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Duan L, Zhang L, Hou X, Bao Z, Zeng Y, He L, Liu Z, Zhou H, Hao Q, Dong A. Surveillance of tick-borne bacteria infection in ticks and forestry populations in Inner Mongolia, China. Front Public Health 2024; 12:1302133. [PMID: 38487180 PMCID: PMC10938913 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1302133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Ticks are one of the most important vectors that can transmit pathogens to animals and human beings. This study investigated the dominant tick-borne bacteria carried by ticks and tick-borne infections in forestry populations in Arxan, Inner Mongolia, China. Ticks were collected by flagging from May 2020 to May 2021, and blood samples were collected from individuals at high risk of acquiring tick-borne diseases from March 2022 to August 2023. The pooled DNA samples of ticks were analyzed to reveal the presence of tick-borne bacteria using high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rDNA V3-V4 region, and species-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) related to sequencing was performed to confirm the presence of pathogenic bacteria in individual ticks and human blood samples. All sera samples were examined for anti-SFGR using ELISA and anti-B. burgdorferi using IFA and WB. A total of 295 ticks (282 Ixodes persulcatus and 13 Dermacentor silvarum) and 245 human blood samples were collected. Rickettsia, Anaplasma, Borrelia miyamotoi, and Coxiella endosymbiont were identified in I. persulcatus by high-throughput sequencing, while Candidatus R. tarasevichiae (89.00%, 89/100), B. garinii (17.00%, 17/100), B. afzelii (7.00%, 7/100), and B. miyamotoi (7.00%, 7/100) were detected in I. persulcatus, as well the dual co-infection with Candidatus R. tarasevichiae and B. garinii were detected in 13.00% (13/100) of I. persulcatus. Of the 245 individuals, B. garinii (4.90%, 12/245), R. slovaca (0.82%, 2/245), and C. burnetii (0.41%, 1/245) were detected by PCR, and the sequences of the target genes of B. garinii detected in humans were identical to those detected in I. persulcatus. The seroprevalence of anti-SFGR and anti-B. burgdorferi was 5.71% and 13.47%, respectively. This study demonstrated that Candidatus R. tarasevichiae and B. garinii were the dominant tick-borne bacteria in I. persulcatus from Arxan, and that dual co-infection with Candidatus R. tarasevichiae and B. garinii was frequent. This is the first time that B. miyamotoi has been identified in ticks from Arxan and R. solvaca has been detected in humans from Inner Mongolia. More importantly, this study demonstrated the transmission of B. garinii from ticks to humans in Arxan, suggesting that long-term monitoring of tick-borne pathogens in ticks and humans is important for the prevention and control of tick-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Like Duan
- National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Lin Zhang
- National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Xuexia Hou
- National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Zihao Bao
- National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Zeng
- National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Lijuan He
- National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Zeliang Liu
- Affiliated Hospital of North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, China
| | - Haijian Zhou
- National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Qin Hao
- National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Aiying Dong
- Affiliated Hospital of North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, China
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Mohd-Azami SNI, Loong SK, Khoo JJ, Husin NA, Lim FS, Mahfodz NH, Ishak SN, Mohd-Taib FS, Makepeace BL, AbuBakar S. Molecular Surveillance for Vector-Borne Bacteria in Rodents and Tree Shrews of Peninsular Malaysia Oil Palm Plantations. Trop Med Infect Dis 2023; 8:tropicalmed8020074. [PMID: 36828490 PMCID: PMC9965954 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8020074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Many human clinical cases attributed to vector-borne pathogens are underreported in Malaysia, especially in rural localities where healthcare infrastructures are lacking. Here, 217 small mammals, consisting of rodents and tree shrews, were trapped in oil palm plantations in the Peninsular Malaysia states of Johor and Perak. Species identification was performed using morphological and DNA barcoding analyses, and 203 small mammals were included in the detection of selected vector-borne bacteria. The DNA extracted from the spleens was examined for Orientia tsutsugamushi, Borrelia spp., Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia spp. using established PCR assays. The small mammals collected in this study included