1
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Kang S, Wang D, Kübel C, Mu X. Importance of TEM sample thickness for measuring strain fields. Ultramicroscopy 2024; 255:113844. [PMID: 37708815 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2023.113844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has emerged as a valuable tool for assessing and mapping strain fields within materials. By directly analyzing local atomic spacing variations, TEM enables the precise measurement of local strain with high spatial resolution. However, it is standard practice to use thin specimens in TEM analysis to ensure electron transparency and minimize issues such as projection artifacts and contributions from multiple scattering. This raises an important question regarding the extent of structural modification, such as strain relaxation, induced in thin samples due to the increased surface-to-volume ratio and the thinning process. In this study, we conducted a systematic investigation to quantify the influence of TEM sample thickness on the residual strain field using deformed Fe-based and Zr-based metallic glasses as model systems. The samples were gradually thinned from 300 nm to 70 nm, and the same area was examined using 4D-STEM with identical imaging settings. Our results demonstrate that thinning the sample affects the atomic configuration at both the short-range (SR) and medium-range (MR) scales. Consequently, when the sample is thinned too much, it no longer preserves the native deformation structure. These findings highlight the critical importance of maintaining sufficient TEM sample thickness for obtaining meaningful and accurate strain measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangjun Kang
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany; Joint Research Laboratory Nanomaterials, Technical University of Darmstadt (TUDa), Darmstadt 64287, Germany.
| | - Di Wang
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany; Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility (KNMFi), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany
| | - Christian Kübel
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany; Joint Research Laboratory Nanomaterials, Technical University of Darmstadt (TUDa), Darmstadt 64287, Germany; Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility (KNMFi), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany.
| | - Xiaoke Mu
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany.
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2
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Schmidt EM, Klar PB, Krysiak Y, Svora P, Goodwin AL, Palatinus L. Quantitative three-dimensional local order analysis of nanomaterials through electron diffraction. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6512. [PMID: 37845256 PMCID: PMC10579245 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41934-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Structure-property relationships in ordered materials have long been a core principle in materials design. However, the introduction of disorder into materials provides structural flexibility and thus access to material properties that are not attainable in conventional, ordered materials. To understand disorder-property relationships, the disorder - i.e., the local ordering principles - must be quantified. Local order can be probed experimentally by diffuse scattering. The analysis is notoriously difficult, especially if only powder samples are available. Here, we combine the advantages of three-dimensional electron diffraction - a method that allows single crystal diffraction measurements on sub-micron sized crystals - and three-dimensional difference pair distribution function analysis (3D-ΔPDF) to address this problem. In this work, we compare the 3D-ΔPDF from electron diffraction data with those obtained from neutron and x-ray experiments of yttria-stabilized zirconia (Zr0.82Y0.18O1.91) and demonstrate the reliability of the proposed approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ella Mara Schmidt
- Faculty of Geosciences and MAPEX Center for Materials and Processes, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany.
- MARUM Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany.
- Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.
| | - Paul Benjamin Klar
- Faculty of Geosciences and MAPEX Center for Materials and Processes, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
- Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Yaşar Krysiak
- Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Petr Svora
- Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Andrew L Goodwin
- Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Lukas Palatinus
- Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
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3
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Rohner C, Pratsch C, Schlögl R, Lunkenbein T. Structural Identification and Observation of Dose Rate-Dependent Beam-Induced Structural Changes of Micro- and Nanoplastic Particles by Pair Distribution Function Analysis in the Transmission Electron Microscope (ePDF). MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2023; 29:1566-1578. [PMID: 37639397 DOI: 10.1093/micmic/ozad087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are considered a possible threat to microorganisms in the aquatic environment. Here, we show that total scattering intensity analysis of electron diffraction (ED) data measured by transmission electron microscopy, which yields the electron pair distribution function (ePDF), is a feasible method for the characterization and identification of MNPs down to 100 nm. To demonstrate the applicability, cryo ball-milled powders of the most common polymers [i.e., polyethylene , polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyamide] and nano-sized polystyrene and silica spheres were used as model systems. The comparison of the experimentally determined reduced pair density functions (RDFs) with model RDFs derived from crystallographic data of the respective polymers allows the distinction of the different types of polymers. Furthermore, carbon-based polymers are highly beam-sensitive materials. The degradation of the samples under the electron beam was analyzed by conducting time-resolved ED measurements. Changes in the material can be visualized by the RDF analysis of the time-series of ED patterns, and information about the materials in question can be gained by this beam damage analysis. Prospectively, ePDF analytics will help to understand and study more precisely the input of MNPs into the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Rohner
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christoph Pratsch
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie GmBH, Department X-Ray Microscopy, Hahn-Meitner-Platz 1, 14109 Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Schlögl
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Department of Heterogeneous Reactions, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstraße 34-36, 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
| | - Thomas Lunkenbein
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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Kovyakh A, Banerjee S, Liu CH, Wright CJ, Li YC, Mallouk TE, Feidenhans’l R, Billinge SJL. Towards scanning nanostructure X-ray microscopy. J Appl Crystallogr 2023; 56:1221-1228. [PMID: 37555210 PMCID: PMC10405596 DOI: 10.1107/s1600576723005927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
