Augmented reality intravenous injection simulator based 3D medical imaging for veterinary medicine

Canine Upper Digestive Tract 3D Model: Assessing Its Utility for Anatomy and Upper Endoscopy Learning

A teaching strategy using 3D-printed models of the canine upper digestive tract (UDT) for anatomy demonstration and upper endoscopy instruction was evaluated. The canine UDT (esophagus-stomach-duodenum) was scanned and 3D-printed molds were manufactured using silicone casting. First-year students were introduced to these 3D models in practical sessions alongside real specimens. Simultaneously, fifth-year students were trained in endoscope handling and anatomical recognition using 3D specimens. Both groups completed an anonymous survey. Results showed that overall, first-year (n = 93) and fifth-year (n = 45) students agreed or strongly agreed that the 3D-printed model was effective for learning purposes. In summary, first-year students highlighted an improved understanding of size, volume, topography, and easier manipulation of the 3D model compared to fresh specimens. Fifth-year students were more enthusiastic, finding the 3D model valuable for spatial vision and clinical training. While both groups were against completely replacing the natural UDT with the 3D model, first-year students were more hesitant. These findings suggest that the 3D model of the canine UDT is an effective tool for hands-on training in clinical endoscopy and a valuable, albeit complementary, resource for teaching anatomy and topography.

3D visualization and printing: An "Anatomical Engineering" trend revealing underlying morphology via innovation and reconstruction towards future of veterinary anatomy

The amalgamation of veterinary anatomy, technology and innovation has led to development of latest technological advancement in the field of veterinary medicine, i.e., three-dimensional (3D) imaging and reconstruction. 3D visualization technique followed by 3D reconstruction has been proven to enhance non-destructive 3D visualization grossly or microscopically, e.g., skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, ligaments, cartilage, connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, lymph nodes, and glands. The core aim of this manuscript is to document non-invasive 3D visualization methods being adopted currently in veterinary anatomy to reveal underlying morphology and to reconstruct them by 3D softwares followed by printing, its applications, current challenges, trends and future opportunities. 3D visualization methods such as MRI, CT scans and micro-CT scans are utilised in revealing volumetric data and underlying morphology at microscopic levels as well. This will pave a way to transform and re-invent the future of teaching in veterinary medicine, in clinical cases as well as in exploring wildlife anatomy. This review provides novel insights into 3D visualization and printing as it is the future of veterinary anatomy, thus making it spread to become the plethora of opportunities for whole veterinary science.

Estrus Detection and Dairy Cow Identification with Cascade Deep Learning for Augmented Reality-Ready Livestock Farming

Accurate prediction of the estrus period is crucial for optimizing insemination efficiency and reducing costs in animal husbandry, a vital sector for global food production. Precise estrus period determination is essential to avoid economic losses, such as milk production reductions, delayed calf births, and disqualification from government support. The proposed method integrates estrus period detection with cow identification using augmented reality (AR). It initiates deep learning-based mounting detection, followed by identifying the mounting region of interest (ROI) using YOLOv5. The ROI is then cropped with padding, and cow ID detection is executed using YOLOv5 on the cropped ROI. The system subsequently records the identified cow IDs. The proposed system accurately detects mounting behavior with 99% accuracy, identifies the ROI where mounting occurs with 98% accuracy, and detects the mounting couple with 94% accuracy. The high success of all operations with the proposed system demonstrates its potential contribution to AR and artificial intelligence applications in livestock farming.

