Peyronie’s disease associated with increase in plasminogen activator inhibitor in fibrotic plaque

Unveiling the molecular Hallmarks of Peyronie's disease: a comprehensive narrative review

Peyronie's disease, a fibroinflammatory disorder, detrimentally impacts the sexual well-being of men and their partners. The manifestation of fibrotic plaques within penile tissue, attributed to dysregulated fibrogenesis, is pathognomonic for this condition. The onset of fibrosis hinges on the perturbation of the equilibrium between matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), crucial enzymes governing the extracellular matrix, and tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs). In the context of Peyronie's disease, there is an elevation in TIMP levels coupled with a decline in MMP levels, culminating in fibrogenesis. Despite the scant molecular insights into fibrotic pathologies, particularly in the context of Peyronie's disease, a comprehensive literature search spanning 1995 to 2023, utilizing PubMed Library, was conducted to elucidate these mechanisms. The findings underscore the involvement of growth factors such as FGF and PDGF, and cytokines like IL-1 and IL-6, alongside PAI-1, PTX-3, HIF, and IgG4 in the fibrotic cascade. Given the tissue-specific modulation of fibrosis, comprehending the molecular underpinnings of penile fibrosis becomes imperative for the innovation of novel and efficacious therapies targeting Peyronie's disease. This review stands as a valuable resource for researchers and clinicians engaged in investigating the molecular basis of fibrotic diseases, offering guidance for advancements in understanding Peyronie's disease.

Acute Phase Peyronie's Disease: Where Do We Stand?

Peyronie's disease (PD) is a common benign condition characterized by superficial fibrosis and scar formation at the tunica albuginea of the penis, eventually leading to penile curvature. It is believed that penile micro-traumas during intercourse and subsequent activation of inflammatory processes constitute the pathogenetic basis of the disease. Routinely, PD is divided into acute and chronic phases, with pain during erection or flaccid state being the hallmark of the former. Surgical intervention should be avoided during the acute phase, as the risk of recurrence or progression of penile deformity during this stage might affect the optimal outcomes of the procedure. During this stage, many conservative treatment options have been suggested, including oral, topical, and intralesional therapies, extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT), and penile traction therapy (PTT). Currently, the optimal treatment consists of a combined treatment strategy with phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors (PDE5Is), ESWT for pain management, PTT, and intralesional therapies. Large, well-designed randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are necessary to further elucidate the most efficient treatment option for acute phase PD.

Molecular Mechanisms and Risk Factors Related to the Pathogenesis of Peyronie's Disease

Peyronie's disease (PD) is a benign condition caused by plaque formation on the tunica albuginea of the penis. It is associated with penile pain, curvature, and shortening, and contributes to erectile dysfunction, which worsens patient quality of life. In recent years, research into understanding of the detailed mechanisms and risk factors involved in the development of PD has been increasing. In this review, the pathological mechanisms and several closely related signaling pathways, including TGF-β, WNT/β-catenin, Hedgehog, YAP/TAZ, MAPK, ROCK, and PI3K/AKT, are described. Findings regarding cross-talk among these pathways are then discussed to elucidate the complicated cascade behind tunica albuginea fibrosis. Finally, various risk factors including the genes involved in the development of PD are presented and their association with the disease summarized. The purpose of this review is to provide a better understanding regarding the involvement of risk factors in the molecular mechanisms associated with PD pathogenesis, as well as to provide insight into disease prevention and novel therapeutic interventions.

Role of Oxidative Stress in Peyronie's Disease: Biochemical Evidence and Experiences of Treatment with Antioxidants

BACKGROUND

Peyronie's disease (PD) is a chronic inflammatory condition affecting adult males, involving the tunica albuginea of the corpora cavernosa of the penis. PD is frequently associated with penile pain, erectile dysfunction, and a secondary anxious-depressive state. The etiology of PD has not yet been completely elucidated, but local injury is generally recognized to be a triggering factor. It has also been widely proven that oxidative stress is an essential, decisive component in all inflammatory processes, whether acute or chronic. Current conservative medical treatment comprises oral substances, penile injections, and physical therapy.

AIM

This article intends to show how antioxidant therapy is able to interfere with the pathogenetic mechanisms of the disease.

METHOD

This article consists of a synthetic narrative review of the current scientific literature on antioxidant therapy for this disease.

