Pertussis immunization in a high-risk postpartum population

Postpartum Interventions to Increase Maternal Vaccination Uptake: Is It Worth It?

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Vaccination of pregnant and postpartum women for pertussis, influenza and COVID-19 not only protects themselves but also offspring. Despite the benefits of this approach, vaccination uptake remains suboptimal in pregnancy. Where the opportunity to be vaccinated in pregnancy is missed, the offer of vaccination in the post-partum period may be an alternative strategy. The aim of this systematic review is to assess the impact of interventions to increase vaccination uptake in the postpartum period on vaccination uptake.

METHODS

A literature search was performed in MEDLINE, including interventional studies promoting vaccination uptake in postpartum women published between 2009 and 2024. The search was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines and registered with PROSPERO.

RESULTS

We finally included 16 studies in the review, and the primary outcome was vaccination uptake in the postpartum period. The most significant factors for increasing uptake were recommendation from healthcare providers, type of interventions used, and delivery of vaccines in the maternity wards or the community.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, maternal vaccination rates in the postpartum period may increase with targeted education by healthcare professionals and positive reinforcement. The interventions described in these studies could be applied in the healthcare systems worldwide.

Evaluation of an Inpatient Postpartum Human Papillomavirus Immunization Program

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the result of an inpatient postpartum human papillomavirus (HPV) immunization pilot program in a diverse, low-income patient population from an urban, hospital-based obstetrics and gynecology clinic.

METHODS

In this cohort study, we present results from the first 2 years of the inpatient postpartum HPV immunization program, in which vaccine-eligible postpartum women were identified and immunized during their hospital stays. The program was implemented after educational outreach with prenatal and postpartum clinicians and nurses. Associations between receipt of the HPV vaccine as an inpatient and the characteristics of patients, and the likelihood of and missed opportunities for receiving a subsequent dose of the HPV vaccine as an outpatient were determined using logistic regression, time-to-event analyses, chi-squared tests and t-tests.

RESULTS

From April 11, 2017, to April 10, 2019, 394 (59.2%) of 666 postpartum women were eligible for the inpatient postpartum HPV immunization program. The majority (265/394, 67.3%) received the immunization pilot program HPV dose; 36 of those 265 (13.6%) completed the series with that dose. Among women due for additional doses after hospital discharge, those who received the inpatient dose were more likely to receive a subsequent outpatient dose (138/229) than were those who did not receive an inpatient dose (39/129; hazard ratio 2.51, 95% CI 1.76-3.58). On average, there were 30.7 fewer (95% CI 5.8-55.6, P<.02) missed opportunities for subsequent outpatient doses for every 100 eligible visits among women who received the inpatient dose, compared with women who did not. By the end of the study, the proportion of women who had completed the vaccine series was higher among women who received the inpatient dose (95/265, 35.8%) than in those who did not (12 out 129, 9.3%; odds ratio 5.45, 95% CI 2.86-10.38).

CONCLUSION

The inpatient postpartum HPV immunization program was associated with increased rates of immunization and addressed a previously missed opportunity. Inpatient immunization programs can serve as a critical way to address gaps in vaccine uptake.

Knowledge and acceptance of influenza and pertussis vaccinations among pregnant women of low socioeconomic status in Turkey

Pregnant women and infants are at relatively high risk for influenza- and pertussis-related morbidity and mortality. Vaccination is the most important prevention strategy for both diseases. We evaluated knowledge and acceptance of influenza and pertussis vaccinations among pregnant women. We performed a cross-sectional survey of 465 pregnant women receiving prenatal care at the obstetric outpatient clinic in a tertiary medical center in Turkey between November 2015 and May 2016. We used a questionnaire investigating the knowledge of pertussis and influenza to evaluate potential influences on the acceptance or rejection of pertussis or influenza vaccinations. The acceptance rates of pertussis and influenza vaccinations were 11.2% and 19.8%, respectively. Maternal age, education level, employment status, number of gestations, and gestational age did not affect the rate of acceptance of these vaccinations. On the other hand, pregnant women who had a history of vaccination during their adolescence and in previous pregnancies were significantly more likely to accept pertussis vaccination. Knowledge about the risks of pertussis and influenza diseases for pregnant women and their children has a significant effect on vaccination acceptance. Even in low socioeconomic status groups, a recommendation for vaccinations by the primary obstetrician was significantly predictive of acceptance of both pertussis and influenza vaccination. This study revealed that the acceptance rates of pertussis and influenza vaccination among pregnant women are very low in Turkey. Healthcare worker recommendations and increased awareness about pertussis and influenza morbidity and mortality in pregnant women and infants are essential to improve the rates of vaccination acceptance during pregnancy.

