Genetic analysis of Streptococcus suis isolates recovered from diseased and healthy carrier pigs at different stages of production on a pig farm

Invasive Bacterial Infections of the Musculoskeletal and Central Nervous System during Pig Rearing: Detection Frequencies of Different Pathogens and Specific Streptococcus suis Genotypes

Locomotor and central nervous system disorders occur during pig rearing, but there is no systematic recording of the different causative agents in Germany. Joint and meningeal swabs, kidneys, lungs, and eight different lymph nodes per pig were cultured, and isolated pathogens were identified using polymerase chain reactions (PCRs). The cps and pathotype of Streptococcus suis (S. suis) isolates were determined using multiplex-PCR. S. suis was the most important pathogen in the infected joints (70.8%) and meningeal swabs (85.4%) and was most frequently detected in both sites in suckling and weaning piglets. To elucidate the possible portal of entry of S. suis, eight different lymph nodes from 201 pigs were examined in a prospective study. S. suis was detected in all examined lymph nodes (n = 1569), including the mesenteric lymph nodes (15.8%; n = 121/765), with cps 9 (37.2%; n = 147) and cps 2 (24.3%; n = 96) being the most dominating cps types. In piglets with a systemic S. suis infection, different lymph nodes are frequently infected with the invasive S. suis strain, which does not help clarify the portal of entry for S. suis.

Epidemiology and genetic diversity of Streptococcus suis in smallhold swine farms in the Philippines

This study aimed to determine the presence and characteristics of locally circulating strains of Streptococcus suis, the most important streptococcal pathogen in swine. Oral swab samples were collected from pigs from 664 representative smallhold farms across nine provinces in the Philippines. Isolates were identified and characterized using PCR assays. The study revealed an isolation rate of 15.8% (105/664, 95% CI: 13.0-18.6) among the sampled farms. Two hundred sixty-nine (269) S. suis isolates were recovered from 119 unique samples. Serotype 31 was the most prevalent (50/269, 95% CI: 13.9-23.2) among the other serotypes identified: 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 21, 27, 28, and 29. The detection of the three 'classical' S. suis virulence-associated genes showed that 90.7% (244/269, 95% CI: 87.2-94.2) were mrp-/epf-/sly-. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis further revealed 70 novel sequence types (STs). Notably, several local isolates belonging to these novel STs formed clonal complexes (CC) with S. suis strains recovered from Spain and USA, which are major pork-exporting countries to the Philippines. This study functionally marks the national baseline knowledge of S. suis in Philippines.

Carrier status of Streptococcus suis in the palatine tonsils of apparently healthy slaughtered pigs of India

Streptococcus suis is an emerging bacterial pathogen of huge economic impact to the swine industry worldwide. The information regarding the carrier status of S. suis in the slaughtered pigs along with its genetic characterization is not available in Indian pig population, which needs to be addressed for the therapeutic and preventive measures. In the present study, 563 palatine tonsils of apparently healthy slaughtered pigs were probed for the prevalence, and genetic characterization of S. suis and prevalence were found to be 15.45% and 32.68% by bacteriological and molecular methods, respectively. In 87 isolates recovered, 6 cps-types were detected showing the predominance of serotype 7 (24.13%) and 5 (18.39%), whereas 11 cps-types were detected in tonsillar DNA involving cps-types 9 (28.26%) and 7 (14.13%) as the major serotypes with arcA⁺/sly⁺/epf⁺/mrp^- being the prevalent genotype. The histopathological changes with the immunodetection of S. suis antigen confirmed its persistence in asymptomatic carriers. Of 87 bacterial isolates, 7 isolates (serotypes 7 & 2) were pathogenic to Swiss albino mice showing the classical lesions of meningitis and septicemia. The presence of virulent serotypes of S. suis in healthy slaughtered pigs suggests a great health risk to the people engaged in piggery operations and in-contact pigs.

Histopathological and microbiological study of porcine lymphadenitis: contributions to diagnosis and control of the disease

Tuberculosis like lesions (TBL) in free-range pigs are characterised by presenting a marked heterogeneity in pathology and microbiology features, with a notorious role of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC), Trueperella pyogenes and different Streptococcus species. However, the capacity of these microorganism to spread to different organic cavities leading to a generalised disease is unknown. Therefore, this study evaluated the organic distribution of these agents in free-range pig carcasses whole condemned due to generalised TBL.