RESULTS

The good results of the antioxidant treatment described above also prove that the doses used were adequate and the concentrations of the substances employed did not exceed the threshold at which they might have interacted negatively with the mechanisms of the redox regulation of tissue.

CONCLUSIONS

We believe new, randomized, controlled studies are needed to confirm the efficacy of treatment with antioxidants. However, we consider the experiences of antioxidant treatment which can already be found in the literature useful for the clinical practice of urologists in the treatment of this chronic inflammatory disease.

[French Urological Association (AFU) guidelines for Peyronie's disease assessment and treatment]

INTRODUCTION

Peyronie's disease is a common cause for consultation in urology. Many controversies surround its treatment. No French Guidelines have been published so far. The Committee of Andrology and Sexual Medicine of the French Association of Urology therefore offers a series of evidence-based recommendations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

These recommendations are made according to the ADAPTE method, based on European (EAU, ESSM), American (AUA, ISSM) and Canadian (CAU) recommendations, integrating French specificities due to the availability of treatments, and an update of the recent bibliography.

RESULTS

The assessment of the disease is clinical. Patients with functional impairment or significant psychological repercussions may be offered treatment. The benefits and drawbacks of each treatment should be explained to the patient. Regarding non-surgical treatments, no available treatment has market authorization in France. Vitamin E is not recommended. Analgesic (oral or low-intensity shock waves) or proerectile treatments may be offered as needed, as well as traction therapy. Due to the unavailability of collagenase injections, verapamil injections may be offered. Surgical treatments are to be considered in the stabilized phase of the disease, and consist of performing a plication, an incision-graft or the placement of a penile implant according to the patient's wishes, the curvature and the penis size, as well as erectile function. Combination treatments can be offered.

CONCLUSION

The management of Peyronie's disease is complex, and the levels of evidence for treatments are generally low. The success of treatment will depend on the quality of the initial assessment, the patient's information and understanding of the expected effects, and the practitioner's experience.

New insights into the pathogenesis of Peyronie's disease: A narrative review

Peyronie's disease (PD) is a benign, progressive fibrotic disorder characterized by scar or plaques within the tunica albuginea (TA) of the penis. This study provides new insights into the pathogenesis of PD based on data from different studies regarding the roles of cytokines, cell signaling pathways, biochemical mechanisms, genetic factors responsible for fibrogenesis. A growing body of literature has shown that PD is a chronically impaired, localized, wound healing process within the TA and the Smith space. It is caused by the influence of different pathological stimuli, most often the effects of mechanical stress during sexual intercourse in genetically sensitive individuals with unusual anatomical TA features, imbalanced matrix metalloproteinase/tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (MMP/TIMP), and suppressed antioxidant systems during chronic inflammation. Other intracellular signal cascades are activated during fibrosis along with low expression levels of their negative regulators and transforming growth factor-β1 signaling. The development of multikinase agents with minimal side effects that can block several signal cell pathways would significantly improve fibrosis in PD tissues by acting on common downstream mediators.

A review of inflammation and fibrosis: implications for the pathogenesis of Peyronie's disease

Peyronie's disease (PD) is a superficial fibrosing disorder that causes penile deformity and can interfere with sexual intercourse and reproduction, as well as diminish quality of life. While the exact mechanism of PD is still being investigated, there is likely a genetic component to the predisposition to penile plaque formation. Ultimately, however, perturbations in normal wound healing and aberrant deposition of extracellular matrix components lead to fibrotic tissue deposition. Fibrosis in PD is regulated by a complex pathway of inflammatory and fibrotic mediators. Currently there are no treatments for PD that address an underlying cause or disease progression. In this review, we provide an overview of the known inflammatory and fibrotic mediators of PD and explore the pathophysiology of other human superficial fibrosing disorders to develop further insights into PD.

What role do pharmaceuticals play in the treatment of Peyronie's disease and is there a need for new emerging drugs?

INTRODUCTION

Finding novel medical treatment for Peyronie's disease (PD) has suffered from similar limitations and difficulties as other fibrotic diseases.Areas covered: Underlying fibrosis, there is a vastly complex intertwining of several pathways. Focusing on a single target during antifibrotic drug development has not led to the development of many efficacious drugs, especially in PD. Inhibiting one cog in this large machinery usually leads to activation of compensatory mechanisms.Expert opinion: Novel strategies in drug discovery such as phenotypical drug screening and gene expression profiling technologies could provide a solution for this impasse.