This article demonstrates spatial mapping of the local and nanoscale structure of thin film objects using spatially resolved pair distribution function (PDF) analysis of synchrotron X-ray diffraction data. This is exemplified in a lab-on-chip combinatorial array of sample spots containing catalytically interesting nanoparticles deposited from liquid precursors using an ink-jet liquid-handling system. A software implementation is presented of the whole protocol, including an approach for automated data acquisition and analysis using the atomic PDF method. The protocol software can handle semi-automated data reduction, normalization and modeling, with user-defined recipes generating a comprehensive collection of metadata and analysis results. By slicing the collection using included functions, it is possible to build images of different contrast features chosen by the user, giving insights into different aspects of the local structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Kovyakh
- Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Soham Banerjee
- Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Chia-Hao Liu
- Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Christopher J. Wright
- Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Yuguang C. Li
- Department of Chemistry, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, NY 14260, USA
| | - Thomas E. Mallouk
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Robert Feidenhans’l
- Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- European XFEL, D-22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Simon J. L. Billinge
- Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
- Condensed Matter Physics and Materials Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
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5
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Kang S, Wang D, Caron A, Minnert C, Durst K, Kübel C, Mu X. Direct Observation of Quadrupolar Strain Fields forming a Shear Band in Metallic Glasses. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023:e2212086. [PMID: 37029715 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202212086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
For decades, scanning/transmission electron microscopy (S/TEM) techniques have been employed to analyze shear bands in metallic glasses and understand their formation in order to improve the mechanical properties of metallic glasses. However, due to a lack of direct information in reciprocal space, conventional S/TEM cannot characterize the local strain and atomic structure of amorphous materials, which are key to describe the deformation of glasses. For this work, 4-dimensional-STEM (4D-STEM) is applied to map and directly correlate the local strain and the atomic structure at the nanometer scale in deformed metallic glasses. Residual strain fields are observed with quadrupolar symmetry concentrated at dilated Eshelby inclusions. The strain fields percolate in a vortex-like manner building up the shear band. This provides a new understanding of the formation of shear bands in metallic glass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangjun Kang
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Joint Research Laboratory Nanomaterials, Technical University of Darmstadt (TUDa), 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
- Advanced Analysis Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Di Wang
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility (KNMFi), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Arnaud Caron
- Korea University of Technology and Education (Koreatech), Cheonan, 330708, Republic of Korea
| | - Christian Minnert
- Physical Metallurgy, Department of Materials Science, Technical University of Darmstadt (TUDa), 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Karsten Durst
- Physical Metallurgy, Department of Materials Science, Technical University of Darmstadt (TUDa), 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Christian Kübel
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Joint Research Laboratory Nanomaterials, Technical University of Darmstadt (TUDa), 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
- Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility (KNMFi), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Xiaoke Mu
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
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6
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Wang K, Hua W, Huang X, Stenzel D, Wang J, Ding Z, Cui Y, Wang Q, Ehrenberg H, Breitung B, Kübel C, Mu X. Synergy of cations in high entropy oxide lithium ion battery anode. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1487. [PMID: 36932071 PMCID: PMC10023782 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37034-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
High entropy oxides (HEOs) with chemically disordered multi-cation structure attract intensive interest as negative electrode materials for battery applications. The outstanding electrochemical performance has been attributed to the high-entropy stabilization and the so-called 'cocktail effect'. However, the configurational entropy of the HEO, which is thermodynamically only metastable at room-temperature, is insufficient to drive the structural reversibility during conversion-type battery reaction, and the 'cocktail effect' has not been explained thus far. This work unveils the multi-cations synergy of the HEO Mg0.2Co0.2Ni0.2Cu0.2Zn0.2O at atomic and nanoscale during electrochemical reaction and explains the 'cocktail effect'. The more electronegative elements form an electrochemically inert 3-dimensional metallic nano-network enabling electron transport. The electrochemical inactive cation stabilizes an oxide nanophase, which is semi-coherent with the metallic phase and accommodates Li+ ions. This self-assembled nanostructure enables stable cycling of micron-sized particles, which bypasses the need for nanoscale pre-modification required for conventional metal oxides in battery applications. This demonstrates elemental diversity is the key for optimizing multi-cation electrode materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Wang
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.,Department of Materials and Earth Sciences, Technical University Darmstadt, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Weibo Hua
- Institute for Applied Materials (IAM), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Xiaohui Huang
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.,Department of Materials and Earth Sciences, Technical University Darmstadt, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - David Stenzel
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.,Department of Materials and Earth Sciences, Technical University Darmstadt, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Junbo Wang
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.,Department of Materials and Earth Sciences, Technical University Darmstadt, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Ziming Ding
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.,Department of Materials and Earth Sciences, Technical University Darmstadt, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Yanyan Cui
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.,Department of Materials and Earth Sciences, Technical University Darmstadt, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Qingsong Wang
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Helmut Ehrenberg
- Institute for Applied Materials (IAM), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Ben Breitung
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.,Department of Materials and Earth Sciences, Technical University Darmstadt, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Christian Kübel
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany. .,Department of Materials and Earth Sciences, Technical University Darmstadt, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany. .,Helmholtz-Institute Ulm for Electrochemical Energy Storage (HIU), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Helmholtzstraße 11, 89081, Ulm, Germany. .,Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility (KNMF), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.
| | - Xiaoke Mu
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.