Towards an Evolved Immersive Experience: Exploring 5G- and Beyond-Enabled Ultra-Low-Latency Communications for Augmented and Virtual Reality

Augmented reality and virtual reality technologies are witnessing an evolutionary change in the 5G and Beyond (5GB) network due to their promising ability to enable an immersive and interactive environment by coupling the virtual world with the real one. However, the requirement of low-latency connectivity, which is defined as the end-to-end delay between the action and the reaction, is very crucial to leverage these technologies for a high-quality immersive experience. This paper provides a comprehensive survey and detailed insight into various advantageous approaches from the hardware and software perspectives, as well as the integration of 5G technology, towards 5GB, in enabling a low-latency environment for AR and VR applications. The contribution of 5GB systems as an outcome of several cutting-edge technologies, such as massive multiple-input, multiple-output (mMIMO) and millimeter wave (mmWave), along with the utilization of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) techniques towards an ultra-low-latency communication system, is also discussed in this paper. The potential of using a visible-light communications (VLC)-guided beam through a learning algorithm for a futuristic, evolved immersive experience of augmented and virtual reality with the ultra-low-latency transmission of multi-sensory tracking information with an optimal scheduling policy is discussed in this paper.

Apprendre l’anatomie radiographique en présentiel ou en ligne ? Une étude randomisée contrôlée

Résumé

L’enseignement de l’anatomie repose sur diverses techniques: les cours, les dissections, les modèles 3D ou encore les supports en ligne. Ces derniers sont généralement considérés comme des moyens d’apprentissage complémentaires. Cette étude vise à comparer les performances des étudiants vétérinaires (N=83) en anatomie radiographique (radioanatomie) après un apprentissage en ligne ou conventionnel, et de voir dans quelle mesure ces méthodes sont interchangeables. Trois stratégies sont comparées : apprentissage en ligne exclusif, apprentissage en ligne avec des os de chevaux, apprentissage sur radiographies conventionnelles avec des os de chevaux. Les performances au test de rotation mentale et au test de connaissance en radioanatomie sont similaires entre les 3 groupes à la base, lors du test préliminaire. Après l’apprentissage (test final), les scores de rotation mentale et de radioanatomie augment significativement de 6.7/40 points (CI : 5.2–8.2; p < .001) et de 5.1/20 points (CI: 4.3–5.9; p< .001). Il n’y a pas de différence entre les groupes pour les scores de rotation mentale et de radioanatomie après l’apprentissage. Le score de rotation mentale est influencé par le genre, et significativement plus élevé chez les hommes que chez les femmes au test préliminaire (M= 23.0, SD = 8.8 vs. M= 16.5, SD= 6.9; p= .001) et au test final (M= 32.1, SD= 5.5 vs. M= 22.7, SD= 8.6; p< .001). Les performances en radioanatomie ne sont pas influencées par le genre. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’enseignement de la radioanatomie peut être réalisé en présentiel avec des radiographies conventionnelles ou en ligne. Cette interchangeabilité entre apprentissage en présentiel et en distanciel est intéressante au regard des impératifs liés aux crises sanitaires, et des besoins d’adaptation rapide en distanciel.

This translation was provided by the authors. To view the original article visit: https://doi.org/10.3138/jvme-2021-0153

Can Online Teaching of Radiographic Anatomy Replace Conventional On-Site Teaching? A Randomized Controlled Study

Different modalities such as lectures, dissections, 3D models, and online learning are used for teaching anatomy. To date, online learning has been considered a useful additional didactic tool. This study aimed to compare veterinary students' performance in radiographic anatomy (radio-anatomy) after online or classroom-based teaching to assess the extent to which the two methods were interchangeable. Three strategies were compared in a cohort of 83 learners. Students were committed to online learning only, online learning with the use of specimen equine bones, or learning on conventional radiographs with specimen equine bones. At baseline (pre-test), scores from a mental rotation test and radio-anatomy knowledge test were similar between groups. After training (post-test), scores in mental rotation and radio-anatomy significantly increased by 6.7/40 units (95% CI: 5.2-8.2; p < .001) and 5.1/20 units (95% CI: 4.3-5.9; p < .001), respectively. There was no difference in scores for mental rotation and radio-anatomy knowledge between groups at post-test. Gender influenced the mental rotation, with men scoring significantly higher than women at pre-test (M = 23.0, SD = 8.8 vs. M = 16.5, SD = 6.9; p = .001) and post-test (M = 32.1, SD = 5.5 vs. M = 22.7, SD = 8.6; p < .001). However, radio-anatomy knowledge was not influenced by gender. These results suggest radio-anatomy teaching can be safely achieved with either conventional radiographs or online resources. This is of interest since, due to the COVID-19 outbreak, rapidly changing from on-site to online methods for teaching veterinary medical education proved necessary.