The relationship between penile deformity, age, psychological bother, and erectile dysfunction in a sample of men with Peyronie's Disease (PD)

The aim of the present study was to investigate which PD specific factors (e.g., degree of penile curvature, levels of pain) cause most distress and to further explore whether there are specific subgroups of patients that report particularly high levels of psychological distress. Data were available for N = 119 men with a clinical diagnosis of PD presenting at a private Uro-Andrology in Germany. The strongest complaint of men with PD was being bothered by the look of the penis as opposed to being distressed by the pain (3.48 vs. 2.11). 75.4% reported having significantly less intercourse due to PD and for 61.4% this was very bothersome. Plaque size correlated positively with the level of symptom bother (r = 0.73, p < 0.05). Furthermore, men with a stronger curvature reported more concerns regarding size and form of the penis (r = 0.18, p < 0.05), more overall sexual dissatisfaction (r = -0.38, p < 0.001), and more PD related psychological and physiological symptoms (r = 0.58, p < 0.001). 44.4% of patients had a concurrent ED. Highest level of symptom bother was reported by men with a a strong curvature and a comorbid ED. Clinicians should pay special attention to patients presenting with extreme penile deformity and impaired sexual functioning, as they show the highest levels of psychological distress. Here, additional psychosexual support might be necessary.

Intralesional collagenase Clostridium histolyticum in the management of Peyronie's disease: current best practice

The use of Clostridium histolyticum collagenase (CCH) has become increasingly widespread for the treatment of Peyronie's disease (PD) in recent years. Numerous trials have confirmed both its safety and efficacy in appropriately selected patients with this condition. The purpose of this review is to examine pivotal trials demonstrating the efficacy of CCH, revisit viable candidates for treatment with intralesional injection therapy, and provide a summary of injection technique and appropriate management of patients receiving this treatment at the time of therapy and in follow up.

Recent Pathophysiological Aspects of Peyronie's Disease: Role of Free Radicals, Rationale, and Therapeutic Implications for Antioxidant Treatment-Literature Review

Peyronie's disease (PD) is a chronic inflammation of tunica albuginea of the corpora cavernosa that causes an inelastic plaque resulting in penis deformation. Although its etiology is not completely known, there is general consensus that PD is genetically transmitted and secondary to penile trauma. In recent years, numerous studies demonstrated the role played by oxidative stress in PD pathogenesis, and other studies have described successful use of antioxidants in PD treatment. Oxidative stress is an integral part of this disease, influencing its progression. In the early stages of PD, the inflammatory infiltrate cells produce high quantities of free radicals and proinflammatory and profibrotic cytokines, with consequent activation of transcription factor NF-κB. While conservative therapies commonly used in the early stages of PD include oral substances (Potaba, tamoxifen, colchicine, and vitamin E), intralesional treatment (verapamil, interferon, steroids, and more recently collagenase clostridium histolyticum-Xiaflex), and local physical treatment (iontophoresis, extracorporeal shock wave therapy, and penile extender), the significant results obtained by emerging treatments with the antioxidants cited in this article suggest these therapeutic agents interfere at several levels with the disease's pathogenetic mechanisms. Antioxidants therapy outcomes are interesting for good clinical practice and also confirm the fundamental role played by oxidative stress in PD.

Drugs of the future for Peyronie's disease

With the increasing awareness of Peyronie's disease (PD), the interest in new concept medications to treat the disorder is escalating. Profibrogenic factors such as transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1, endothelin (ET-1), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), angiotensin (Ang) II and platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), all appear to be involved in the pathogenesis of PD. β-Thymosins, pirfenidone, nitric oxide (NO) donors, phosphodiesterase (PDE)-5 inhibitors, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)/anti-tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP)-1 reduce collagen synthesis, while decorin, follistatin, and Smad 7 exert antifibrotic effects; all have been proposed for the treatment of PD. Alternative and/or novel approaches for the treatment of PD are needed in part because of the recognized multifactorial etiology of this complex disorder. A comprehensive approach for translating available experimental information into clinically effective drug trials for the treatment of PD is needed. We propose a multi-faceted approach for drug development to generate novel drug products for the treatment of PD.