A total of 37 totally condemned animals were analysed, and samples of lymph nodes and organs were obtained (n = 262) and subjected to histopathological and microbiological examination. In addition, T. pyogenes and streptococci species were further characterised by PFGE analysis. Two different patterns were evidenced with lack or occasional lesions in superficial inguinal (SILN) and popliteal (PLN) lymph nodes and advanced lesions in submandibular (SLN) (35/36) and gastrohepatic (GHLN) (33/35) lymph nodes (stages III and IV). Early stage granulomas (stage I and II) prevailed in lungs (16/20), liver (14/31) and spleen (7/18). The microbiological analysis revealed that MTC, detected by qPCR, was present in 31 out of 37 animals and 90 (90/262) samples. In 26 out of the 31 pigs, MTC was detected from two or more organs. SLN (24/31) and GHLN (19/31) were the MTC⁺ organs most frequently detected, with 29 out of 31 MTC⁺ pigs detected as positive in one or both samples, which points out that both lymph nodes must be included in the sampling of surveillance programs. Other pathogens, such as T. pyogenes and Streptococcus spp., were also involved in generalised lymphadenitis, being frequently isolated from SLN and other organs, such as liver (T. pyogenes), tonsils or lung (Streptococcus spp.). A wide genetic diversity among streptococci was observed, showing the ubiquitous character of these pathogens, however, the isolation of a single clone of T. pyogenes from different organic locations from animals with generalised TBL was a common finding of this study, highlighting that the role of this pathogen in porcine lymphadenitis may be underestimated. These results should be considered in future studies on the pathogenesis and control of porcine lymphadenitis.

Isolation and identification of Streptococcus suis from sick pigs in Bali, Indonesia

Objective

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a causative agent for various syndromes in pigs. It can be transmitted to humans with typical symptoms of meningitis and death. Although human infections have been confirmed at Bali Referral Hospital, Indonesia, since 2014, the bacteria have not been isolated from pigs. Here, we provide confirmation of the presence of the bacteria in sick pigs in the province.

Results

Streptococcus suis was confirmed in 8 of 30 cases. The final confirmation was made using PCR and sequencing of the glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and recombination/repair protein (recN) gene fragments. Upon PCR serotyping, two were confirmed to be serotype 2 or 1/2. Prominent histopathological lesions of confirmed cases were meningitis, endocarditis, pericarditis, bronchopneumonia, enteritis and glomerulonephritis. The dominant inflammatory cells were neutrophils and macrophages. Further research is needed to understand the risk factors for human infection. Community awareness on the risk of contracting S. suis and vaccine development are needed to prevent human infections.

Streptococcus suis - The "Two Faces" of a Pathobiont in the Porcine Respiratory Tract

Streptococcus (S.) suis is a frequent early colonizer of the upper respiratory tract of pigs. In fact, it is difficult to find S. suis-free animals under natural conditions, showing the successful adaptation of this pathogen to its porcine reservoir host. On the other hand, S. suis can cause life-threatening diseases and represents the most important bacterial cause of meningitis in pigs worldwide. Notably, S. suis can also cause zoonotic infections, such as meningitis, septicemia, endocarditis, and other diseases in humans. In Asia, it is classified as an emerging zoonotic pathogen and currently considered as one of the most important causes of bacterial meningitis in adults. The “two faces” of S. suis, one of a colonizing microbe and the other of a highly invasive pathogen, have raised many questions concerning the interpretation of diagnostic detection and the definition of virulence. Thus, one major research challenge is the identification of virulence-markers which allow differentiation of commensal and virulent strains. This is complicated by the high phenotypic and genotypic diversity of S. suis, as reflected by the occurrence of (at least) 33 capsular serotypes. In this review, we present current knowledge in the context of S. suis as a highly diverse pathobiont in the porcine respiratory tract that can exploit disrupted host homeostasis to flourish and promote inflammatory processes and invasive diseases in pigs and humans.

Simultaneous Quantification and Differentiation of Streptococcus suis Serotypes 2 and 9 by Quantitative Real-Time PCR, Evaluated in Tonsillar and Nasal Samples of Pigs

Invasive Streptococcus suis (S. suis) infections in pigs are often associated with serotypes 2 and 9. Mucosal sites of healthy pigs can be colonized with these serotypes, often multiple serotypes per pig. To unravel the contribution of these serotypes in pathogenesis and epidemiology, simultaneous quantification of serotypes is needed. A quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) targeting cps2J (serotypes 2 and 1/2) and cps9H (serotype 9) was evaluated with nasal and tonsillar samples from S. suis exposed pigs. qPCR specifically detected serotypes in all pig samples. The serotypes loads in pig samples estimated by qPCR showed, except for serotype 9 in tonsillar samples (correlation coefficient = 0.25), moderate to strong correlation with loads detected by culture (correlation coefficient > 0.65), and also in pigs exposed to both serotypes (correlation coefficient > 0.75). This qPCR is suitable for simultaneous differentiation and quantification of important S. suis serotypes.