Rattus tanezumi R3 mitotype (n = 113), Rattus argentiventer (n = 24), Rattus tiomanicus (n = 22), Rattus exulans (n = 17), Rattus tanezumi sensu stricto (n = 1) and Tupaia glis (n = 40). Orientia tsutsugamushi, Borrelia spp. and Bartonella phoceensis were detected in the small mammals with the respective detection rates of 12.3%, 5.9% and 4.9%. Rickettsia spp., however, was not detected. This study encountered the presence of both Lyme disease and relapsing fever-related borreliae in small mammals collected from the oil palm plantation study sites. All three microorganisms (Orientia tsutsugamushi, Borrelia spp. and Bartonella phoceensis) were detected in the R. tanezumi R3 mitotype, suggesting that the species is a competent host for multiple microorganisms. Further investigations are warranted to elucidate the relationships between the ectoparasites, the small mammals and the respective pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siti Nurul Izzah Mohd-Azami
- Tropical Infectious Diseases Research & Education Centre (TIDREC), Higher Institution Centre of Excellence, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Shih Keng Loong
- Tropical Infectious Diseases Research & Education Centre (TIDREC), Higher Institution Centre of Excellence, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Correspondence:
| | - Jing Jing Khoo
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L3 5RF, UK
| | - Nurul Aini Husin
- Tropical Infectious Diseases Research & Education Centre (TIDREC), Higher Institution Centre of Excellence, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Fang Shiang Lim
- Tropical Infectious Diseases Research & Education Centre (TIDREC), Higher Institution Centre of Excellence, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Nur Hidayana Mahfodz
- Tropical Infectious Diseases Research & Education Centre (TIDREC), Higher Institution Centre of Excellence, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Siti Nabilah Ishak
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
- Kuantan Fisheries Biosecurity Centre, Department of Fisheries Malaysia, Kuantan 25100, Malaysia
| | - Farah Shafawati Mohd-Taib
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
| | - Benjamin L. Makepeace
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L3 5RF, UK
| | - Sazaly AbuBakar
- Tropical Infectious Diseases Research & Education Centre (TIDREC), Higher Institution Centre of Excellence, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
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Gofton AW, Blasdell KR, Taylor C, Banks PB, Michie M, Roy‐Dufresne E, Poldy J, Wang J, Dunn M, Tachedjian M, Smith I. Metatranscriptomic profiling reveals diverse tick-borne bacteria, protozoans and viruses in ticks and wildlife from Australia. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:e2389-e2407. [PMID: 35502617 PMCID: PMC9790515 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Tick-borne zoonoses are emerging globally due to changes in climate and land use. While the zoonotic threats associated with ticks are well studied elsewhere, in Australia, the diversity of potentially zoonotic agents carried by ticks and their significance to human and animal health is not sufficiently understood. To this end, we used untargeted metatranscriptomics to audit the prokaryotic, eukaryotic and viral biomes of questing ticks and wildlife blood samples from two urban and rural sites in New South Wales, Australia. Ixodes holocyclus and Haemaphysalis bancrofti were the main tick species collected, and blood samples from Rattus rattus, Rattus fuscipes, Perameles nasuta and Trichosurus vulpecula were also collected and screened for tick-borne microorganisms using metatranscriptomics followed by conventional targeted PCR to identify important microbial taxa to the species level. Our analyses identified 32 unique tick-borne taxa, including 10 novel putative species. Overall, a wide range of tick-borne microorganisms were found in questing ticks including haemoprotozoa such as Babesia, Theileria, Hepatozoon and Trypanosoma spp., bacteria such as Borrelia, Rickettsia, Ehrlichia, Neoehrlichia and Anaplasma spp., and numerous viral taxa including Reoviridiae (including two coltiviruses) and a novel Flaviviridae-like jingmenvirus. Of note, a novel hard tick-borne relapsing fever Borrelia sp. was identified in questing H. bancrofti ticks which is closely related to, but distinct from, cervid-associated Borrelia spp. found throughout Asia. Notably, all tick-borne microorganisms were phylogenetically unique compared to their relatives found outside Australia, and no foreign tick-borne human pathogens such as Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. or Babesia microti were found. This work adds to the growing literature demonstrating that Australian ticks harbour a unique and endemic microbial fauna, including potentially zoonotic agents which should be further studied to determine their relative risk to human and animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kim R. Blasdell
