancerous role. This dual role of mast cells in tumor growth and survival may be dependent on the intrinsic characteristics of the particular tumor, differences in tumor microenvironment according to tumor type, and the interactions and heterogeneity of mediators released by mast cells in the tumor microenvironment. In many studies, Mast cells and their mediators have been shown to affect tumor survival and growth, prognosis, inflammation, tumor vascularization and angiogenesis. Modulating mast cell accumulation, viability, activity and mediator release patterns may thus be important in controlling these malignancies. In this review, we emphasize on the role of mast cells in lymphoid malignancies and discuss strategies for targeting and steering mast cells or their mediators as a potential therapeutic approach for the treatment of these malignancies.