Screening of virulence-associated genes as a molecular typing method for characterization of Streptococcus suis isolates recovered from wild boars and pigs

Streptococcus suis is an important zoonotic pathogen associated with a wide range of diseases in pigs, but has also been isolated from wild animals such as rabbits and wild boars. In the current study, 126 S. suis isolates recovered from pigs (n = 85) and wild boars (n = 41) were tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of nine virulence-associated genes. S. suis isolates from wild boars were differentiated by the lower detection rates of the epf, sly, mrp, sao and dltA genes (0%, 2.4%, 2.4%, 4.8% and 21.9%, respectively) compared with the isolates from pigs (56.5%, 75.3%, 56.5%, 88.2.0% and 88.2%, respectively). The differences in the content of these virulence-associated genes were statistically significant (P < 0.05). There was a correlation between the variants saoM and saoL and serotypes 2 and 9, respectively (P < 0.05). Isolates were classified into 31 virulence-associated gene profiles (VPs). Ten VPs were detected among wild boar isolates and 22 VPs among pig isolates, with only two VPs common to wild boars and pigs. The predominant VPs among isolates from wild boars (VP1, VP7) were different from those observed in pig isolates (VP16 and VP26). VP16 was detected exclusively in clinical pig isolates of serotype 9 and VP26 was detected in 71.4% of the serotype 2 clinical pig isolates. Further multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis showed a significant correlation association between certain VPs and STs (VP16 and VP17 with ST123 and ST125 and VP26 with ST1). In conclusion, the current study showed that combination of virulence-associated gene profiling and MLST analysis may provide more information of the relatedness of the S. suis strains from different animal species that could be useful for epidemiological purposes.

Suicin 3908, a new lantibiotic produced by a strain of Streptococcus suis serotype 2 isolated from a healthy carrier pig

While Streptococcus suis serotype 2 is known to cause severe infections in pigs, it can also be isolated from the tonsils of healthy animals that do not develop infections. We hypothesized that S. suis strains in healthy carrier pigs may have the ability to produce bacteriocins, which may contribute to preventing infections by pathogenic S. suis strains. Two of ten S. suis serotype 2 strains isolated from healthy carrier pigs exhibited antibacterial activity against pathogenic S. suis isolates. The bacteriocin produced by S. suis 3908 was purified to homogeneity using a three-step procedure: ammonium sulfate precipitation, cationic exchange HPLC, and reversed-phase HPLC. The bacteriocin, called suicin 3908, had a low molecular mass; was resistant to heat, pH, and protease treatments; and possessed membrane permeabilization activity. Additive effects were obtained when suicin 3908 was used in combination with penicillin G or amoxicillin. The amino acid sequence of suicin 3908 suggested that it is lantibiotic-related and made it possible to identify a bacteriocin locus in the genome of S. suis D12. The putative gene cluster involved in suicin production by S. suis 3908 was amplified by PCR, and the sequence analysis revealed the presence of nine open reading frames (ORFs), including the structural gene and those required for the modification of amino acids, export, regulation, and immunity. Suicin 3908, which is encoded by the suiA gene, exhibited approximately 50% identity with bovicin HJ50 (Streptococcus bovis), thermophilin 1277 (Streptococcus thermophilus), and macedovicin (Streptococcus macedonicus). Given that S. suis 3908 cannot cause infections in animal models, that it is susceptible to conventional antibiotics, and that it produces a bacteriocin with antibacterial activity against all pathogenic S. suis strains tested, it could potentially be used to prevent infections and to reduce antibiotic use by the swine industry.