Rat as an animal model for Peyronie's disease research: a review of current methods and the peer-reviewed literature

While the exact mechanism of Peyronie's disease (PD) remains an enigma, the pathophysiology of PD is considered to be multifactorial, with interactions of genetic predisposition, trauma, tissue inflammation and aberrant wound healing. A non-systematic review of the existing English language literature pertaining to the use of rodent models in the evaluation of PD was performed using the Medline database. Multiple free-text searches were performed on key words: animal models of PD, transforming growth factor β1 (TGF β1), tunical and/or corporal fibrosis, subtunical injection and penile myofibroblasts. The most frequently reported models of PD can be classified as TGF β1, fibrin and surgical trauma-induced models. In vitro studies using Peyronie's fibroblast culture media have also provided further insights into cellular mechanism of PD. At the present time, the research in PD is hampered by the lack of universally accepted animal model and this is likely attributed to the limited insight into PD mechanisms and the difficulties faced by current animal models to truly represent the complexity and complete spectrum of human disease.

The management of Peyronie's disease: evidence-based 2010 guidelines

INTRODUCTION

The field of Peyronie's disease is evolving and there is need for a state-of-the-art information in this area.

AIM

To develop an evidence-based state-of-the-art consensus report on the management of Peyronie's disease.

METHODS

To provide state-of-the-art knowledge regarding the prevalence, etiology, medical and surgical management of Peyronie's Disease, representing the opinion of leading experts developed in a consensus process over a 2-year period.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Expert opinion was based on grading of evidence-based medical literature, widespread internal committee discussion, public presentation, and debate.

CONCLUSIONS

The real etiology of Peyronie's disease and the mechanisms of formation of the plaque still remain obscure. Although conservative management is obtaining a progressively larger consensus among the experts, surgical correction still remains the mainstay treatment for this condition.

Experimental models of Peyronie's disease. Implications for new therapies

INTRODUCTION

Despite its high prevalence and impact on the quality of life of patients, and that it is an excellent model for the study of fibrotic processes, Peyronie's disease (PD) is an orphan disease in biomedical research. The development of animal and cell culture models has advanced substantially the understanding of its molecular and cellular pathology and the proposal of new therapies.

AIM

To review the literature pertaining to the use of these models for the study of PD.

METHODS

PubMed search conducted from the first report of an animal model for PD.

RESULTS

This model, based on the finding that transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF beta 1) is overexpressed in the PD plaque, consists on the injection of TGF beta 1 into the tunica albuginea of the rat. This leads to a PD-like plaque retaining many of the histological and biochemical features of human PD. Another rat model, based on the hypothesis that the PD plaque arises from trauma to the penis, causing fibrinogen extravasation that initiates as fibrin a fibrotic response, consists on injection of fibrin into the tunica. The cell culture model is based on the demonstration that myofibroblasts are abundant in the human PD plaque.

CONCLUSIONS

These models have: (i) clarified the role of microtrauma, myofibroblasts, and oxidative stress in plaque development; (ii) demonstrated that this tissue is under sustained turnover by fibrotic and antifibrotic mechanisms; (iii) showed the interplay of collagenolytic and fibrinolytic systems and their inhibitors; (iv) detected an endogenous antifibrotic process consisting of the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase that counteracts oxidative stress, collagen synthesis, and myofibroblast generation; (v) characterized the antifibrotic effects of chronic treatment with phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitors; (vi) discovered the cytogenetic instability of PD cells and alterations in their gene expression; and (vii) detected stem cells in the tunica albuginea with a potential role in fibrosis and ossification.

Is There a Role for Proteomics in Peyronie's Disease?

INTRODUCTION

Peyronie's disease (PD) continues to be a major source of sexual dysfunction among the 3-9% of affected men. The challenge in treating PD is determining the natural history and clinical course for the individual patient. Currently, there exists no reliable means to predict whether a penile plaque of PD will progress, regress, or remain stable. This represents a significant deficiency in contemporary management, one that may be addressed with newer technologies such as proteomic profiling.

AIM

This review assesses the potential use of protein alterations measured by various novel technologies, to predict progression, regression, or stabilization of PD in an affected individual.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature review of the past decade in the field of gene profiling and protein expression of PD was performed.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

A critical analysis of the existing worldwide literature evaluating surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (SELDI-TOF-MS or SELDI) and other proteonomic techniques.

RESULTS

SELDI and other technologies can provide the clinician with innovative data indicating the presence of unique individual factors that act to suppress or promote the fibrotic process in PD. Determining the clinical implications of altered protein expression in an individual is not yet defined.