- CSIROHealth and BiosecurityAustralian Centre for Disease PreparednessGeelongVICAustralia
| | - Casey Taylor
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of SydneySydneyNSWAustralia
| | - Peter B. Banks
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of SydneySydneyNSWAustralia
| | | | | | | | - Jian Wang
- CSIROHealth and BiosecurityCanberra, ConnecticutAustralia
| | - Michael Dunn
- CSIROHealth and BiosecurityAustralian Centre for Disease PreparednessGeelongVICAustralia
| | - Mary Tachedjian
- CSIROHealth and BiosecurityAustralian Centre for Disease PreparednessGeelongVICAustralia
| | - Ina Smith
- CSIROHealth and BiosecurityCanberra, ConnecticutAustralia
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Qiu Y, Squarre D, Nakamura Y, Lau ACC, Moonga LC, Kawai N, Ohnuma A, Hayashida K, Nakao R, Yamagishi J, Sawa H, Namangala B, Kawabata H. Evidence of Borrelia theileri in Wild and Domestic Animals in the Kafue Ecosystem of Zambia. Microorganisms 2021; 9:2405. [PMID: 34835531 PMCID: PMC8624021 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9112405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the genus Borrelia are arthropod-borne spirochetes that are human and animal pathogens. Vertebrate hosts, including wild animals, are pivotal to the circulation and maintenance of Borrelia spirochetes. However, information on Borrelia spirochetes in vertebrate hosts in Zambia is limited. Thus, we aimed to investigate the presence of Borrelia spirochetes in wild animals and cattle in Zambia. A total of 140 wild animals of four species and 488 cattle DNA samples from /near the Kafue National Park were collected for real-time PCR screening, followed by characterization using three different genes with positive samples. Five impalas and 20 cattle tested positive using real-time PCR, and sequence analysis revealed that the detected Borrelia were identified to be Borrelia theileri, a causative agent of bovine borreliosis. This is the first evidence of Borrelia theileri in African wildlife and cattle in Zambia. Our results suggest that clinical differentiation between bovine borreliosis and other bovine diseases endemic in Zambia is required for better treatment and control measures. As this study only included wild and domestic animals in the Kafue ecosystem, further investigations in other areas and with more wildlife and livestock species are needed to clarify a comprehensive epidemiological status of Borrelia theileri in Zambia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjin Qiu
- Division of International Research Promotion, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, N 20 W 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan;
| | - David Squarre
- Wildlife Diseases Unit, Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Lusaka P.O. Box 50060, Zambia;
- Division of Collaboration and Education, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, N 20 W 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.N.); (L.C.M.); (N.K.); (K.H.); (J.Y.)
| | - Yukiko Nakamura
- Division of Collaboration and Education, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, N 20 W 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.N.); (L.C.M.); (N.K.); (K.H.); (J.Y.)
| | - Alice C. C. Lau
- Laboratory of Wildlife Biology and Medicine, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, N 18 W 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0818, Japan;
| | - Lavel Chinyama Moonga
- Division of Collaboration and Education, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, N 20 W 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.N.); (L.C.M.); (N.K.); (K.H.); (J.Y.)
| | - Naoko Kawai
- Division of Collaboration and Education, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, N 20 W 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.N.); (L.C.M.); (N.K.); (K.H.); (J.Y.)
| | - Aiko Ohnuma
- Technical Office, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, N 20 W 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan;
| | - Kyoko Hayashida
- Division of Collaboration and Education, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, N 20 W 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.N.); (L.C.M.); (N.K.); (K.H.); (J.Y.)
- International Collaboration Unit, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan
| | - Ryo Nakao
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, N 18 W 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0818, Japan;
| | - Junya Yamagishi
- Division of Collaboration and Education, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, N 20 W 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.N.); (L.C.M.); (N.K.); (K.H.); (J.Y.)