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Veterinary Clinical and Professional Skills Teaching Delivery and Assessment Format

The limitations posed by the COVID-19 pandemic have been particularly challenging for courses teaching clinical and professional skills. We sought to identify how the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the delivery of veterinary clinical and professional skills courses, including modifications to teaching and assessment, and to establish educators' perceptions of the efficacy of selected delivery methods. A branching survey was deployed to 35 veterinary schools in North America in March and April 2021. The survey collected data about curriculum and assessment in spring 2020, fall 2020, and spring 2021. Educators at 16 veterinary schools completed the survey (response rate: 46%). Educators quickly adapted curriculum to meet the requirements of their institutions and governments. Early in the pandemic (spring 2020), curriculum was delayed, delivered remotely, or canceled. Assessment methods frequently included virtual objective structured clinical examinations (OSCEs) and video-recorded skills assessments. Later in the pandemic (fall 2020, spring 2021), in-person clinical skills sessions resumed at many schools, often in smaller groups. Professional skills instruction typically remained virtual, as benefits were noted. Assessment methods began to normalize with in-person OSCEs resuming with precautions, though some schools maintained virtual assessments. Educators noted some advantages to instructional methods used during COVID, including smaller group sizes, better prepared students, better use of in-person lab time, more focus on essential course components, provision of models for at-home practice, and additional educators' remote involvement. Following the pandemic, educators should consider retaining some of these changes while pursuing further advancements, including improving virtual platforms and relevant technologies.

Extended reality veterinary medicine case studies for diagnostic veterinary imaging instruction: Assessing student perceptions and examination performance

Educational technologies in veterinary medicine aim to train veterinarians faster and improve clinical outcomes. COVID-19 pandemic, shifted face-to-face teaching to online, thus, the need to provide effective education remotely was exacerbated. Among recent technology advances for veterinary medical education, extended reality (XR) is a promising teaching tool. This study aimed to develop a case resolution approach for radiographic anatomy studies using XR technology and assess students' achievement of differential diagnostic skills. Learning objectives based on Bloom's taxonomy keywords were used to develop four clinical cases (3 dogs/1 cat) of spinal injuries utilizing CT scans and XR models and presented to 22 third-year veterinary medicine students. Quantitative assessment (ASMT) of 7 questions probing 'memorization', 'understanding and application', 'analysis' and 'evaluation' was given before and after contact with XR technology as well as qualitative feedback via a survey. Mean ASMT scores increased during case resolution (pre 51.6% (±37%)/post 60.1% (± 34%); p < 0.01), but without significant difference between cases (Kruskal-Wallis H = 2.18, NS). Learning objectives were examined for six questions (Q1-Q6) across cases (C1-4): Memorization improved sequentially (Q1, 2 8/8), while Understanding and Application (Q3,4) showed the greatest improvement (26.7%-76.9%). Evaluation and Analysis (Q5,6) was somewhat mixed, improving (5/8), no change (3/8) and declining (1/8).Positive student perceptions suggest that case studies' online delivery was well received stimulating learning in diagnostic imaging and anatomy while developing visual-spatial skills that aid understanding cross-sectional images. Therefore, XR technology could be a useful approach to complement radiological instruction in veterinary medicine.