CONCLUSIONS

The area of proteomics has begun to revolutionize the study of medicine in the postgenomic era, by allowing researchers to study the role that proteins play in health and disease. Applying this knowledge clinically has already led to innovative discoveries in early cancer detection in a number of malignancies, including prostate, ovarian, and bladder. Prior to the widespread use and acceptance of proteomic technology in PD, a critical assessment of its therapeutic and diagnostic value will be required.

Long-Term Continuous Treatment with Sildenafil Ameliorates Aging-Related Erectile Dysfunction and the Underlying Corporal Fibrosis in the Rat1

Aging-related erectile dysfunction is characterized by a loss of smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and fibrosis in the corpora cavernosa, and functionally by corporal veno-occlusive dysfunction (CVOD). Phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5A) inhibitors, in part via upregulating inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2A), have antifibrotic properties in penile tissues. We aimed to determine whether in the aged rat the chronic long-term treatment with sildenafil ameliorates corporal SMC loss and fibrosis, stimulates NOS2A induction, and corrects the associated CVOD. Aged male rats (20 mo old) received sildenafil in their drinking water (20 mg/kg per day) or plain water for 45 days, and untreated young rats (5 mo old) served as controls (n = 8 per group). CVOD was assessed by dynamic infusion cavernosometry (DIC). Collagen:SMC (Masson trichrome) and collagen III:I (picrosirius red) ratios, SMC content (alpha-smooth muscle actin [ACTA2]), cell proliferation (proliferating nuclear antigen [PCNA]), apoptotic death (TUNEL), and NOS2A induction were measured by histochemistry and immunohistochemistry followed by quantitative image analysis. Collagen content was determined by hydroxyproline assay, and transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGFB1); xanthine oxidoreductase (XDH); ACTA2; NOS2A; and the Rho kinase inhibitor protein tyrosine phosphatase, nonreceptor type 11 (PTPN11), and activator, VAV, were measured by quantitative Western blot. In the aged rats treated with sildenafil, the erectile response by DIC was normalized, and the corporal SMC:collagen ratio and SMC number were increased. In addition, sildenafil reduced the corporal collagen content without affecting the collagen III:I ratio, increased the PCNA:apoptosis ratio, and stimulated NOS2A induction, although there was no effect on XDH, TGFB1, PTPN11, or VAV levels. These data show that long-term PDE5A treatment corrected CVOD in the aged rat and partially reversed the aging-related fibrosis and loss of SMC in the corpora cavernosa without affecting TGFB1 or PTPN11 levels, which are markers of oxidative stress. It may be speculated that similar effects may be achieved with this paradigm in men.

Diabetes mellitus is associated with severe Peyronie's disease

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the severity of penile deformity and penile blood flow variables in men with Peyronie's disease (PD) and diabetes mellitus (DM), and those with no risk factors.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Men with PD and DM (59 men, group 1) and those with no risk factors (109, group 2) were compared for penile blood flow variables, severity of penile deformity, patient's age, duration of PD, the presence of pain on erection, and the degree of erectile dysfunction (ED). The men were evaluated with penile duplex Doppler ultrasonography and were categorized into specific vascular groups, using established criteria. Penile curvature was objectively measured and stratified according to the Kelâmi classification. Results were compared using Student's t-test.

RESULTS

Men with PD and DM (group 1) were significantly older than those in group 2. The duration of disease was significantly longer in group 1 than in group 2 (median 24 vs 12 months). The mean degree of penile deformity in group 1 was significantly higher than in group 2 (45.2 degrees vs 30.2 degrees). The rate of severe penile curvature (>60 degrees ) was more frequent in group 1 (27.1% vs 5.5%). Pain on erection was significantly higher in group 2 (39.7% vs 25.5%), whereas the rate of ED was more common in group 1 (81% vs 47%). Group 1 had poorer peak-systolic velocity values and significantly higher rates of arterial insufficiency and mixed vascular disease. Nonvascular causes were twice as common in group 2 than in group 1.

CONCLUSIONS

This comparative clinical study suggests that the presence of DM as the only risk factor significantly increases the severity of PD. Furthermore, DM as a risk factor is associated with significantly worse vascular status, as shown by penile duplex Doppler ultrasonography, in men with PD.