- International Collaboration Unit, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Sawa
- Division of International Research Promotion, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, N 20 W 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan;
- International Collaboration Unit, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, N 20 W 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan
- One Health Research Center, Hokkaido University, N 20 W 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan
| | - Boniface Namangala
- Department of Paraclinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Zambia, Lusaka 10101, Zambia;
| | - Hiroki Kawabata
- Laboratory of Systemic Infection, Department of Bacteriology I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Toyama 1-23-1, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan;
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Sevestre J, Diarra AZ, Oumarou HA, Durant J, Delaunay P, Parola P. Detection of emerging tick-borne disease agents in the Alpes-Maritimes region, southeastern France. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2021; 12:101800. [PMID: 34352531 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Lyme borreliosis is a zoonotic tick-borne infection representing the most frequent vector-borne disease in the northern hemisphere. The Mediterranean rim is generally described as unsuitable for the European vector, Ixodes ricinus. We conducted an epidemiological study to assess whether I. ricinus was present and study its infection status for tick-borne bacteria. Ticks originating from southeastern France were obtained from flagging sampling and removed from animals and tick-bitten patients. Species level identification used morphological keys and MALDI-TOF MS. Quantitative PCR and sequencing assays were used to detect and identify tick-associated bacteria (Borrelia, Rickettsia, Anaplasmataceae, Bartonella, Coxiella burnetii) in each specimen. A total of 1232 ticks were collected in several localities. Among these, 863 were identified as I. ricinus (70%). Bacterial screening allowed identification of Lyme group Borrelia among I. ricinus ticks originating from various regional areas. Other emerging tick-borne pathogens like Borrelia miyamotoi and Rickettsia species were also detected. The Alpes-Maritimes region, part of the French Riviera, harbours I. ricinus ticks infected with Lyme group Borrelia and several other tick-borne bacterial agents. Clinicians and outdoor activity participants should be aware of the local Lyme borreliosis transmission risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Sevestre
- Service de Parasitologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Nice, France; Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, Marseille 13385 Cedex 05, France; Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, Marseille, France
| | - Adama Zan Diarra
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, Marseille 13385 Cedex 05, France; Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, Marseille, France
| | | | - Jacques Durant
- Service d'Infectiologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Nice, France
| | - Pascal Delaunay
- Service de Parasitologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Nice, France; MIVEGEC, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Philippe Parola
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, Marseille 13385 Cedex 05, France; Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, Marseille, France.
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Gaowa, Wulantuya, Sato K, Liu D, Cui Y, Yin X, Zhang L, Li H, Wang T, Liu R, Wu L, Lu S, Gao T, Zhang Z, Cao M, Wang G, Li C, Yan D, Ohashi N, Ando S, Kawabata H. Surveillance of Borrelia miyamotoi-carrying ticks and genomic analysis of isolates in Inner Mongolia, China. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:368. [PMID: 34274015 PMCID: PMC8285808 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04809-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Borrelia miyamotoi is a newly described relapsing fever spirochete transmitted by ixodid tick species. Little is known about the prevalence of B. miyamotoi infections in humans and ticks in Inner Mongolia, China. Therefore, we investigated the prevalence of B. miyamotoi in Ixodes persulcatus ticks, and we aimed to isolateB. miyamotoi from I. persulcatus from four regions of Greater Khingan, Inner Mongolia, China. Methods From May to June each year during the period 2016–2019, host-seeking adult I. persulcatus ticks were collected from vegetation. Genomic DNA was prepared from half of each tick body for PCR template, and the remaining half was used to cultivate B. miyamotoi in BSK-M medium. We employed quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) to detect Borrelia DNA in the ticks and to calculate the prevalence of B. miyamotoi and infections with other borreliae. For characterization of the isolated B. miyamotoi, we performed draft genome sequencing and multilocus sequencing analysis (MLSA). Results A total of 2656 adult I. persulcatus ticks were collected. The overall prevalence of relapsing fever (RF) borreliae in ticks was 5.0% (134/2656) and that of Lyme disease (LD) borreliae was 43.8% (1164/2656). Co-infection with RF and LD borreliae was observed in 63 ticks (2.4%). Ticks that were positive for RF borreliae by qPCR were subjected to glycerophosphodiester diester phosphodiesterase gene (glpQ) PCR amplification and sequencing, through which we identified the RF borrelia specimens as B. miyamotoi. Furthermore, the B. miyamotoi strain Hetao-1 was isolated from I. persulcatus, and a draft genome sequence was obtained from the isolate. Sequencing determined the strain Hetao-1 genome to be approximately 906.1 kbp in length (28.9% average GC content), and MLSA identified the strain as ST633, which has previously been reported in Japan and Mongolia. Conclusion We detected B. miyamotoi from I. persulcatus ticks collected in Inner Mongolia, and successfully isolated a B. miyamotoi strain. To our knowledge, this is the first study to culture a B. miyamotoi isolate from China. The data on the prevalence of B. miyamotoi and other borreliae in I. persulcatus ticks will be fundamental for future epidemiological studies of B. miyamotoi disease in Inner Mongolia. ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaowa
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China.
| | - Wulantuya
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Kozue Sato
- Department of Bacteriology-I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Toyama 1-23-1, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Dan Liu
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Yunhong Cui
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Xuhong Yin
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Lihua Zhang
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Hong Li
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Tingfu Wang
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Rongxin Liu
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Lijing Wu
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Saixia Lu
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Ting Gao
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Zitong Zhang
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Tick-Borne Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, College of Hetao, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Minzhi Cao
- Bayan Nur Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bayan Nur, 015000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Guodong Wang
- Hulunbuir Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Hulunbuir, 021000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Chunpu Li
- Hulunbuir Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Hulunbuir, 021000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Dacheng Yan
- Hulunbuir Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Hulunbuir, 021000, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Norio Ohashi
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan
| | - Shuji Ando
- Department of Virology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Hiroki Kawabata
- Department of Bacteriology-I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Toyama 1-23-1, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan.
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Cutler S, Vayssier-Taussat M, Estrada-Peña A, Potkonjak A, Mihalca AD, Zeller H. A new Borrelia on the block: Borrelia miyamotoi - a human health risk? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 24. [PMID: 31064634 PMCID: PMC6505184 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2019.24.18.1800170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Background Borrelia miyamotoi clusters phylogenetically among relapsing fever borreliae, but is transmitted by hard ticks. Recent recognition as a human pathogen has intensified research into its ecology and pathogenic potential. Aims We aimed to provide a timely critical integrative evaluation of our knowledge on B. miyamotoi, to assess its public health relevance and guide future research. Methods This narrative review used peer-reviewed literature in English from January 1994 to December 2018. Results Borrelia miyamotoi occurs in the world’s northern hemisphere where it co-circulates with B. burgdorferi sensu lato, which causes Lyme disease. The two borreliae have overlapping vertebrate and tick hosts. While ticks serve as vectors for both species, they are also reservoirs for B. miyamotoi. Three B. miyamotoi genotypes are described, but further diversity is being recognised. The lack of sufficient cultivable isolates and vertebrate models compromise investigation of human infection and its consequences. Our understanding mainly originates from limited case series. In these, human infections mostly present as influenza-like illness, with relapsing fever in sporadic cases and neurological disease reported in immunocompromised patients. Unspecific clinical presentation, also occasionally resulting from Lyme- or other co-infections, complicates diagnosis, likely contributing to under-reporting. Diagnostics mainly employ PCR and serology. Borrelia miyamotoi infections are treated with antimicrobials according to regimes used for Lyme disease. Conclusions With co-infection of tick-borne pathogens being commonplace, diagnostic improvements remain important. Developing in vivo models might allow more insight into human pathogenesis. Continued ecological and human case studies are key to better epidemiological understanding, guiding intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally Cutler
- School of Health, Sport & Bioscience, University of East London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Agustín Estrada-Peña
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Aleksandar Potkonjak
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Andrei Daniel Mihalca
- Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Hervé Zeller
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Solna, Sweden
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8
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Margos G, Castillo-Ramirez S, Cutler S, Dessau RB, Eikeland R, Estrada-Peña A, Gofton A, Graña-Miraglia L, Hunfeld KP, Krause A, Lienhard R, Lindgren PE, Oskam C, Rudolf I, Schwartz I, Sing A, Stevenson B, Wormser GP, Fingerle V. Rejection of the name Borreliella and all proposed species comb. nov. placed therein. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2020; 70:3577-3581. [PMID: 32320380 DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.004149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Rejection (nomen rejiciendum) of the name Borreliella and all new combinations therein is being requested on grounds of risk to human health and patient safety (Principle 1, subprinciple 2 and Rule 56a) and violation to aim for stability of names, to avoid useless creation of names (Principle 1, subprinciple 1 and 3) and that names should not be changed without sufficient reason (Principle 9 of the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes).
