Development and preliminary validation of a pain scale for ophthalmic pain in horses: The Equine Ophthalmic Pain Scale (EOPS)

Use of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rTPA) for treatment of fibrin in the anterior chamber of the horse

BACKGROUND

Recombinant intracameral tissue plasminogen activator (rTPA) administration can aid clearance of fibrin from the anterior chamber.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this retrospective multicentre case series, the effect of intracameral rTPA administration to treat fibrin in the anterior chamber resulting from trauma or inflammatory ocular disease was evaluated. Clinical data from 30 treatments in 29 horses were obtained from medical records from 2003 to 2022. Association between time from onset of clinical signs and time for rTPA treatment to effect was studied with regression analysis.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven horses (93.1%) had no previous history of ophthalmic disease; one had an iridic cyst, and another had equine recurrent uveitis. The majority of cases were related to trauma (79.3%). Median time from the onset of clinical signs to treatment was 12 h (IQR = 4-48 h). rTPA (72% 20 µg; 24% 25 µg; 3.3% 40 µg) was administered once in all but one eye, which was treated twice. Resolution of fibrin was seen in 96.9% (29/30) of treatments. Fibrin accumulation recurred in one case but resolved 14 days after the second treatment. Complications were seen in four treatments (13.3%): moderate pain for 24 h, intracameral debris and mild intracameral haemorrhage in a horse that received 40 µg of tissue plasminogen activator. Recurrence of fibrin accumulation was absent in 96.7% of cases. Median time to effect was 20 min (IQR = 10-45 min). Time for rTPA treatment to effect was not associated with time from fibrin formation (R2 = 0.09; p = 0.11).

CONCLUSION

Intracameral rTPA treatment can be considered at 20-25 µg in 0.1 mL solution to aid resolution of fibrin accumulation.

Pain scoring systems in hospitalized horses with ocular disease

BACKGROUND

Pain recognition in hospitalized horses is challenging, and the utility of pain scoring systems in horses with ocular disease has not been well-described.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

Evaluate the horse grimace scale (HGS) and behavior pain score (BPS) in hospitalized horses with ocular disease. We hypothesized that HGS and BPS would be associated with different clinical progressions.

ANIMALS

Privately owned horses hospitalized for ocular disease between September 2018 and September 2020.

METHODS

Retrospective observational study. The HGS and BPS were recorded daily throughout hospitalization. Clinical progressions were categorized as: (a) discharge from hospital after medical treatment, (b) ophthalmic surgery (eg, keratectomy, conjunctival flap, amniotic membrane transplantation, corneal transplant), or (c) enucleation. Temporal trends in HGS and BPS were assessed using linear regression. Correlations among slope, intercept, and progression were determined using the Kruskal-Wallis test.

RESULTS

Of 65 horses that met inclusion criteria, 29 (45%) were discharged after exclusively medical management, 28 (43%) underwent ophthalmic surgery, and 8 (12%) underwent enucleation. Two horses (3%) had 2 ophthalmic surgeries performed. The BPS scores at admission were higher in horses that were managed medically than in those that underwent enucleation (P = .01). Horses requiring enucleation had higher increases in HGS (P = .02) and BPS (P = .01) during hospitalization than horses that were medically managed and a higher increase in BPS (P = .04) than horses that required ophthalmic surgery.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Pain scoring may represent a useful tool for monitoring progression and response to treatment in hospitalized horses with ocular disease.

New approaches to selecting a scan-sampling method for chicken behavioral observations and their practical implications

The use of the scan-sampling method, especially when a large amount of data is collected, has become widespread in behavioral studies. However, there are no specific guidelines regarding the choice of the sampling interval in different conditions. Thus, establishing a standard approach for video analysis represents an important step forward within the scientific community. In the present work, we hypothesized that the length of the sampling interval could influence the results of chicken behavioral study, for which we evaluated the reliability, accuracy, and validity of three different sampling intervals (10, 15 and 30 min). The Bland-Altman test was proposed as an innovative approach to compare sampling intervals and support researcher choices. Moreover, these sampling intervals were applied to compare the behavior of 4 chicken genotypes kept under free-range conditions. The Bland-Altman plots suggested that sampling intervals greater than 10 min lead to biases in the estimation of rare behaviors, such as "Attacking". In contrast, the 30-min sampling interval was able to detect differences among genotypes in high-occurrence behaviors, such as those associated with locomotory activity. Thus, from a practical viewpoint, when a broad characterization of chicken genotypes is required, the 30-min scan-sampling interval might be suggested as a good compromise between resources and results.