State of the Art and Future Prospects of Virtual and Augmented Reality in Veterinary Medicine: A Systematic Review

Virtual reality and augmented reality are new but rapidly expanding topics in medicine. In virtual reality, users are immersed in a three-dimensional environment, whereas in augmented reality, computer-generated images are superimposed on the real world. Despite advances in human medicine, the number of published articles in veterinary medicine is low. These cutting-edge technologies can be used in combination with existing methods in veterinary medicine to achieve diagnostic/therapeutic and educational goals. The purpose of our review was to evaluate studies for their use of virtual reality and augmented reality in veterinary medicine, as well as human medicine with animal trials, to report results and the state of the art. We collected all of the articles we included in our review by screening the Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. Of the 24 included studies, 11 and 13 articles belonged to virtual reality and augmented reality, respectively. Based on these articles, we determined that using these technologies has a positive impact on the scientific output of students and residents, can reduce training costs, and can be used in training/educational programs. Furthermore, using these tools can promote ethical standards. We reported the absence of standard operation protocols and equipment costs as study limitations.

The Use of Simulators for Teaching Practical Clinical Skills to Veterinary Students - A Review

In the context of veterinary education, simulators are devices or sets of conditions aiming to imitate real patients and enable students to practice skills without the need for live animal use. Simulator use in veterinary education has increased significantly in recent years, allowing consistent practical teaching without reliance on clinical cases. This review examines the available literature regarding the use of simulation and simulators for teaching practical day one competences to veterinary students. Scientific databases were searched and 73 relevant articles were reviewed. The reviewed articles revealed that there are a number of simulators currently available to veterinary educators, that simulators can enhance student skills and provide an alternative learning environment without the need for live animal and/or cadaver use, and that they usually receive positive feedback from the students who use them. There appears to be a bias towards small animal simulators - however, some skills that are developed through the use of small animal or table-top models will be transferrable to other species. The majority of large animal simulators focus on bovine rectal palpation and/or pregnancy diagnosis. Further research is required to increase the repertoire of available simulators for use in veterinary education, in order to improve the practical skills of veterinary students and reduce the use of live animals and cadaver material for teaching purposes.

Comparative Effectiveness of Training with Simulators Versus Traditional Instruction in Veterinary Education: Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review

One of the greatest challenges in veterinary education is adequately preparing students with the clinical skills they need to be successful health care providers. Integration of simulators, devices used to represent real world phenomena under test conditions, into the veterinary curriculum can help address challenges to clinical instruction. The use of simulators in veterinary education is increasing; however, their effectiveness remains unclear. This meta-analysis seeks to synthesize the evidence for simulator training in veterinary education to provide a consensus of effect, guide the integration of simulators into the curriculum, and direct the development of future simulation-based research in veterinary medicine. A systematic search identified 416 potential manuscripts from which 60 articles were included after application of inclusion criteria. Information was extracted from 71 independent experiments. The overall weighted mean effect size for simulator training was g = 0.49 for the random-effects model. The outcome measures of knowledge, time, process, and product all produced statistically significant mean effect sizes favoring simulation (d = 0.41, 0.35, 0.70, 0.53, respectively). A moderator analysis revealed that study characteristics and instructional design features moderated the effectiveness of simulator training. Overall, the results indicate that simulator training in veterinary education can be effective for knowledge and clinical skill outcomes.

The effects of an immersive 3d interactive video program on improving student nurses' nursing skill competence: A randomized controlled trial study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Acquired accurate clinical nursing skills are among the most important core nursing competencies for nursing students, as nursing students' inadequate skill capacities might endanger patients safety. Therefore, it is essential to develop teaching strategies to strengthen students' nursing skills. This study examined the effects of an immersive three-dimensional (3D) interactive video program on improving nursing students' nasogastric tube feeding skill competence.

DESIGN

A randomized controlled trial research design.

SETTINGS AND PARTICIPANTS

Forty-five nursing students from a university in northern Taiwan.

METHODS

The students were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n = 22) and a comparison group (n = 23). The intervention group received the immersive 3D interactive video program on nasogastric tube feeding, whereas the comparison group watched a regular demonstration video. The questionnaire was used to collect data before the intervention, immediately after the intervention, and one month after the intervention.