Development and implementation of standardized method for detecting immunogenicity of acellular pertussis vaccines in Korea

Purpose

There is no standard method for confirming the immunogenicity of acellular pertussis vaccines. We tried to develop a local standard method for evaluating the immunogenicity of the three-component of acellular pertussis vaccines which was developed by a Korean local company.

Materials and Methods

The developed pertussis antigens (pertussis toxin, filamentous hemagglutinin, pertactin) were evaluated by in-house enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using 189 negative sera, 25 positive sera, and 73 paired sera (pre- and post-Tdap [tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis] vaccinated sera). ELISA units were calculated by the reference line method, compared with World Health Organization reference sera, and the cut-off value was calculated using negative sera.

Results

When compared to National Institute for Biological Standards and Control control antigen (NIBSC) control antigens, the developed pertussis toxin (PT) and filamentous haemagglutinin (FHA) antigens were 203.48 and 61.60 IU/µg, respectively. Each in-house ELISA was established by validating the coefficients of variation % (PT, 11.53%; FHA, 8.60%; pertactin [PRN], 9.86%) obtained from the results of inter- and intra-assay variation. Also, the cut-off values of PT, FHA, and PRN were 11.65, 38.95, and 5.66 EU/mL, respectively. The distributions of antibody levels in paired showed that 93.15% (68/73) in anti-PT IgG, 97.26% (72/73) in anti-FHA IgG, and 100% in anti-PRN IgG were higher than a 100% increase after vaccination. Additionally, the values of 89.04% (65/73) in anti-PT IgG, 97.26% (72/73) in anti-FHA IgG, and 100% in anti-PRN IgG were below each cut-off point.

Conclusion

We established an in-house ELISA method using self-developed antigens, and these immunoassays have provided a way to standardize measuring the immunogenicity of newly developed vaccines, through single- and dual-serology.

Prevention of Pertussis, Tetanus, and Diphtheria with Vaccines in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)

This report compiles and summarizes all recommendations from CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) regarding prevention and control of tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis in the United States. As a comprehensive summary of previously published recommendations, this report does not contain any new recommendations and replaces all previously published reports and policy notes; it is intended for use by clinicians and public health providers as a resource. ACIP recommends routine vaccination for tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis. Infants and young children are recommended to receive a 5-dose series of diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis (DTaP) vaccines, with one adolescent booster dose of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine. Adults who have never received Tdap also are recommended to receive a booster dose of Tdap. Women are recommended to receive a dose of Tdap during each pregnancy, which should be administered from 27 through 36 weeks' gestation, regardless of previous receipt of Tdap. After receipt of Tdap, adolescents and adults are recommended to receive a booster tetanus and diphtheria toxoids (Td) vaccine every 10 years to assure ongoing protection against tetanus and diphtheria.

Strategies to implement maternal vaccination: A comparison between standing orders for midwife delivery, a hospital based maternal immunisation service and primary care