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7
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Pidaparthy S, Ni H, Hou H, Abraham DP, Zuo JM. Fluctuation cepstral scanning transmission electron microscopy of mixed-phase amorphous materials. Ultramicroscopy 2023; 248:113718. [PMID: 36934483 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2023.113718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
Abstract
Four-dimensional scanning transmission electron microscopy (4D-STEM) is a versatile analytical tool for characterizing materials structural properties. However, extending such analysis to disordered materials is challenging, especially in technologically important samples with mixed ordered and disordered phases. Here, we present a new 4D-STEM method, called fluctuation cepstral STEM (FC-STEM), based on the fluctuation analysis of cepstral transform of diffraction patterns. The peaks in the associated transformation relate to inter-atomic distances in a thin sample. By varying the real-space range over which fluctuations are calculated, distinct ordered and disordered phases can be mapped in a diffractive image reconstruction. We demonstrate the principles of FC-STEM by characterizing a silicon anode, harvested from a cycled lithium-ion battery. A mixture of amorphous and nanocrystalline silicon, graphitic carbon, and electrolyte by-products is identified and mapped. Comparisons with conventional electron imaging and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy show that FC-STEM is highly effective for the structure determination of mixed-phase amorphous materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saran Pidaparthy
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States; Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States; Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL 60439, United States
| | - Haoyang Ni
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States; Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States; Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, United States
| | - Hanyu Hou
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States; Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States
| | - Daniel P Abraham
- Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL 60439, United States
| | - Jian-Min Zuo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States; Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States.
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8
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Kim S, Jeong MW, Kim K, Kim UG, Kim M, Lee SY, Joo YC. Effect of N doping on the microstructure and dry etch properties of amorphous carbon deposited with a DC sputtering system. RSC Adv 2023; 13:2131-2139. [PMID: 36712610 PMCID: PMC9835153 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra06808g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The importance of developing a hardmask with excellent performance, and physical and chemical properties to utilize in long-term etching is spotlighted due to the acceleration of development in high-density semiconductors. To develop such a hardmask, amorphous carbon hardmasks doped with various concentrations of N were fabricated with a DC magnetron sputtering system using varying inert gas (Ar to N2) ratios. In contrast to the expectation that doped nitrogen would block the permeation of fluorine and improve the etch resistance, as the nitrogen concentration increased, the selectivity of the doped amorphous carbon films decreased. To understand this degradation with increasing nitrogen concentration, systematic X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), radial distribution function (RDF), and X-ray reflectometry (XRR) analyses were conducted. In this study, we found that as the amount of nitrogen increased, the density of the film decreased, and the amount of pyridinic and pyrrolic nitrogen bonds with low formation energy increased. In contrast, based on time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) analysis of etched nitrogen-doped amorphous carbon films, the penetration depth of fluorine ions from the etchant decreased as the amount of nitrogen increased. Therefore, in order to develop an excellent hardmask using amorphous carbon, it is important to increase the density of the film and the nitrogen concentration in the film while lowering the ratio of pyrrolic N to pyridinic N, i.e., increasing the ratio of graphitic N.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sungtae Kim
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Seoul National University1, Gwanak-roGwanak-guSeoul 08826Republic of Korea+82-2-883-8197+82-2-880-8986
| | - Min-Woo Jeong
- Memory Thin Film Technology TeamGiheung Hwaseong Complex, Samsung Electronics, 1, Samsungjeonja-roHwaseong-siGyeonggi-do 18448Republic of Korea
| | - Kuntae Kim
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Seoul National University1, Gwanak-roGwanak-guSeoul 08826Republic of Korea+82-2-883-8197+82-2-880-8986
| | - Ung-gi Kim
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Seoul National University1, Gwanak-roGwanak-guSeoul 08826Republic of Korea+82-2-883-8197+82-2-880-8986
| | - Miyoung Kim
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Seoul National University1, Gwanak-roGwanak-guSeoul 08826Republic of Korea+82-2-883-8197+82-2-880-8986
| | - So-Yeon Lee
- School of Material Science and Engineering, Kumoh National Institute of Technology61, Daehak-roGumi-siGyeongbuk 39177Republic of Korea+82-54-478-7769+82-54-478-7733
| | - Young-Chang Joo
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Seoul National University1, Gwanak-roGwanak-guSeoul 08826Republic of Korea+82-2-883-8197+82-2-880-8986
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9
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Laulainen JEM, Johnstone DN, Bogachev I, Longley L, Calahoo C, Wondraczek L, Keen DA, Bennett TD, Collins SM, Midgley PA. Mapping short-range order at the nanoscale in metal-organic framework and inorganic glass composites. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:16524-16535. [PMID: 36285652 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr03791b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Characterization of nanoscale changes in the atomic structure of amorphous materials is a profound challenge. Established X-ray and neutron total scattering methods typically provide sufficient signal quality only over macroscopic volumes. Pair distribution function analysis using electron scattering (ePDF) in the scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) has emerged as a method of probing nanovolumes of these materials, but inorganic glasses as well as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and many other materials containing organic components are characteristically prone to irreversible changes after limited electron beam exposures. This beam sensitivity requires 'low-dose' data acquisition to probe inorganic glasses, amorphous and glassy MOFs, and MOF composites. Here, we use STEM-ePDF applied at low electron fluences (10 e- Å-2) combined with unsupervised machine learning methods to map changes in the short-range order with ca. 5 nm spatial resolution in a composite material consisting of a zeolitic imidazolate framework glass agZIF-62 and a 0.67([Na2O]0.9[P2O5])-0.33([AlO3/2][AlF3]1.5) inorganic glass. STEM-ePDF enables separation of MOF and inorganic glass domains from atomic structure differences alone, showing abrupt changes in atomic structure at interfaces with interatomic correlation distances seen in X-ray PDF preserved at the nanoscale. These findings underline that the average bulk amorphous structure is retained at the nanoscale in the growing family of MOF glasses and composites, a previously untested assumption in PDF analyses crucial for future non-crystalline nanostructure engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joonatan E M Laulainen
- Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK.
| | - Duncan N Johnstone
- Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK.
| | - Ivan Bogachev
- Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK.
| | - Louis Longley
- Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK.
| | - Courtney Calahoo
- Otto Schott Institute of Materials Research, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Fraunhoferstrasse 6, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Lothar Wondraczek
- Otto Schott Institute of Materials Research, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Fraunhoferstrasse 6, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - David A Keen
- ISIS Facility, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Thomas D Bennett
- Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK.
| | - Sean M Collins
- Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK.