RESULTS

Nursing students' knowledge and confidence in nasogastric tube feeding were significantly improved after the intervention in both groups. Although there were no significant differences in students' knowledge, skill, and confidence between the two groups, participants' average satisfaction score with the immersive 3D interactive video program in the intervention group was significantly higher than in the comparison group that watched a regular video (t = 2.302, p = 0.026).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study showed that both immersive 3D interactive video program and regular demonstration video could improve nursing students' learning outcomes. The higher satisfaction score in the intervention group indicates that learning through immersive 3D interactive video is acceptable and satisfactory. This study provides useful information for nursing faculty members for designing and developing teaching methods for the acquisition of nursing skills. It can also serve as a reference for further studies relating to AR, VR, or immersive learning materials.

Augmented Reality, Mixed Reality, and Hybrid Approach in Healthcare Simulation: A Systematic Review

Simulation-based medical training is considered an effective tool to acquire/refine technical skills, mitigating the ethical issues of Halsted’s model. This review aims at evaluating the literature on medical simulation techniques based on augmented reality (AR), mixed reality (MR), and hybrid approaches. The research identified 23 articles that meet the inclusion criteria: 43% combine two approaches (MR and hybrid), 22% combine all three, 26% employ only the hybrid approach, and 9% apply only the MR approach. Among the studies reviewed, 22% use commercial simulators, whereas 78% describe custom-made simulators. Each simulator is classified according to its target clinical application: training of surgical tasks (e.g., specific tasks for training in neurosurgery, abdominal surgery, orthopedic surgery, dental surgery, otorhinolaryngological surgery, or also generic tasks such as palpation) and education in medicine (e.g., anatomy learning). Additionally, the review assesses the complexity, reusability, and realism of the physical replicas, as well as the portability of the simulators. Finally, we describe whether and how the simulators have been validated. The review highlights that most of the studies do not have a significant sample size and that they include only a feasibility assessment and preliminary validation; thus, further research is needed to validate existing simulators and to verify whether improvements in performance on a simulated scenario translate into improved performance on real patients.

EquiSim: An Open-Source Articulatable Statistical Model of the Equine Distal Limb

Most digital models of the equine distal limb that are available in the community are static and/or subject specific; hence, they have limited applications in veterinary research. In this paper, we present an articulatable model of the entire equine distal limb based on statistical shape modeling. The model describes the inter-subject variability in bone geometry while maintaining proper jointspace distances to support model articulation toward different poses. Shape variation modes are explained in terms of common biometrics in order to ease model interpretation from a veterinary point of view. The model is publicly available through a graphical user interface (https://github.com/jvhoutte/equisim) in order to facilitate future digitalization in veterinary research, such as computer-aided designs, three-dimensional printing of bone implants, bone fracture risk assessment through finite element methods, and data registration and segmentation problems for clinical practices.

Impact of the internet on veterinary surgery

The advent of the internet, and the technological innovations associated with it, have driven significant advances in surgical teaching and learning. The ease of access to information and the variety of online resources allow rapid sharing of surgical knowledge, promoting new teaching and learning patterns. Educational content from online platforms adds theoretical and practical knowledge to accelerate the learning curve and continuing education of surgeons. This study reviews how the advent of the Internet has influenced the teaching and dissemination of knowledge in veterinary surgery.