Molecular typing of Streptococcus suis isolates from Iberian pigs: a comparison with isolates from common intensively-reared commercial pig breeds

The Iberian pig (IP) is a traditional Spanish breed variety of the domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) with high economic importance because of the value of the dry-cured products in national and international markets. The genetic characteristics of tonsillar and clinical Streptococcus suis isolates from the IP maintained under extensive or intensive management conditions were investigated. S. suis isolates from IP pigs were compared with S. suis isolates from intensively-farmed pigs of common breeds (CBP). S. suis was isolated from 48.4% of the IP tonsils examined, indicating wide distribution among IP pigs. Serotypes 1 (9.4%), 2 (8.6%) and 9 (7%) were the most commonly found, although a high percentage of S. suis isolates were not typeable by coagglutination testing. No significant differences in carrier rates or serotype diversity were observed between management systems, indicating that intensive farming does not influence S. suis colonisation. Both pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and multiple-locus variable number tandem repeat analysis showed a serotype-based distribution of S. suis IP isolates. Serotypes 1 and 2 S. suis isolates were grouped in the same cluster, whereas isolates of serotypes 9 and 7 were assigned to another cluster. All clinical and most tonsillar serotype 2 IP isolates were assigned to sequence type 1 (ST1) and exhibited the virulence genotype mrp+/epf+/sly+, indicating a high distribution of this genetic lineage among IP as well as a population of serotype 2 common to IPs and CBPs. The only clinical isolate of serotype 9 from IP was assigned to ST123, a sequence type associated with clinical isolates in CBPs in Spain.

Suicin 90-1330 from a nonvirulent strain of Streptococcus suis: a nisin-related lantibiotic active on gram-positive swine pathogens

Streptococcus suis serotype 2 is known to cause severe infections (meningitis, endocarditis, and septicemia) in pigs and is considered an emerging zoonotic agent. Antibiotics have long been used in the swine industry for disease treatment/prevention and growth promoters. This pattern of utilization resulted in the spread of antibiotic resistance in S. suis worldwide. Interestingly, pigs may harbor S. suis in their tonsils without developing diseases, while North American strains belonging to the sequence type 28 (ST28) are nonvirulent in animal models. Consequently, the aim of this study was to purify and characterize a bacteriocin produced by a nonvirulent strain of S. suis serotype 2, with a view to a potential therapeutic and preventive application. S. suis 90-1330 belonging to ST28 and previously shown to be nonvirulent in an animal model exhibited antibacterial activity toward all S. suis pathogenic isolates tested. The bacteriocin produced by this strain was purified to homogeneity by cationic exchange and reversed-phase fast protein liquid chromatography. Given its properties (molecular mass of <4 kDa, heat, pH and protease stability, and the presence of modified amino acids), the bacteriocin, named suicin 90-1330, belongs to the lantibiotic class. Using a DNA-binding fluorophore, the bacteriocin was found to possess a membrane permeabilization activity. When tested on other swine pathogens, the suicin showed activity against Staphylococcus hyicus and Staphylococcus aureus, whereas it was inactive against all Gram-negative bacteria tested. Amino acid sequencing of the purified bacteriocin showed homology (90.9% identity) with nisin U produced by Streptococcus uberis. The putative gene cluster involved in suicin production was amplified by PCR and sequence analysis revealed the presence of 11 open reading frames, including the structural gene and those required for the modification of amino acids, export, regulation, and immunity. Further studies will evaluate the ability of suicin 90-1330 or the producing strain to prevent experimental S. suis infections in pigs.

Streptococcus suis, an important pig pathogen and emerging zoonotic agent-an update on the worldwide distribution based on serotyping and sequence typing

Streptococcus suis is an important pathogen causing economic problems in the pig industry. Moreover, it is a zoonotic agent causing severe infections to people in close contact with infected pigs or pork-derived products. Although considered sporadic in the past, human S. suis infections have been reported during the last 45 years, with two large outbreaks recorded in China. In fact, the number of reported human cases has significantly increased in recent years. In this review, we present the worldwide distribution of serotypes and sequence types (STs), as determined by multilocus sequence typing, for pigs (between 2002 and 2013) and humans (between 1968 and 2013). The methods employed for S. suis identification and typing, the current epidemiological knowledge regarding serotypes and STs and the zoonotic potential of S. suis are discussed. Increased awareness of S. suis in both human and veterinary diagnostic laboratories and further establishment of typing methods will contribute to our knowledge of this pathogen, especially in regions where complete and/or recent data is lacking. More research is required to understand differences in virulence that occur among S. suis strains and if these differences can be associated with specific serotypes or STs.