Pharmacological Management of Peyronie???s Disease

Peyronie's disease is a localised, fibrosing condition of the penis that occurs in up to 9% of men. Although its aetiology has not been elucidated, Peyronie's disease probably results from the presence of a predisposing genetic susceptibility combined with an inciting event, most probably trauma. Following appropriate clinical evaluation, initial treatment consists of a trial of oral and/or intralesional pharmacotherapy. Oral therapies most commonly employed include para-aminobenzoate (Potaba) and tocopherol (vitamin E), with colchicine, tamoxifen, propoleum and acetyl-L-carnitine being used less frequently. Placebo-controlled studies examining these agents have failed to show a consistent beneficial effect on Peyronie's disease, with the exception of para-aminobenzoate, which may decrease plaque size and curvature, and acetyl-L-carnitine, which may reduce erectile pain and inhibit disease progression. Intralesional injection therapy for Peyronie's disease is commonly used as a first-line therapy along with oral medications. The current standard of care involves injection with interferon-alpha-2a or -2b, verapamil or collagenase over 2-week intervals for a period of 5-6 months. Interferon-alpha-2b, in particular, has been documented in a large, multicentre, placebo-controlled study to be significantly more effective than placebo in decreasing penile curvature, plaque size, penile pain and plaque density. However, interferon treatment is also associated with significant adverse effects, including fever and other flu-like symptoms. Other available therapies that have not consistently shown efficacy in placebo-controlled studies include corticosteroids and orgotein. Surgery is considered in patients with Peyronie's disease who have not responded to a trial of conservative medical therapy for 1 year and who are precluded from sexual intercourse. Procedures commonly performed include the Nesbit procedure (or variations of the Nesbit), penile plaque incision/excision with or without grafting, and implantation of a penile prosthesis. Further basic scientific research in Peyronie's disease is likely to identify additional targets for future pharmacotherapy.

Increased vaginal oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inducible nitric oxide synthase in a diabetic rat model: implications for vaginal fibrosis

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether vaginal fibrosis occurs in diabetic animals and is associated with oxidative stress and cell death and with the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), as a putative antifibrotic mechanism.

DESIGN

Research experimental project.

SETTING

University research laboratory.

ANIMAL(S)

Female Wistar rats.

INTERVENTION(S)

Female rats were injected with streptozotocin or saline and killed at 3 months. The vaginas were excised and processed for paraffin-embedded sections (n = 6 per group) or were frozen for biochemical and molecular biology procedures.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Immunohistochemistry and quantitative image analysis were applied to tissue sections to measure alpha-smooth muscle actin, transforming growth factor beta1, plasminogen activator inhibitor, NOS isoforms, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, apoptotic index, and nitrotyrosine. Xanthine dehydrogenase, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and hydroxyproline were measured in fresh vaginal tissue (n = 5 per group). Reactive oxygen species also were determined in blood.

RESULT(S)

Diabetes was associated with vaginal fibrosis, as evidenced by increased collagen, transforming growth factor beta1, plasminogen activator inhibitor, and apoptosis, and by decreased alpha-smooth muscle actin. The increment of ROS and the reduction of superoxide dismutase indicated oxidative stress in diabetic tissue, accompanied by iNOS induction and increased nitric oxide-ROS reaction.

CONCLUSION(S)

Diabetes in the rat causes oxidative stress and fibrosis in the vagina, which may be compensated partially by iNOS induction to reduce ROS.

Phosphodiesterase type 5 is not upregulated by tadalafil in cultures of human penile cells

OBJECTIVE

Tadalafil, a long-acting phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitor, improves the erectile response by inhibiting cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) breakdown. Sustained higher levels of cGMP may hypothetically upregulate PDE5 expression and/or activity and lead to tachyphylaxis. We have investigated whether PDE5 upregulation occurs in vitro in cultures of human penile cells subjected to long-term incubation with increasing concentrations of tadalafil in the presence of a nitric oxide (NO) donor.

METHODS

Human corpora cavernosa smooth muscle cells (CSMC) and tunica albuginea fibroblasts (TAF) primary cultures were characterized by immunocytochemistry and Western blot, and incubated with graded concentrations of tadalafil for 14 days, adding S-nitroso-N-acetyl penicillamine (SNAP) as an NO donor for the last 24 hours or at time zero, and cGMP levels were measured. Incubations were repeated for 7, 10, and 14 days, in the presence of SNAP, and PDE5 was estimated by Western blot, and at 14 days, by immunocytochemistry combined with quantitative image analysis, and by real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Constructs of the human PDE5A promoter expressing luciferase were cloned and transfected into CSMC, and promoter activation by 8-deoxybromo-cGMP (8-Br-cGMP) was measured by luminometry.