Maternal vaccination is a safe and effective strategy to reduce maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality from pertussis and influenza. However, despite recommendations for maternal vaccination since 2010, uptake remains suboptimal. Barriers to uptake have been studied widely and include lack of integration of vaccination into routine pregnancy care and access to vaccination services. Standing orders for administration of vaccines without the need for a physician review or prescription have been demonstrated to improve uptake as part of multi-model interventions to increase antenatal influenza and post-partum pertussis vaccination. Monash Health is a university-affiliated, public healthcare network in Melbourne, Australia providing maternity services across three hospitals. In this study we compared three different immunisation models - an immunisation nurse-led immunisation service, standing orders for midwife-administered pertussis vaccination within pregnancy care clinics, and delivery by general practitioners in primary care. Uptake of maternal pertussis vaccine was measured as recorded in the state-wide perinatal data collection tool. Uptake improved significantly at all three hospitals over the study period with the most significant change (39% to 91%, p < .001) noted at the hospital where standing orders were introduced. Our study highlights the diversity of immunisation service models available in maternity care settings. We demonstrated significant improvement in uptake of maternal pertussis vaccination with introduction of midwife-administered vaccination but each maternity service should consider the model best suited to their needs.

Bordetella pertussis

Pertussis is a highly infectious vaccine-preventable cough illness that continues to be a significant source of morbidity and mortality around the world. The majority of human illness is caused by Bordetella pertussis, and some is caused by Bordetella parapertussis. Bordetella is a Gram-negative, pleomorphic, aerobic coccobacillus. In the past several years, even countries with high immunization rates in early childhood have experienced rises in pertussis cases. Reasons for the resurgence of reported pertussis may include molecular changes in the organism and increased awareness and diagnostic capabilities, as well as lessened vaccine efficacy and waning immunity. The most morbidity and mortality with pertussis infection is seen in infants too young to benefit from immunization. Severe infection requiring hospitalization, including in an intensive care setting, is mostly seen in those under 3 months of age. As a result, research and public health actions have been aimed at better understanding and reducing the spread of Bordetella pertussis. Studies comparing the cost benefit of cocooning strategies versus immunization of pregnant women have been favorable towards immunizing pregnant women. This strategy is expected to prevent a larger number of pertussis cases, hospitalizations, and deaths in infants <1 year old while also being cost-effective. Studies have demonstrated that the source of infection in infants usually is a family member. Efforts to immunize children and adults, in particular pregnant women, need to remain strong.

A human papillomavirus vaccination program for low-income postpartum women

BACKGROUND

Effective interventions are needed to address the low rate of human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination in the United States, particularly among girls and women 16-26 years old. Counseling and offering the vaccine to postpartum patients could be an effective strategy to increase uptake among young women who did not complete the 3-dose series at an earlier age.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this evaluation was to assess the effectiveness of a multicomponent program designed for postpartum women that used patient navigators (PNs) and reminders for follow-up visits to improve uptake and completion of the HPV vaccine series.

STUDY DESIGN

As part of standard care, patients ≤26 years of age from Galveston County, Texas, who delivered an infant from November 2012 through June 2014 at a public hospital were counseled and offered the HPV vaccine postpartum. PNs assisted with scheduling follow-up injections during postpartum or well-child visits. A program evaluation was conducted after 20 months.

RESULTS

Of 1038 patients approached, only 161 (15.5%) had previously completed the vaccine series. Of the 877 patients who had not completed the series, 661 (75.4%) received at least 1 dose postpartum, with 575 patients receiving their first dose and 86 receiving their second or third doses. By April 2015, initiation rates had increased as a result of this program from 25.4% before the program was initiated to 80.8% and completion rates from 15.5-65.1%. Missed appointments for injections were less likely among those who received text message reminders and more likely among those with ≥2 prior pregnancies. Those who were Hispanic or had received an influenza vaccination in the last year were more likely to initiate and complete the series through this program. Patients who missed ≥1 follow-up appointments were less likely to complete the vaccine series.

CONCLUSION

Offering the HPV vaccine postpartum dramatically increased initiation rates among postpartum patients. PN and text messages ensured that a high percentage completed all 3 doses.

Pertussis vaccination in pregnancy

Pertussis has had a resurgence with the highest incidence and complication rates in young infants, and deaths occurring mainly at < age 3 months. Infants are infected by older individuals whose immunity has waned. Strategies such as targeted immunization of infant caregivers have had limited success. Pertussis vaccination in pregnancy may protect infants through passive and active transfer of maternal antibodies that protect the infant until the primary immunization series. Studies show vaccinating pregnant women with acellular pertussis vaccine is safe for mother and infant, immunogenic with efficient transfer of antibodies to infants, and effective in preventing pertussis in young infants. Vaccine uptake in pregnant women is sub-optimal, but provider recommendation is the most important factor in improving vaccination rates. Studies are ongoing to determine the best timing of vaccination to protect infants, and into other strategies. Vaccinating pregnant women offers hope to prevent pertussis-related morbidity and mortality in infants worldwide.