- Bragg Centre for Materials Research, School of Chemical and Process Engineering and School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Paul A Midgley
- Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK.
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10
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Murthy AA, Masih Das P, Ribet SM, Kopas C, Lee J, Reagor MJ, Zhou L, Kramer MJ, Hersam MC, Checchin M, Grassellino A, Reis RD, Dravid VP, Romanenko A. Developing a Chemical and Structural Understanding of the Surface Oxide in a Niobium Superconducting Qubit. ACS NANO 2022; 16:17257-17262. [PMID: 36153944 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c07913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Superconducting thin films of niobium have been extensively employed in transmon qubit architectures. Although these architectures have demonstrated improvements in recent years, further improvements in performance through materials engineering will aid in large-scale deployment. Here, we use information retrieved from secondary ion mass spectrometry and electron microscopy to conduct a detailed assessment of the surface oxide that forms in ambient conditions for transmon test qubit devices patterned from a niobium film. We observe that this oxide exhibits a varying stoichiometry with NbO and NbO2 found closer to the niobium film/oxide interface and Nb2O5 found closer to the surface. In terms of structural analysis, we find that the Nb2O5 region is semicrystalline in nature and exhibits randomly oriented grains on the order of 1-3 nm corresponding to monoclinic N-Nb2O5 that are dispersed throughout an amorphous matrix. Using fluctuation electron microscopy, we are able to map the relative crystallinity in the Nb2O5 region with nanometer spatial resolution. Through this correlative method, we observe that the highly disordered regions are more likely to contain oxygen vacancies and exhibit weaker bonds between the niobium and oxygen atoms. Based on these findings, we expect that oxygen vacancies likely serve as a decoherence mechanism in quantum systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshay A Murthy
- Superconducting Quantum Materials and Systems Division, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FNAL), Batavia, Illinois 60510, United States
| | - Paul Masih Das
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Stephanie M Ribet
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- International Institute of Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Cameron Kopas
- Rigetti Computing, Berkeley, California 94710, United States
| | - Jaeyel Lee
- Superconducting Quantum Materials and Systems Division, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FNAL), Batavia, Illinois 60510, United States
| | | | - Lin Zhou
- Ames Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Matthew J Kramer
- Ames Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Mark C Hersam
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Mattia Checchin
- Superconducting Quantum Materials and Systems Division, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FNAL), Batavia, Illinois 60510, United States
| | - Anna Grassellino
- Superconducting Quantum Materials and Systems Division, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FNAL), Batavia, Illinois 60510, United States
| | - Roberto Dos Reis
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- The NUANCE Center, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Vinayak P Dravid
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- International Institute of Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- The NUANCE Center, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Alexander Romanenko
- Superconducting Quantum Materials and Systems Division, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FNAL), Batavia, Illinois 60510, United States
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11
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Donohue J, Zeltmann SE, Bustillo KC, Savitzky B, Jones MA, Meyers G, Ophus C, Minor AM. Cryogenic 4D-STEM analysis of an amorphous-crystalline polymer blend: combined nanocrystalline and amorphous phase mapping. iScience 2022; 25:103882. [PMID: 35281728 PMCID: PMC8914558 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.103882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding and visualizing the heterogeneous structure of immiscible semicrystalline polymer systems is critical for optimizing their morphology and microstructure. We demonstrate a cryogenic 4D-STEM technique using a combination of amorphous radial profile mapping and correlative crystalline growth processing methods to map both the crystalline and amorphous phase distribution in an isotactic polypropylene (iPP)/ethylene-octene copolymer (EO) multilayer film with 5-nm step size. The resulting map shows a very sharp interface between the amorphous iPP and EO with no preferential crystalline structure near or at the interface, reinforcing the expected incompatibility and immiscibility of iPP and EO, which is a short-chain branched polyethylene. This technique provides a method for direct observation of interfacial structure in an unstained semicrystalline complex multicomponent system with a single cryogenic 4D-STEM dataset. Cryogenic 4D-STEM can simultaneously map amorphous and crystalline structure Direct observation of beam-sensitive polymers reveals nanostructure near interfaces Cryogenic 4D-STEM enables mapping of chemically/structurally similar polymers in blend
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12
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Terban MW, Billinge SJL. Structural Analysis of Molecular Materials Using the Pair Distribution Function. Chem Rev 2022; 122:1208-1272. [PMID: 34788012 PMCID: PMC8759070 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
This is a review of atomic pair distribution function (PDF) analysis as applied to the study of molecular materials. The PDF method is a powerful approach to study short- and intermediate-range order in materials on the nanoscale. It may be obtained from total scattering measurements using X-rays, neutrons, or electrons, and it provides structural details when defects, disorder, or structural ambiguities obscure their elucidation directly in reciprocal space. While its uses in the study of inorganic crystals, glasses, and nanomaterials have been recently highlighted, significant progress has also been made in its application to molecular materials such as carbons, pharmaceuticals, polymers, liquids, coordination compounds, composites, and more. Here, an overview of applications toward a wide variety of molecular compounds (organic and inorganic) and systems with molecular components is presented. We then present pedagogical descriptions and tips for further implementation. Successful utilization of the method requires an interdisciplinary consolidation of material preparation, high quality scattering experimentation, data processing, model formulation, and attentive scrutiny of the results. It is hoped that this article will provide a useful reference to practitioners for PDF applications in a wide realm of molecular sciences, and help new practitioners to get started with this technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell W. Terban
- Max
Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstraße 1, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Simon J. L. Billinge
- Department
of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
- Condensed
Matter Physics and Materials Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
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13