Augmented and Virtual Reality in Anatomical Education - A Systematic Review

Learning anatomy traditionally has depended on traditional techniques like human cadaveric dissection and the use of textbooks. As technology advances at an ever-rapid speed, there are revolutionary ways to learn anatomy. A number of technologies, techniques and methodologies are utilised in anatomical education, but ones specifically receiving a lot of interest and traction is that of augmented reality and virtual reality. Although there has been a surge in interest in the use of these technologies, the literature is sparse in terms of its evaluation as to the effectiveness of such tools. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine in greater detail the literature specifically to see what the best practice in this field could be. By undertaking a systematic review using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we searched for articles in both Web of Science and PubMed. Using the terms "augmented reality and teaching anatomy" yielded 88 articles. We then used "virtual reality and teaching anatomy" which resulted in 200 articles. We examined these articles, including that on augmented reality and virtual reality used to teach anatomy to undergraduate and postgraduate students, residents, dentistry, nursing and veterinary students. Articles were excluded if they were systematic reviews, literature reviews, review articles, news articles, articles not written in English and any literature that presented how a virtual model was created without the evidence of students testing it. The inclusion and exclusion criteria for virtual reality were the same as augmented reality. In addition, we examined the articles to identify if they contained data which was quantitative, qualitative or both. The articles were further separated into those which were pro, neutral or against for the use of these digital technologies. Of the 288 articles, duplicate articles totalling 67 were removed and 134 articles were excluded according to our exclusion criteria. Of the 31 articles related to augmented reality, 30 were pro, one neutral and no articles against the use of this technology. Fifty-six articles related to virtual reality were categorised resulted in 45 pro, eight neutral and three against the use of this technology. Overall, the results indicate most articles identified related to both virtual and augmented reality were for the use of those technologies, than neutral or against. This systemic review highlights the recent advances of both augmented reality and virtual reality to implementing the technology into the anatomy course.

A Systematic Review of 10 Years of Augmented Reality Usability Studies: 2005 to 2014

Augmented Reality (AR) interfaces have been studied extensively over the last few decades, with a growing number of user-based experiments. In this paper, we systematically review 10 years of the most influential AR user studies, from 2005 to 2014. A total of 291 papers with 369 individual user studies have been reviewed and classified based on their application areas. The primary contribution of the review is to present the broad landscape of user-based AR research, and to provide a high-level view of how that landscape has changed. We summarize the high-level contributions from each category of papers, and present examples of the most influential user studies. We also identify areas where there have been few user studies, and opportunities for future research. Among other things, we find that there is a growing trend toward handheld AR user studies, and that most studies are conducted in laboratory settings and do not involve pilot testing. This research will be useful for AR researchers who want to follow best practices in designing their own AR user studies.

Teaching Veterinary Anesthesia: A Survey-Based Evaluation of Two High-Fidelity Models and Live-Animal Experience for Undergraduate Veterinary Students

In veterinary medical education, reduction, replacement, and refinement (the three Rs) must be considered. Three clinical skills in anesthesia were identified as challenging to students: endotracheal intubation, intravenous catheterization, and drug dose calculations. The aims of this project were to evaluate students' perception of their level of confidence in performing these three clinical skills in veterinary anesthesia, to document the extent of students' previous experience in performing these three tasks, and to describe students' emotional states during this training. Veterinary students completed a series of four surveys over the period of their pre-clinical training to evaluate the usefulness of high-fidelity models for skill acquisition in endotracheal intubation and intravenous catheterization. In addition, practice and ongoing assessment in drug dose calculations were performed. The curriculum during this period of training progressed from lectures and non-animal training, to anesthesia of pigs undergoing surgery from which they did not recover, and finally to anesthesia of dogs and cats in a neutering clinic. The level of confidence for each of the three clinical skills increased over the study period. For each skill, the number of students with no confidence decreased to zero and the proportion of students with higher levels of confidence increased. The high-fidelity models for endotracheal intubation and intravenous catheterization used to complement the live-animal teaching were considered a useful adjunct to the teaching of clinical skills in veterinary anesthesia. With practice, students became more confident performing drug dose calculations.

Evaluation of a Jugular Venipuncture Alpaca Model to Teach the Technique of Blood Sampling in Adult Alpacas

The effectiveness of teaching aids in veterinary medical education is not often assessed rigorously. The objective in the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a commercially available jugular venipuncture alpaca model as a complementary tool to teach veterinary students how to perform venipuncture in adult alpacas. We hypothesized that practicing on the model would allow veterinary students to draw blood in alpacas more rapidly with fewer attempts than students without previous practice on the model. Thirty-six third-year veterinary students were enrolled and randomly allocated to the model (group M; n=18) or the control group (group C; n=18). The venipuncture technique was taught to all students on day 0. Students in group M practiced on the model on day 2. On day 5, an evaluator blinded to group allocation evaluated the students' venipuncture skills during a practical examination using live alpacas. Success was defined as the aspiration of a 6-ml sample of blood. Measured outcomes included number of attempts required to achieve success (success score), total procedural time, and overall qualitative score. Success scores, total procedural time, and overall scores did not differ between groups. Use of restless alpacas reduced performance. The jugular venipuncture alpaca model failed to improve jugular venipuncture skills in this student population. Lack of movement represents a significant weakness of this training model.