Characterisation of Streptococcus suis isolates from wild boars (Sus scrofa)

Wild boar are widely distributed throughout the Iberian Peninsula and can carry potentially virulent strains of Streptococcus suis. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of S. suis in wild boars from two large geographical regions of Spain. Serotypes 1, 2, 7 and 9 identified were further genetically characterised by virulence-associated genotyping, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) to determine the population structure of S. suis carried by these animals. Streptococcus suis was isolated from 39.1% of the wild boars examined: serotype 9 was the most frequently isolated (12.5%), followed by serotype 1 (2.5%). Serotype 2 was rarely isolated (0.3%). Eighteen additional serotypes were identified indicating wide diversity of this pathogen within the wild boar population. This heterogeneity was confirmed by PFGE and MLST analyses and the majority of isolates exhibited the virulence-associated genotype mrp-/epf-/sly-. The results of this study highlight that the carriage of S. suis by wild boars is commonplace. However, MLST data indicate that these isolates are not related to prevalent clonal complexes ST1, ST16, ST61 and ST87 typically associated with infection of pigs or humans in Europe.

Streptococcus suis infection: an emerging/reemerging challenge of bacterial infectious diseases?

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a family of pathogenic gram-positive bacterial strains that represents a primary health problem in the swine industry worldwide. S. suis is also an emerging zoonotic pathogen that causes severe human infections clinically featuring with varied diseases/syndromes (such as meningitis, septicemia, and arthritis). Over the past few decades, continued efforts have made significant progress toward better understanding this zoonotic infectious entity, contributing in part to the elucidation of the molecular mechanism underlying its high pathogenicity. This review is aimed at presenting an updated overview of this pathogen from the perspective of molecular epidemiology, clinical diagnosis and typing, virulence mechanism, and protective antigens contributing to its zoonosis.

Characterization of Streptococcus suis serotype 2 isolates from China

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a major pathogen in the pig industry and an important zoonotic agent that causes severe invasive diseases in humans. Previous studies based on multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and the associations between sequence types and genotypes or virulence suggested that North American S. suis serotype 2 isolates are composed of multiple populations. This study investigated the population structure of S. suis serotype 2 isolates in China. We constructed a phylogenetic tree for S. suis serotype 2 isolates based on 16S rRNA gene typing and MLST, studied associations between clades and sources, analyzed the genotype distributions of virulence markers [muramidase-released protein (MRP), extracellular protein factor (EF), and suilysin (SLY)] in different clades, computed the selection pressures for these virulence marker genes, and verified the associations between clades and virulence. There were two primary clades (populations) in the phylogenetic tree of S. suis serotype 2. The two populations were associated with different tissue tropisms. The genotypic distributions and selection pressures of MRP, EF, and SLY were different between the two populations, which suggested that they had different evolutionary paths. The two populations also displayed differences in virulence in experimentally infected mice. The results provide insights into the population structure of S. suis serotype 2 isolates in China and suggest that S. suis serotype 2 clade 1 is an overlooked population that deserves further evaluation.

Effect of spatial separation of pigs on spread of Streptococcus suis serotype 9

The spread of an infectious agent in a population can be reduced by interfering in the infectiousness or susceptibility of individuals, and/or in their contact structure. The aim of this study was to quantify the effect of prevention of direct contact between infectious and susceptible pigs on the transmission of Streptococcus suis (S. suis). In three replicate experiments, S. suis-free pigs were housed in boxes either in pairs (25 pairs) or alone (15 pigs). The distance between the boxes was ±1 m. At 7 weeks of age, one pig of each pair was inoculated intranasally with S. suis serotype 9; the other pigs were exposed to S. suis by either direct (pairs) or indirect contact (individually housed pigs). Tonsillar brush and saliva swab samples from all pigs were collected regularly for 4 weeks post inoculation to monitor colonization with S. suis. All inoculated pigs became infected, and their pen mates became colonized within 2 days. Thirteen indirectly exposed pigs became positive within 7-25 days after exposure. The rate of direct transmission βdir was estimated to be 3.58 per pig per day (95% CI: 2.29-5.60). The rate of indirect transmission increased in time, depending on the cumulative number of days pigs tested positive for the presence of S. suis. The estimate β'ind was 0.001 (95% CI: 0.0006-0.0017) new infections per pig per day for each day that an infected pig was tested positive for S. suis. We conclude that prevention of direct contact reduces the rate at which susceptible pigs become colonized. Simulation studies using these parameters showed, however, that such intervention measure would not limit S. suis serotype 9 spread in a commercial pig farm to a relevant extent, implying that spatial separation of groups op pigs within a compartment would not be effective on a farm.