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Han X, Wu G, Du J, Pi J, Yan M, Hong X. Metal and metal oxide amorphous nanomaterials towards electrochemical applications. Chem Commun (Camb) 2021; 58:223-237. [PMID: 34878467 DOI: 10.1039/d1cc04141j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Amorphous nanomaterials have aroused extensive interest due to their unique properties. Their performance is highly related with their distinct atomic arrangements, which have no long-range order but possess short- to medium-range order. Herein, an overview of state-of-the-art synthesis methods of amorphous nanomaterials, structural characteristics and their electrochemical properties is presented. Advanced characterization methods for analyzing and proving the local order of amorphous structures, such as X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy, atomic electron tomography and nanobeam electron diffraction, are introduced. Various synthesis strategies for amorphous nanomaterials are covered, especially the salt-assisted metal organic decomposition method to prepare ultrathin amorphous nanosheets. Furthermore, the design and structure-activity relationship of amorphous nanomaterials towards electrochemical applications, including electrocatalysts and battery anode/cathode materials, is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Han
- Center of Advanced Nanocatalysis (CAN), Department of Applied Chemistry, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China.
| | - Geng Wu
- Center of Advanced Nanocatalysis (CAN), Department of Applied Chemistry, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China.
| | - Junyi Du
- Center of Advanced Nanocatalysis (CAN), Department of Applied Chemistry, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China.
| | - Jinglin Pi
- Center of Advanced Nanocatalysis (CAN), Department of Applied Chemistry, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China.
| | - Muyu Yan
- Center of Advanced Nanocatalysis (CAN), Department of Applied Chemistry, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China.
| | - Xun Hong
- Center of Advanced Nanocatalysis (CAN), Department of Applied Chemistry, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China.
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14
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Wardini JL, Vahidi H, Guo H, Bowman WJ. Probing Multiscale Disorder in Pyrochlore and Related Complex Oxides in the Transmission Electron Microscope: A Review. Front Chem 2021; 9:743025. [PMID: 34917587 PMCID: PMC8668443 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.743025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and its counterpart, scanning TEM (STEM), are powerful materials characterization tools capable of probing crystal structure, composition, charge distribution, electronic structure, and bonding down to the atomic scale. Recent (S)TEM instrumentation developments such as electron beam aberration-correction as well as faster and more efficient signal detection systems have given rise to new and more powerful experimental methods, some of which (e.g., 4D-STEM, spectrum-imaging, in situ/operando (S)TEM)) facilitate the capture of high-dimensional datasets that contain spatially-resolved structural, spectroscopic, time- and/or stimulus-dependent information across the sub-angstrom to several micrometer length scale. Thus, through the variety of analysis methods available in the modern (S)TEM and its continual development towards high-dimensional data capture, it is well-suited to the challenge of characterizing isometric mixed-metal oxides such as pyrochlores, fluorites, and other complex oxides that reside on a continuum of chemical and spatial ordering. In this review, we present a suite of imaging and diffraction (S)TEM techniques that are uniquely suited to probe the many types, length-scales, and degrees of disorder in complex oxides, with a focus on disorder common to pyrochlores, fluorites and the expansive library of intermediate structures they may adopt. The application of these techniques to various complex oxides will be reviewed to demonstrate their capabilities and limitations in resolving the continuum of structural and chemical ordering in these systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna L. Wardini
- Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Hasti Vahidi
- Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Huiming Guo
- Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - William J. Bowman
- Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
- Irvine Materials Research Institute, Irvine, CA, United States
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15
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Zhang L, Hu Z, Li H, Ren Q, Qiu Y, Qu J, Hu S. Nickel Foam Supported NiO@Ru Heterostructure Towards High-Efficiency Overall Water Splitting. Chemphyschem 2021; 22:1785-1791. [PMID: 34153153 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.202100317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Electrocatalytic water splitting for hydrogen production from renewable energy requires the innovation of electrocatalysts with high activity and low cost. In this work, densely packed NiO@Ru nanosheets were fabricated on the surface of Ni foam through a two-step method of Ni(OH)2 growth followed by Ru deposition. Through pair distribution function analysis from selected-area electron diffraction and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, the interface structure feature is revealed as a thin layer of perovskite NiRuO3 sandwiched between NiO and Ru. The electrode exhibits high activity and durability for HER and OER, delivering a current density of 10 mA cm-2 at a voltage of 1.55 V for overall water splitting in 1 M KOH. The excellent performance can be attributed to the intimate interface contact of NiO and Ru in addition to low charge transfer resistance and super-hydrophilic surface structure, as verified by the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and contact-angle measurement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linghui Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Molecular Optoelectronic Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Zheng Hu
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Molecular Optoelectronic Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Molecular Optoelectronic Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China.,Institute of Energy, Hefei Comprehensive National Science Center, Hefei, Anhui, 230026, China
| | - Qianqian Ren
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Molecular Optoelectronic Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Yishu Qiu
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Molecular Optoelectronic Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China.,Institute of Energy, Hefei Comprehensive National Science Center, Hefei, Anhui, 230026, China
| | - Jianqiang Qu
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Molecular Optoelectronic Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Shi Hu
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Molecular Optoelectronic Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China.,Institute of Energy, Hefei Comprehensive National Science Center, Hefei, Anhui, 230026, China
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16