Effect of a multi-modal intervention on immunization rates in obstetrics and gynecology clinics

BACKGROUND

There is increasing attention on immunizations by obstetrician-gynecologists and a need to improve vaccination rates for all women.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of a multimodal intervention on rates of immunization with tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis (Tdap); human papillomavirus (HPV); and influenza in outpatient obstetrics and gynecology clinics.

STUDY DESIGN

Immunization rates at 2 clinics were compared pre- and post-implementation of multiple interventions at a public integrated health-care system. Study interventions began on June 6, 2012 and concluded on May 31, 2014; the preimplementation time period used was June 6, 2010 to June 5, 2012. Interventions included stocking of immunizations in clinics, revision and expansion of standing orders, creation of a reminder/recall program, identification of an immunization champion to give direct provider feedback, expansion of a payment assistance program, and staff education. All women aged 15 and older who made a clinic visit during influenza season were included in the influenza cohort; women who delivered an infant during the study time period and had at least 1 prenatal visit within 9 months preceding delivery were included in the Tdap cohort; each clinic visit by a nonpregnant woman aged 15-26 years was assessed and included in the HPV analysis as an eligible visit if the patient was lacking any of the 3 HPV vaccines in the series. The primary outcome was receipt of influenza and Tdap vaccine per current American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists guidelines and receipt of HPV vaccine during eligible visits. Influenza and Tdap were assessed with overall coverage rates at the institutional level, and HPV was assessed at the visit level by captured opportunities. All analyses included generalized estimating equations and the primary outcome was assessed with time as a covariate in all models.

RESULTS

A total of 19,409 observations were included in the influenza cohort (10,231 pre- and 9178 post-intervention), 2741 in the Tdap cohort (1248 pre- and 1493 post-intervention), and 12,443 in the HPV cohort (7966 pre- and 4477 post-intervention). Our population was largely Hispanic, English-speaking, and publicly insured. The rate of influenza vaccination increased from 35.4% pre-intervention to 46.0% post-intervention (P < .001). The overall rate for Tdap vaccination increased from 87.6% pre-intervention to 94.5% post-intervention until the recommendation to vaccinate during each pregnancy was implemented (z = 4.58, P < .0001). The average Tdap up-to-date rate after that recommendation was 75.0% (z = -5.77, P < .0001). The overall rate of HPV vaccination with an eligible visit increased from 7.1% before to 23.7% after the intervention.

CONCLUSION

Using evidence-based practices largely established in other settings, our intervention was associated with increased rates of influenza, Tdap, and HPV vaccination in outpatient underserved obstetrics and gynecology clinics. Integrating such evidence-based practices into routine obstetrics and gynecology care could positively impact preventive health for many women.

Maternal uptake of pertussis cocooning strategy and other pregnancy related recommended immunizations

Maternal immunization is an important strategy to prevent severe morbidity and mortality in mothers and their offspring. This study aimed to identify whether new parents were following immunization recommendations prior to pregnancy, during pregnancy, and postnatally. A cross-sectional survey was conducted by a questionnaire administered antenatally to pregnant women attending a maternity hospital with a follow-up telephone interview at 8-10 weeks post-delivery. Factors associated with uptake of pertussis vaccination within the previous 5 y or postnatally and influenza vaccination during pregnancy were explored using log binomial regression models. A total of 297 pregnant women completed the questionnaire. For influenza vaccine, 20.3% were immunized during pregnancy and 3.0% postnatally. For pertussis vaccine, 13.1% were vaccinated within 5 y prior to pregnancy and 31 women received the vaccine postnatally, 16 (51.6%) received the vaccine >4 weeks after delivery. Receiving a recommendation from a healthcare provider (HCP) was an independent predictor for receipt of both pertussis (RR 2.07, p < 0.001) and influenza vaccine (RR 2.26, p = 0.001). Non-English speaking mothers were significantly less likely to have received pertussis vaccination prior to pregnancy or postnatally (RR 0.24, p = 0.011). Multiparous pregnant women were less likely to have received an influenza vaccine during their current pregnancy (p = 0.015). Uptake of pregnancy related immunization is low and likely due to poor knowledge of availability, language barriers and lack of recommendations from HCPs. Strategies to improve maternal vaccine uptake should include education about recommended vaccines for both HCPs and parents and written information in a variety of languages.