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Margos
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, National Reference Center for Borrelia, Oberschleissheim, Germany.,Members of the ESCMID Study Group for Lyme Borreliosis (ESGBOR, www.escmid.org/esgbor)
| | - Santiago Castillo-Ramirez
- Programa de Genómica Evolutiva, Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónomade México, CP 62210, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
| | - Sally Cutler
- School of Health, Sport and Bioscience, University of East London, London E15 4LZ, UK.,Members of the ESCMID Study Group for Lyme Borreliosis (ESGBOR, www.escmid.org/esgbor)
| | - Ram B Dessau
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Slagelse Hospital, Denmark.,Members of the ESCMID Study Group for Lyme Borreliosis (ESGBOR, www.escmid.org/esgbor)
| | - Randi Eikeland
- Norwegian Advisory Unit for Tick Borne Diseases, Sørlandet Hospital, Norway.,Members of the ESCMID Study Group for Lyme Borreliosis (ESGBOR, www.escmid.org/esgbor)
| | - Agustin Estrada-Peña
- Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Alexander Gofton
- Australian National Insect Collection CSIRO, Black Mountain, Acton, ACT, 2901, Australia
| | - Lucía Graña-Miraglia
- Programa de Genómica Evolutiva, Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónomade México, CP 62210, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
| | - Klaus-Peter Hunfeld
- Zentralinstitut für Labormedizin, Mikrobiologie & Krankenhaushygiene, Krankenhaus Nordwest, Akademisches Lehrkrankenhaus der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Members of the ESCMID Study Group for Lyme Borreliosis (ESGBOR, www.escmid.org/esgbor)
| | - Andreas Krause
- Abteilung Rheumatologie und Klinische Immunologie, Immanuel Krankenhaus Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Reto Lienhard
- Microbiologiste FAMH, Laboratoire Borrelia (CNRT/ NRZK Spiez), La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland
| | - Per-Eric Lindgren
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (BKV), Division of Inflammation and Infection (II), Linköping University, Sweden.,Members of the ESCMID Study Group for Lyme Borreliosis (ESGBOR, www.escmid.org/esgbor)
| | - Charlotte Oskam
- Vector & Waterborne Pathogens Research Group, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Murdoch, 6150, Australia
| | - Ivo Rudolf
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, v.v.i., Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, CZ-691 42 Valtice, Czech Republic
| | - Ira Schwartz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA
| | - Andreas Sing
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, National Reference Center for Borrelia, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Brian Stevenson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics and Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40502, USA
| | - Gary P Wormser
- Division of Infectious Diseases, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA
| | - Volker Fingerle
- Members of the ESCMID Study Group for Lyme Borreliosis (ESGBOR, www.escmid.org/esgbor).,Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, National Reference Center for Borrelia, Oberschleissheim, Germany
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9
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Shirozu T, Soga A, Morishita YK, Seki N, Ko-Ketsu M, Fukumoto S. Prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of Cryptosporidium infections in Yezo sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) in the Tokachi sub-prefecture of Hokkaido, Japan. Parasitol Int 2020; 76:102064. [PMID: 31978598 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2020.102064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The Yezo sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) on the island of Hokkaido, Japan are currently recognized as overabundant. Hunting is used to control the deer population, and this has increased the supply of game meat, which is associated with a high risk of various food-borne infections. Additionally, the sub-prefecture Tokachi has a dense population of livestock, which are potentially at risk of cross-species infections from the deer. In this study, we undertook the first analysis of the incidence of Cryptosporidium infection in the Yezo sika deer in the Tokachi area using polymerase chain reaction testing and phylogenetic analysis. Polymerase chain reaction analysis showed Cryptosporidium species present in 7.5% of fecal samples (13/173) collected from deer hunted between 2016 and 2017. However, the zoonotic Cryptosporidium paruvm parasite was not detected in the phylogenetic analysis; when sequenced, all species in the positive samples matched the Cryptosporidium deer genotype. However, deer may act as a reservoir of the zoonotic Cryptosporidium parvum parasite, which affects both humans and livestock. Therefore, we recommend the continuation of surveys of the incidence of Cryptosporidium infections in Yezo sika deer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Shirozu