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Wang K, Hua W, Li Z, Wang Q, Kübel C, Mu X. New Insight into Desodiation/Sodiation Mechanism of MoS 2: Sodium Insertion in Amorphous Mo-S Clusters. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:40481-40488. [PMID: 34470102 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c07743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is a promising anode material for sodium batteries due to its high theoretical capacity. While significantly improved electrochemical performance has been achieved, the reaction mechanism is still equivocal. Herein, we applied electron pair distribution function and X-ray absorption spectroscopy to investigate the desodiation/sodiation mechanism of MoS2 electrodes. The results reveal that Mo-S bonds are well preserved and dominant in the sodiation product matrix but do not convert to metallic Mo and Na2S even at deep sodiation. The MoS2 multilayer sheets break into disordered MoSx clusters with modified octahedral symmetry during discharging. The long-range order was not rebuilt during subsequent charging but with partial recovery of the Mo-S coordination symmetry. The mechanism of the reaction is independent of the carbon matrix, although it prevents the MoSx clusters from leaching into the electrolyte and thus contributes to an extended cycle life. This work refreshes the fundamental understanding of the desodiation/sodiation mechanism of MoS2 materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Wang
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Department of Materials and Earth Sciences, Technical University Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Weibo Hua
- Institute for Applied Materials, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Zhenyou Li
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Helmholtz-Institute Ulm for Electrochemical Energy Storage (HIU), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Helmholtzstraße 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Qingsong Wang
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Christian Kübel
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Department of Materials and Earth Sciences, Technical University Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
- Helmholtz-Institute Ulm for Electrochemical Energy Storage (HIU), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Helmholtzstraße 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
- Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility (KNMF), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Xiaoke Mu
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
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17
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Savitzky BH, Zeltmann SE, Hughes LA, Brown HG, Zhao S, Pelz PM, Pekin TC, Barnard ES, Donohue J, Rangel DaCosta L, Kennedy E, Xie Y, Janish MT, Schneider MM, Herring P, Gopal C, Anapolsky A, Dhall R, Bustillo KC, Ercius P, Scott MC, Ciston J, Minor AM, Ophus C. py4DSTEM: A Software Package for Four-Dimensional Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy Data Analysis. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2021; 27:712-743. [PMID: 34018475 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927621000477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) allows for imaging, diffraction, and spectroscopy of materials on length scales ranging from microns to atoms. By using a high-speed, direct electron detector, it is now possible to record a full two-dimensional (2D) image of the diffracted electron beam at each probe position, typically a 2D grid of probe positions. These 4D-STEM datasets are rich in information, including signatures of the local structure, orientation, deformation, electromagnetic fields, and other sample-dependent properties. However, extracting this information requires complex analysis pipelines that include data wrangling, calibration, analysis, and visualization, all while maintaining robustness against imaging distortions and artifacts. In this paper, we present py4DSTEM, an analysis toolkit for measuring material properties from 4D-STEM datasets, written in the Python language and released with an open-source license. We describe the algorithmic steps for dataset calibration and various 4D-STEM property measurements in detail and present results from several experimental datasets. We also implement a simple and universal file format appropriate for electron microscopy data in py4DSTEM, which uses the open-source HDF5 standard. We hope this tool will benefit the research community and help improve the standards for data and computational methods in electron microscopy, and we invite the community to contribute to this ongoing project.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin H Savitzky
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Steven E Zeltmann
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Lauren A Hughes
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Hamish G Brown
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Shiteng Zhao
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Philipp M Pelz
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Thomas C Pekin
- Institut für Physik, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstraße 15, 12489Berlin, Germany
| | - Edward S Barnard
- Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Jennifer Donohue
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Luis Rangel DaCosta
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI48109, USA
| | - Ellis Kennedy
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Yujun Xie
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Rohan Dhall
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Karen C Bustillo
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Peter Ercius
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Mary C Scott
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Jim Ciston
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Andrew M Minor
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
| | - Colin Ophus
- National Center for Electron Microscopy, Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA94720, USA
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18
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Mu X, Chellali MR, Boltynjuk E, Gunderov D, Valiev RZ, Hahn H, Kübel C, Ivanisenko Y, Velasco L. Unveiling the Local Atomic Arrangements in the Shear Band Regions of Metallic Glass. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2007267. [PMID: 33604975 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202007267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The prospective applications of metallic glasses are limited by their lack of ductility, attributed to shear banding inducing catastrophic failure. A concise depiction of the local atomic arrangement (local atomic packing and chemical short-range order), induced by shear banding, is quintessential to understand the deformation mechanism, however still not clear. An explicit view of the complex interplay of local atomic structure and chemical environment is presented by mapping the atomic arrangements in shear bands (SBs) and in their vicinity in a deformed Vitreloy 105 metallic glass, using the scanning electron diffraction pair distribution function and atom probe tomography. The results experimentally prove that plastic deformation causes a reduction of geometrically favored polyhedral motifs. Localized motifs variations and antisymmetric (bond and chemical) segregation extend for several hundred nanometers from the SB, forming the shear band affected zones. Moreover, the variations within the SB are found both perpendicular and parallel to the SB plane, also observable in the oxidation activity. The knowledge of the structural-chemical changes provides a deeper understanding of the plastic deformation of metallic glasses especially for their functional applications and future improvements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoke Mu
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, 76344, Germany
| | - Mohammed Reda Chellali
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, 76344, Germany
| | - Evgeniy Boltynjuk