RESULTS

Incubations of CSMC with SNAP and tadalafil up to 14 days did not upregulate PDE5 mRNA or protein levels. With TAF, PDE5 protein was also not upregulated despite a slight increase in mRNA levels. PDE5 enzyme activity was unaffected by tadalafil in either CSMC or TAF. No upregulation of the PDE5 promoter was observed with up to 2 mM 8-Br-cGMP.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term incubation of human penile cells with tadalafil at concentrations above the in vitro IC50, and around the in vivo Cmax utilized in the clinical setting, did not upregulate PDE5A expression nor decrease cGMP levels. These data suggest that PDE5 upregulation is unlikely to occur in vivo on long-term tadalafil treatment.

Mechanisms of Disease: new insights into the cellular and molecular pathology of Peyronie's disease

Peyronie's disease (PD) is characterized by fibrotic plaques in the penile tunica albuginea that cause curvature of the erect penis, and is often accompanied by pain and/or erectile dysfunction. This condition affects up to 9% of men. Treatment is mainly surgical, as pharmacologic therapy has limited efficacy. The pathophysiology of PD is poorly understood, but development of two rat models, extrapolation of what is known about the molecular pathology of other fibrotic conditions, and emphasis on the role of myofibroblasts and adult stem cells are helping to clarify etiology and identify new pharmacologic targets. Recent studies demonstrate a role for oxidative stress and cytokine release-primarily transforming-growth-factor beta1-in development of PD fibrotic plaques. There is evidence indicating that these profibrotic factors interact with antifibrotic defense mechanisms, such as decrease of myofibroblast accumulation, elimination of reactive oxygen species by inducible nitric oxide synthase and neutralization of transforming-growth-factor beta1 by decorin, such that some plaques are in dynamic turnover. Injury to the erect penis is thought to trigger PD by inducing extravasation of fibrin and subsequent synthesis of transforming-growth-factor beta1. Despite the lack of statistical support for a causal association between trauma and PD, it is possible that undetected microtrauma is involved. It is not known whether ossification of PD plaques is linked to fibrosis progression or is a manifestation of an alternative pathway. Both processes seem to be related to activation of fibroblast/myofibroblast differentiation in the tunica albuginea and to osteogenic commitment of stem cells in this tissue.

Evidence That Osteogenic Progenitor Cells in the Human Tunica Albuginea May Originate from Stem Cells: Implications for Peyronie Disease1

Tissue ossification in Peyronie disease (commonly known as Peyronie's disease [PD]), a localized fibrotic lesion within the tunica albuginea (TA) of the penis, may result from osteogenic differentiation of fibroblasts, myofibroblasts, and/or adult stem cells in the TA, and may be triggered by chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and profibrotic factors like transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFB1). In this study, we have investigated whether cultures of cells from normal TA and PD plaques undergo osteogenesis, express markers for stem cells, and originate other cell lineages via processes modulated by TGFB1. We found that TA and PD cells in osteogenic medium (OM) expressed osteogenic markers, alkaline phosphatase, and osteopontin and underwent calcification. PD cells, but not TA cells, formed foci in soft agar that were positive for alkaline phosphatase and calcification and expressed the mRNAs for osteoblast-specific factors pleiotrophin and periostin and bone morphogenic protein 2. Both cultures expressed stem cell marker CD34 antigen but not protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type c. TA and PD cells expressed smooth-muscle cell markers smoothelin and transgelin. None of the cultures underwent adipogenesis in adipogenic medium. Incubation with TGFB1 increased osteogenesis and myofibroblast differentiation and reduced CD34 antigen expression in both cultures. TA and PD cells modulated the differentiation of the multipotent C3H 10T(1/2) cells in dual cultures, into osteoblasts and myofibroblasts. In conclusion, both TA and PD cultures contain cells, presumably stem cells, that undergo osteogenic and myofibroblast differentiation, and may induce these processes by paracrine interactions. This may explain progression of fibrosis in the PD plaque and its eventual calcification.