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Akira Soga
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Yu-Ki Morishita
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Nobuaki Seki
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Mami Ko-Ketsu
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Shinya Fukumoto
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan.
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10
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Suraj RA, Rambarran R, Ali K, Harbajan D, Charles R, Sant C, Georges K, Suepaul S. A comparison of the efficacy of two commercial acaricides (fipronil and amitraz) with Azadirachta indica (neem) on the brown dog tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineus) from canines in Trinidad. Transbound Emerg Dis 2019; 67 Suppl 2:142-148. [PMID: 31746117 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Revised: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The brown dog tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineus) is prevalent on canids in Trinidad. It is directly (by causing anaemia) and indirectly (by acting as a vector of tick-borne pathogens) responsible for morbidity and mortalities in the canine population. The most commonly used commercial acaricides available to pet owners in Trinidad are amitraz and fipronil. Often, these acaricides may be abused and misused in a desperate attempt to rid pets of ticks. The objective of this study was to compare the efficacy of amitraz and fipronil with the herbal alternative, neem (Azadirachta indica). Triplicate in vitro trials utilizing the Larval Packet Test (LPT) were conducted using three concentrations (low, recommended and high) of fipronil (0.025%, 0.05% and 0.1%), amitraz (0.01%, 0.02% and 1%), neem oil (10%, 20% and 40%) and neem leaf extract (0.25%, 0.5% and 2%) for each trial. Statistical analysis using the mixed-effect Poisson regression analysis indicated that there was a significant difference (p < .05) in the survival of ticks pre-treatment versus post-treatment with amitraz, fipronil and all controls when compared to the neem oil. Fipronil and amitraz caused ≥99% mortality for all concentrations used in this study. Mortalities for neem oil and neem leaf extract ranged from 72.7% to 82% and 38% to 95.3%, respectively, with the greatest percentage of mortalities occurring at the lower concentrations. Neem oil and neem leaf extract can be used as alternative acaricides, and however, they are less efficacious against the brown dog tick than amitraz and fipronil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel-Ann Suraj
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Rhea Rambarran
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Krista Ali
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Danyelle Harbajan
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Roxanne Charles
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Candice Sant
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Karla Georges
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Sharianne Suepaul
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
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11
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Margos G, Fingerle V, Cutler S, Gofton A, Stevenson B, Estrada-Peña A. Controversies in bacterial taxonomy: The example of the genus Borrelia. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2019; 11:101335. [PMID: 31836459 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.101335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
In this paper we survey key issues in bacterial taxonomy and review the literature regarding the recent genus separation proposed for the genus Borrelia. We discuss how information on members of the genus Borrelia is increasing but detailed knowledge on the relevant features is available only for a small subset of species. The data accumulated here show that there is considerable overlap in ecology, clinical aspects and molecular features between clades that argue against splitting of the genus Borrelia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Margos
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, German National Reference Center for Borrelia, Veterinärstr. 2, Oberschleissheim, Germany.