Development of an outpatient clinic to provide pertussis vaccinations to maternity patients and family members

PURPOSE

The implementation of a hospital-based outpatient pertussis prevention program targeting maternity patients and family members is described.

SUMMARY

Faced with a rising incidence of pertussis statewide, a large Ohio hospital formed a multidisciplinary team to ensure hospital compliance with current guidelines calling for administration of the tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine to all maternity patients as well as previously unvaccinated family members and likely neonatal caregivers (i.e., "cocooning"). The team had regularly scheduled meetings to identify and address fiscal, logistic, and practice-related challenges throughout the implementation process. Key challenges included (1) determining the availability of insurance reimbursement for Tdap vaccination services, (2) cultivating support for the vaccination initiative among obstetrics and maternal-fetal medicine specialists, (3) coordinating development and dissemination of educational information to patients and their families at specified points of contact, and (4) establishing an efficient registration process for family members. The outpatient vaccination clinic was located adjacent to the hospital's maternity center in order to provide convenient access. Despite limited clinic hours (three hours daily on weekdays only) and ongoing reimbursement and funding challenges, the program has improved Tdap vaccination rates in the target population and is considered a successful demonstration of the cocooning concept.

CONCLUSION

Implementation of an outpatient clinic for neonatal pertussis prevention was well accepted by family members of newborns, and Tdap vaccinations were administered to 329 family members during the first 11 months of clinic operations.

Association of a Best-Practice Alert and Prenatal Administration With Tetanus Toxoid, Reduced Diphtheria Toxoid, and Acellular Pertussis Vaccination Rates

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate how implementation of a best-practice alert, a reminder of clinical guidelines within the electronic medical record, in combination with the recommended change in immunization timing from postpartum to antepartum, affected tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid and acellular pertussis (Tdap) rates, and to examine the association of vaccination with local pertussis attack rates.

METHODS

A Tdap best-practice alert was introduced into the electronic prenatal charting system in June 2013. The best-practice alert was designed to appear starting at 32 weeks of gestation and to reappear at every subsequent encounter until vaccine acceptance was recorded or delivery occurred. The overall acceptance rate was then compared with postpartum vaccination rates at our institution from the previous year. Records of pertussis cases in children younger than 2 years of age diagnosed since 2012 in Dallas County were also reviewed to correlate local trends with vaccination efforts.

RESULTS

Of the 10,201 women offered Tdap during prenatal care, 9,879 (96.8%) ultimately accepted. This is compared with a 48% (5,064 of 10,600) Tdap postpartum immunization rate in the year prior, before introduction of the best-practice alert. The incidence of pertussis among neonates born to mothers who received prenatal care at Parkland Hospital showed a nonsignificant decline from 13 cases per 10,000 deliveries (19 of 14,834, 95% confidence interval [CI] 7-19) between January 2012 and May 2013 to seven per 10,000 deliveries during the study period (eight of 11,788, 95% CI 2-11, P=.174).

CONCLUSION

The use of a best-practice alert, in concert with the recommended change in timing of maternal vaccination from postpartum to antepartum, was associated with an increase in the Tdap immunization rate to 97%.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

II.

Tetanus and diphtheria toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine uptake during pregnancy in a metropolitan tertiary care center

OBJECTIVES

Tetanus, diphtheria and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine is recommended during each pregnancy, but national uptake is poor. We assessed Tdap uptake in a tertiary referral hospital served by university-affiliated and private obstetrical offices.