Polylactides in additive biomanufacturing

New advanced manufacturing technologies under the alias of additive biomanufacturing allow the design and fabrication of a range of products from pre-operative models, cutting guides and medical devices to scaffolds. The process of printing in 3 dimensions of cells, extracellular matrix (ECM) and biomaterials (bioinks, powders, etc.) to generate in vitro and/or in vivo tissue analogue structures has been termed bioprinting. To further advance in additive biomanufacturing, there are many aspects that we can learn from the wider additive manufacturing (AM) industry, which have progressed tremendously since its introduction into the manufacturing sector. First, this review gives an overview of additive manufacturing and both industry and academia efforts in addressing specific challenges in the AM technologies to drive toward AM-enabled industrial revolution. After which, considerations of poly(lactides) as a biomaterial in additive biomanufacturing are discussed. Challenges in wider additive biomanufacturing field are discussed in terms of (a) biomaterials; (b) computer-aided design, engineering and manufacturing; (c) AM and additive biomanufacturing printers hardware; and (d) system integration. Finally, the outlook for additive biomanufacturing was discussed.

Novel Card Games for Learning Radiographic Image Quality and Urologic Imaging in Veterinary Medicine

Second-year veterinary students are often challenged by concepts in veterinary radiology, including the fundamentals of image quality and generation of differential lists. Four card games were developed to provide veterinary students with a supplemental means of learning about radiographic image quality and differential diagnoses in urogenital imaging. Students played these games and completed assessments of their subject knowledge before and after playing. The hypothesis was that playing each game would improve students' understanding of the topic area. For each game, students who played the game performed better on the post-test than students who did not play that game (all p<.01). For three of the four games, students who played each respective game demonstrated significant improvement in scores between the pre-test and the post-test (p<.002). The majority of students expressed that the games were both helpful and enjoyable. Educationally focused games can help students learn classroom and laboratory material. However, game design is important, as the game using the most passive learning process also demonstrated the weakest results. In addition, based on participants' comments, the games were very useful in improving student engagement in the learning process. Thus, use of games in the classroom and laboratory setting seems to benefit the learning process.

Relative stiffness of 3 bandage/splint constructs for stabilization of equine midmetacarpal fractures

OBJECTIVE

Determine the relative stiffness of 3 bandage/splint constructs intended for emergency fracture stabilization.

DESIGN

Experimental model. A single plane free end deflection model was developed to simulate the forces placed on a bandage/splint construct during stabilization of a complete mid-metacarpal bone fracture. The total deflection of the model in one plane was measured following application of 3 different bandage/splint combinations including a classic, 3 layered Robert Jones Bandage (RJB) with a splint placed on the outside of the bandage (RJB-3), an RJB with splint placed after the first of 3 bandage layers (RJB-1), and a single layer full limb bandage with external splint (SS). Comparisons were made between the deflections of the model with each bandage/splint combinations in an effort to determine the most effective method for field fracture stabilization.

SETTING

Laboratory.

ANIMALS

No animals were utilized in data collection for this study. Two live horses were utilized during the pilot study.

INTERVENTIONS

Application of bandage and splint to a model intended to simulate the bending force on a lower forelimb fracture in a horse

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Deflection was determined by the difference between the height of the model's supported free end before application of a 4.5 kg weight and at the conclusion of the deflection test. There was no significant difference in the amount of deflection between bandage/splint combinations (78 ± 32 mm (RJB-1), 94 ± 44 mm (RJB-3), and 93 ± 33 mm (SS)) CONCLUSIONS: The one-layer bandage with splint was equivalent to either RJB configuration in the mean amount of deflection in the simple model of a fracture.