Horse Grimace Scale Does Not Detect Pain in Horses with Equine Gastric Ulcer Syndrome

Equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) is a highly prevalent and presumptively painful condition, although the amount of pain horses might experience is currently unknown. The aims of this study were to determine if the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) could identify pain behaviours in horses with and without EGUS and if severity would be positively associated with the HGS score. Horse grimace scale scores were assessed blindly using facial photographs by seven observers and involved evaluation of 6 facial action units as 0 (not present), 1 (moderately present) and 2 (obviously present). Lameness examination, serum amyloid A (SAA) measurement and gastroscopy evaluation were performed on all horses. Horses (n = 61) were divided into two and three groups based on the presence (yes, no) and severity (none, mild, moderate-severe) of EGUS, respectively. Presence of lameness and elevated SAA (≥50 µg/mL) were used as exclusion criteria. Inter-observer reliability was analyzed by intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC). HGS scores between groups were compared using Welch's and Brown Forsythe tests (p < 0.05). Overall, HGS ICC was "excellent" (0.75). No significant differences (p = 0.566) were observed in HGS scores between horses with and without gastric lesions (mean, 95% CI; 3.36, 2.76-3.95 and 3, 1.79-4.20, respectively). HGS was not influenced by the presence or severity of EGUS in this current study. Further studies investigating the use of different pain scales in horses with EGUS are needed.

Validation of a behavior observation form for geese reared in agroforestry systems

Agroforestry systems, which are based on the integration of trees and animals, represent a useful practice for implementing the "One Welfare" concept. Geese could adapt well to these systems due to their kinetic and grazing abilities. However, the lack of specific ethograms and animal-based measures have not yet allowed a deep assessment of their welfare and behavior. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a protocol to evaluate the behavior of geese reared in two agroforestry systems (i.e., apple orchard and vineyard). Thus, a behavior observation form (BOF) including a specific ethogram was proposed, and its interobserver reliability, content, criterion and construct validity were determined. Moreover, the influence of the time of day and type of agroforestry system on geese's behavior was also investigated. Agreement and principal component analyses, as well as the comparison between data collected through direct observation by the BOF and indirect observation by a computerized system, supported the reliability and validity of the proposed protocol. While the BOF also highlighted differences in the behavior expressed by the geese according to the time of day and the environmental context, both the vineyard and apple orchard systems seem to meet their biological and behavioral needs.

Development of a Composite Pain Scale in Foals: A Pilot Study

Prompt pain management is crucial in horses; however, tools to assess pain are limited. This study aimed to develop and pilot a composite scale for pain estimation in foals. The “Foal Composite Pain Scale” (FCPS) was developed based on literature and authors’ expertise. The FCPS consisted of 11 facial expressions, 4 behavioural items, and 5 physical items. Thirty-five pain-free foals (Control Group) and 15 foals experiencing pain (Pain Group) were used. Foals were video-recorded at different time points: the Control Group only at inclusion (C), while the Pain Group at inclusion (T1), after an analgesic treatment (T2), and at recovery (T3). Physical items were also recorded at the same time points. Videos were scored twice by five trained observers, blinded to group and time points, to calculate inter- and intra-observer reliability of each scale item. Fleiss’ kappa values ranged from moderate to almost perfect for the majority of the items, while the intraclass correlation coefficient was excellent (ICC = 0.923). The consistency of FCPS was also excellent (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.842). A cut-off ≥ 7 indicated the presence of pain. The Pain Group scores were significantly higher (p < 0.001) than the Control Group and decreased over time (T1, T2 > T3; p = 0.001). Overall, FCPS seems clinically applicable to quantify pain and improve the judgment of the quality of life in foals, but it needs modifications based on these preliminary findings. Consequently, further studies on a larger sample size are needed to test the feasibility and validity of the refined FCPS.