METHODS

Review of women delivering at Texas Children's Hospital Pavilion for Women, Houston, Texas, during April 2013-June 2014.

RESULTS

6577 deliveries occurred during the study period. Mean maternal age was 29.8 years (range 13-49); race/ethnicity was 43.6% White, 27% Hispanic, 21% Black, 7.1% Asian, and 1.3% other. 252 were multiple gestations; 229 sets of twins, 21 triplets and 2 quadruplets. 3678 (56%) women received Tdap during pregnancy, 249 (3.8%) postpartum and 100 (1.5%) received Tdap pre-conception only. Tdap uptake during pregnancy increased from 36% in April 2013 to a sustained uptake of greater than 61% since November 2013, with increases noted coincidental with presentations highlighting Tdap maternal immunization recommendations at faculty and staff meetings, and the release of the ACOG "toolkit". When antenatal Tdap vaccine was administered, mean gestation at receipt of Tdap was 31.4 weeks and 95% of vaccinated women received Tdap at the recommended gestation interval of 27-36 weeks, 71.6% during the 28-32 week window believed optimal for placental transport and 98.5% at least 7 days before delivery. Of 19 women with two pregnancies during the study period, four (21%) had Tdap during both. Black women were less likely to receive antenatal Tdap than women of other race/ethnicity (41% versus 60%; P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Sustained antenatal Tdap uptake rates exceeding 61% were achieved after strategies to increase awareness of recommendations were introduced and 95% of women were immunized at a gestation optimal for efficient maternal antibody placental transport. Further increases in uptake will require system changes such as best practice alerts in electronic medical records.

Evaluation of the impact of a pertussis cocooning program on infant pertussis infection

BACKGROUND

Tetanus, diphtheria and acellular pertussis immunization of infant contacts (cocooning) is recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to prevent infant pertussis. We determined whether implementing a cocooning program at Ben Taub General Hospital, Houston, reduced severe pertussis in young infants.

METHODS

Infants ≤6 months of age, diagnosed with pertussis (determined by International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision codes and microbiology records) at 4 hospitals, and born at times when only postpartum women (January 2008 through May 2009) and all infant contacts (June 2009 through August 2011) were offered tetanus, diphtheria and acellular pertussis vaccine at Ben Taub General Hospital were compared with infants born preintervention (May 2004 through December 2007).

RESULTS

One hundred ninety-six (49%) infants with pertussis were born preintervention, 140 (35%) during maternal postpartum (PP) and 64 (16%) during cocooning (C) periods. Infants were similar in age at diagnosis (81.2 vs. 71.3 [PP] vs. 72.5 [C] days; P 0.07), sex (male 59% vs. 51% [PP] vs. 48% [C]; P 0.17), hospitalization (68% vs. 71% [PP] vs. 78% [C]; P 0.27) and outcome (2 deaths in the PP period; P 0.15), but more were admitted to intensive care units during cocooning (24% vs. 35% [PP] vs. 68% [C]; P < 0.001). Similar proportions of infants were born at Ben Taub General Hospital throughout the study (8% vs. 9% [PP] vs. 5% [C]; P 0.53).

CONCLUSIONS

Postpartum immunization and cocooning did not reduce pertussis illness in infants ≤6 months of age. Efforts should be directed toward increasing tetanus, diphtheria and acellular pertussis immunization during pregnancy, combined with cocooning, to reduce life-threatening young infant pertussis.

Factors affecting uptake of recommended immunizations among health care workers in South Australia