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, 76344, Germany
- Saint Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, 199034, Russia
| | - Dmitry Gunderov
- Institute of Molecule and Crystal Physics, Ufa Federal Research Center RAS, Ufa, 450075, Russia
| | - Ruslan Z Valiev
- Saint Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, 199034, Russia
- Institute of Physics of Advanced Materials, Ufa State Aviation Technical University, Ufa, 450008, Russia
| | - Horst Hahn
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, 76344, Germany
- Joint Research Laboratory Nanomaterials, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, 64206, Germany
| | - Christian Kübel
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, 76344, Germany
- Joint Research Laboratory Nanomaterials, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, 64206, Germany
- Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, 76344, Germany
| | - Yulia Ivanisenko
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, 76344, Germany
| | - Leonardo Velasco
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, 76344, Germany
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19
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Khouchaf L, Boulahya K, Das PP, Nicolopoulos S, Kis VK, Lábár JL. Study of the Microstructure of Amorphous Silica Nanostructures Using High-Resolution Electron Microscopy, Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy, X-ray Powder Diffraction, and Electron Pair Distribution Function. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13194393. [PMID: 33019776 PMCID: PMC7579662 DOI: 10.3390/ma13194393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Silica has many industrial (i.e., glass formers) and scientific applications. The understanding and prediction of the interesting properties of such materials are dependent on the knowledge of detailed atomic structures. In this work, amorphous silica subjected to an accelerated alkali silica reaction (ASR) was recorded at different time intervals so as to follow the evolution of the structure by means of high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), and electron pair distribution function (e-PDF), combined with X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD). An increase in the size of the amorphous silica nanostructures and nanopores was observed by HRTEM, which was accompanied by the possible formation of Si–OH surface species. All of the studied samples were found to be amorphous, as observed by HRTEM, a fact that was also confirmed by XRPD and e-PDF analysis. A broad diffuse peak observed in the XRPD pattern showed a shift toward higher angles following the higher reaction times of the ASR-treated material. A comparison of the EELS spectra revealed varying spectral features in the peak edges with different reaction times due to the interaction evolution between oxygen and the silicon and OH ions. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was also used to elucidate the silica nanostructures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lahcen Khouchaf
- École Nationale Supérieure des Mines-Télécom de Lille-Douai Lille Douai, Lille Université, CEDEX, 59653 Villeneuve D’Ascq, France;
| | - Khalid Boulahya
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Facultad de Qúimicas, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Partha Pratim Das
- Electron Crystallography Solutions SL, Calle Orense 8, 28020 Madrid, Spain
- NanoMEGAS SPRL, Blvd Edmond Machtens 79, B-1080 Brussels, Belgium
- Correspondence: (P.P.D.); (S.N.)
| | - Stavros Nicolopoulos
- NanoMEGAS SPRL, Blvd Edmond Machtens 79, B-1080 Brussels, Belgium
- Correspondence: (P.P.D.); (S.N.)
| | - Viktória Kovács Kis
- Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, 1121 Budapest, Hungary; (V.K.K.); (J.L.L.)
| | - János L. Lábár
- Institute of Technical Physics and Materials Science, Centre for Energy Research, 1121 Budapest, Hungary; (V.K.K.); (J.L.L.)
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20
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Bag S, Baksi A, Wang D, Kruk R, Benel C, Chellali MR, Hahn H. Combination of pulsed laser ablation and inert gas condensation for the synthesis of nanostructured nanocrystalline, amorphous and composite materials. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2019; 1:4513-4521. [PMID: 36134399 PMCID: PMC9418463 DOI: 10.1039/c9na00533a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A new instrument combining pulsed laser ablation and inert gas condensation for the production of nanopowders is presented. It is shown that various nanostructured materials, such as regular metallic, semiconducting, insulating materials, complex high entropy alloys, amorphous alloys, composites and oxides can be synthesized. The unique variability of the experimental set-up is possible due to the reproducible control of laser power (pulse energy and repetition rate), laser ablation pattern on the target, and experimental conditions during the inert gas condensation, all of which can be controlled and optimized independently. Microstructure analysis of the as-prepared composite and amorphous Ni60Nb40 nanopowders establishes the instrument's ability for the synthesis of materials with unique compositions and atomic structure. It is further shown that small variations of the synthesis parameters can influence materials properties of the final product, in terms of particle size, composition and properties. As an example, the laser power has been used to control the magnetic properties of amorphous Ni60Nb40 nanopowders. A few selected examples of the manifold possibilities of the new synthesis apparatus are presented in this report together with detailed structural characterization of the produced nanopowders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumabha Bag
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Ananya Baksi
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Di Wang
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
- Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Robert Kruk
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Cahit Benel
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Mohammed Reda Chellali
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
| | - Horst Hahn
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen Germany
- Herbert Gleiter Institute of Nanoscience, Nanjing University of Science and Technology Nanjing China
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Mu X, Mazilkin A, Sprau C, Colsmann A, Kübel C. Mapping structure and morphology of amorphous organic thin films by 4D-STEM pair distribution function analysis. Microscopy (Oxf) 2019; 68:301-309. [DOI: 10.1093/jmicro/dfz015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Imaging the phase distribution of amorphous or partially crystalline organic materials at the nanoscale and analyzing the local atomic structure of individual phases has been a long-time challenge. We propose a new approach for imaging the phase distribution and for analyzing the local structure of organic materials based on scanning transmission electron diffraction (4D-STEM) pair distribution function analysis (PDF). We show that electron diffraction based PDF analysis can be used to characterize the short- and medium-range order in aperiodically packed organic molecules. Moreover, we show that 4D-STEM-PDF does not only provide local structural information with a resolution of a few nanometers, but can also be used to image the phase distribution of organic composites. The distinct and thickness independent contrast of the phase image is generated by utilizing the structural difference between the different types of molecules and taking advantage of the dose efficiency due to use of the full scattering signal. Therefore, this approach is particularly interesting for imaging unstained organic or polymer composites without distinct valence states for electron energy loss spectroscopy. We explore the possibilities of this new approach using [6,6]-phenyl-C61- butyric acid methyl ester (PC61BM) and poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) as the archetypical and best-investigated semiconductor blend used in organic solar cells, compare our phase distribution with virtual dark-field analysis and validate our approach by electron energy loss spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoke Mu