| | - Volker Fingerle
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, German National Reference Center for Borrelia, Veterinärstr. 2, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Sally Cutler
- School of Health, Sport and Bioscience, University of East London, London E15 4LZ, UK
| | - Alexander Gofton
- Australian National Insect Collection, CSIRO, Black Mountain, Clunies Ross St, Acton, ACT, 2901, Australia
| | - Brian Stevenson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, and Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40502, USA
| | - Agustín Estrada-Peña
- Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Miguel Servet, 177, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
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12
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Nakayama S, Kobayashi T, Nakamura A, Yoshitomi H, Song Y, Ashizuka Y. Detection of Borrelia DNA in Tick Species Collected from Vegetation and Wild Animals in Fukuoka, Japan. Jpn J Infect Dis 2019; 73:61-64. [PMID: 31564692 DOI: 10.7883/yoken.jjid.2019.146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We screened for the presence of Borrelia spp. in ticks collected from vegetation by flagging and from wild animals between May 2017 and November 2018 in Fukuoka, located in the northern Kyushu region of Japan. A total of 1,601 ticks were collected and separated based on morphology into nine species, namely Ixodes turdus, I. ovatus, Amblyomma testudinarium, Haemaphysalis flava, H. formosensis, H. kitaokai, H. longicornis, H. hystricis, and H. megaspinosa. The ticks were segregated into 561 pools and nested PCR was used to detect borrelial DNA. Borrelia turdi and Borrelia sp. HM were identified in two of the 561 pools. This is the first report of the presence of the Lyme disease group of Borrelia and of the relapsing fever group of Borrelia in Fukuoka, Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiko Nakayama
- Division of Pathology and Bacteriology, Fukuoka Institute of Health and Environmental Sciences
| | - Takayuki Kobayashi
- Division of Virus, Fukuoka Institute of Health and Environmental Sciences
| | - Asako Nakamura
- Division of Virus, Fukuoka Institute of Health and Environmental Sciences
| | - Hideaki Yoshitomi
- Division of Virus, Fukuoka Institute of Health and Environmental Sciences
| | - Yandejia Song
- Kyushu University Graduate School of Systems Life Sciences
| | - Yuki Ashizuka
- Division of Virus, Fukuoka Institute of Health and Environmental Sciences
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13
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Sato K, Sakakibara K, Masuzawa T, Ohnishi M, Kawabata H. Case control study: Serological evidence that Borrelia miyamotoi disease occurs nationwide in Japan. J Infect Chemother 2018; 24:828-833. [PMID: 30057339 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2018.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Since 2011, Borrelia miyamotoi disease (BMD) has been reported in five countries in the northern hemisphere. The causative agent of BMD is transmitted by Ixodes ticks, which are also vectors of Lyme disease borreliae. In this study, we examined 459 cases of clinically suspected Lyme disease (LD group), and found twelve cases that were seropositive for the glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase (GlpQ) antigen derived from B. miyamotoi. The retrospective surveillance revealed that the seroprevalence of anti-GlpQ in the LD group was significantly higher than in a healthy cohort. Seropositive cases were observed from spring through autumn when ticks are active, and the cases were geographically widespread, being found in Hokkaido-Tohoku, Kanto, Chubu, Kinki, and Kyushu-Okinawa regions. Seropositive cases for GlpQ were most frequent in the Chubu region (6.3%) where B. miyamotoi has been found in Ixodes ticks. Out of the twelve cases that were found in the LD group, three cases exhibited concomitant seropositivity to Lyme disease borreliae by western blot assay. This is the first report of serological surveillance for BMD in Japan, and we conclude that BMD occurs nationwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kozue Sato
- Department of Bacteriology-I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Keiko Sakakibara
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba Institute of Science, Choshi, Chiba, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Masuzawa
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba Institute of Science, Choshi, Chiba, Japan
| | - Makoto Ohnishi
- Department of Bacteriology-I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroki Kawabata
- Department of Bacteriology-I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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