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Andrey Mazilkin
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Christian Sprau
- Light Technology Institute, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Alexander Colsmann
- Light Technology Institute, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Christian Kübel
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
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22
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Li Z, Mu X, Zhao-Karger Z, Diemant T, Behm RJ, Kübel C, Fichtner M. Fast kinetics of multivalent intercalation chemistry enabled by solvated magnesium-ions into self-established metallic layered materials. Nat Commun 2018; 9:5115. [PMID: 30504910 PMCID: PMC6269537 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07484-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Rechargeable magnesium batteries are one of the most promising candidates for next-generation battery technologies. Despite recent significant progress in the development of efficient electrolytes, an on-going challenge for realization of rechargeable magnesium batteries remains to overcome the sluggish kinetics caused by the strong interaction between double charged magnesium-ions and the intercalation host. Herein, we report that a magnesium battery chemistry with fast intercalation kinetics in the layered molybdenum disulfide structures can be enabled by using solvated magnesium-ions ([Mg(DME)x]2+). Our study demonstrates that the high charge density of magnesium-ion may be mitigated through dimethoxyethane solvation, which avoids the sluggish desolvation process at the cathode-electrolyte interfaces and reduces the trapping force of the cathode lattice to the cations, facilitating magnesium-ion diffusion. The concept of using solvation effect could be a general and effective route to tackle the sluggish intercalation kinetics of magnesium-ions, which can potentially be extended to other host structures. While magnesium rechargeable batteries could combine high energy density with low cost and good safety, the extremely sluggish reaction kinetics remains to be overcome. Here, the authors show that by using solvated Mg2+ intercalation, the high charge density of bare Mg2+ may be effectively mitigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyou Li
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU), Helmholtzstraße 11, D-89081, Ulm, Germany. .,Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, D-76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.
| | - Xiaoke Mu
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, D-76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Zhirong Zhao-Karger
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU), Helmholtzstraße 11, D-89081, Ulm, Germany. .,Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, D-76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.
| | - Thomas Diemant
- Institute of Surface Chemistry and Catalysis, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 47, D-89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - R Jürgen Behm
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU), Helmholtzstraße 11, D-89081, Ulm, Germany.,Institute of Surface Chemistry and Catalysis, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 47, D-89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - Christian Kübel
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU), Helmholtzstraße 11, D-89081, Ulm, Germany.,Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, D-76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.,Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility (KNMF), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, D-76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Maximilian Fichtner
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU), Helmholtzstraße 11, D-89081, Ulm, Germany.,Institute of Nanotechnology (INT), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, D-76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
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23
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Willinger E, Massué C, Schlögl R, Willinger MG. Identifying Key Structural Features of IrO x Water Splitting Catalysts. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:12093-12101. [PMID: 28793758 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b07079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogen production by electrocatalytic water splitting will play a key role in the realization of a sustainable energy supply. Owing to their relatively high stability and activity, iridium (hydr)oxides have been identified as the most promising catalysts for the oxidation of water. Comprehensive spectroscopic and theoretical studies on the basis of rutile IrO2 have provided insight about the electronic structure of the active X-ray amorphous phase. However, due to the absence of long-range order and missing information about the local arrangement of structural units, our present understanding of the active phase is very unsatisfying. In this work, using a combination of real-space atomic scale imaging with atomic pair distribution function analysis and local measurements of the electronic structure, we identify key structural motifs that are associated with high water splitting activity. Comparison of two X-ray amorphous phases with distinctively different electrocatalytic performance reveals that high activity is linked to the ratio between corner- and edge-sharing IrO6 octahedra. We show that the active and stable phase consists of single unit cell sized hollandite-like structural domains that are cross-linked through undercoordinated oxygen/iridium atoms. In the less active phase, the presence of the rutile phase structural motif results in a faster structural collapse and deactivation. The presented results provide insight into the structure-activity relationship and promote a rational synthesis of X-ray amorphous IrOx hydroxides that contain a favorable arrangement of structural units for improved performance in catalytic water splitting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Willinger
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion , Mülheim a.d. Ruhr, Germany.,Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft , Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Cyriac Massué
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion , Mülheim a.d. Ruhr, Germany.,Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft , Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Schlögl
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion , Mülheim a.d. Ruhr, Germany.,Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft , Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marc Georg Willinger
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft , Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany.,Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Department of Colloid Chemistry, Research Campus Golm, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
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