Despite the benefits of vaccination for health care workers (HCWs), uptake of recommended vaccinations is low, particularly for seasonal influenza and pertussis. In addition, there is variation in uptake within hospitals. While all vaccinations recommended for HCWs are important, vaccination against influenza and pertussis are particularly imperative, given HCWs are at risk of occupationally acquired influenza and pertussis, and may be asymptomatic, acting as a reservoir to vulnerable patients in their care. This study aimed to determine predictors of uptake of these vaccinations and explore the reasons for variation in uptake by HCWs working in different hospital wards. HCWs from wards with high and low influenza vaccine uptake in a tertiary pediatric and obstetric hospital completed a questionnaire to assess knowledge of HCW recommended immunizations. Multiple logistic regression was used to determine predictors of influenza and pertussis vaccination uptake. Of 92 HCWs who responded, 9.8% were able to identify correctly the vaccines recommended for HCWs. Overall 80% of respondents reported they had previously received influenza vaccine and 50.5% had received pertussis vaccine. Independent predictors of pertussis vaccination included length of time employed in health sector (P < 0.001), previously receiving hepatitis B/MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) vaccine (P < 0.001), and a respondent being aware influenza infections could be severe in infants (p = 0.023). Independent predictors of seasonal influenza vaccination included younger age (P < 0.001), English as first language (P < 0.001), considering it important to be vaccinated to protect themselves (P < 0.001), protect patients (p = 0.012) or awareness influenza could be serious in immunocompromised patients (p = 0.030). Independent predictors for receiving both influenza and pertussis vaccinations included younger age (P < 0.001), time in area of work (P = 0.020), previously receiving hepatitis B vaccine (P = 0.006) and awareness influenza could be severe in infants (P < 0.001). A knowledge gap exists around HCW awareness of vaccination recommendations. Assessment of the risk/benefit value for HCWs and their patients, determines uptake of HCW immunization programs and should be considered in promotional HCW vaccination programs.

Prevention of pertussis through adult vaccination

Pertussis is a vaccine preventable respiratory infection. Young infants are at high risk of developing severe complications from infection. Despite high rates of pediatric vaccine uptake, there continues to be increases in pertussis cases, likely due to waning immunity from childhood vaccine and increased transmission through adults. Currently, pertussis booster vaccine (Tdap) is recommended for unimmunized adults and for women in the third trimester of each pregnancy; yet adult Tdap coverage remains low. Administering Tdap vaccine at non-traditional vaccination clinics and at sites where adults are accessing care for their children are effective in improving adult Tdap uptake. While most are willing to receive vaccine when recommended by their provider, lack of provider recommendation is a major obstacle to immunization. Future studies to understand barriers to provider vaccine recommendations need to be undertaken to develop interventions to improve adult Tdap vaccine uptake and reduce pertussis infection in the susceptible population.

Protecting newborns by immunizing family members in a hospital-based vaccine clinic: a successful Tdap cocooning program during the 2010 California pertussis epidemic

OBJECTIVE

Infants are at greatest risk for mortality from pertussis infection. Since 2005, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices has recommended a cocooning strategy of vaccinating all close contacts of infants with tetanus, diptheria, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine to reduce the risk of transmitting pertussis. Difficulties in establishing a complete cocoon have been reported in the literature. We determined whether families of newborns could be fully immunized against pertussis, thereby providing a complete cocoon of protection.

METHODS

Tdap vaccine was offered during visiting hours to contacts aged 7 years and older and to postpartum patients who had not received Tdap vaccine during pregnancy. We then conducted retrospective phone interviews with randomly selected mothers (or other family members) to assess vaccination rates. We compared household vaccination rates during intervention and control periods and the demographic factors associated with Tdap vaccination of all members within the households.

RESULTS

During the intervention period, 243 postpartum patients and 1,287 other family members of newborns were immunized, with 84.8% of all family members receiving Tdap vaccination. Seventy-six percent of households reported a complete cocoon. In the control group, 52.2% of all family members received Tdap vaccination, and 29.3% of households had a complete cocoon. In the control group, fewer family members completed Tdap vaccination in the larger households than in the smaller households (p=0.008).

CONCLUSION

A cocooning strategy can be successfully implemented, such that the majority of newborns leave the hospital with their families fully immunized against pertussis.

Assessing the need for and acceptability of a free-of-charge postpartum HPV vaccination program

OBJECTIVE

Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine uptake rate among young adult US women was only 23% in 2010. One way to improve this low rate is to administer the vaccine postpartum. We examined whether this population requires vaccination and whether they would be agreeable to receiving it free of charge after delivery.

STUDY DESIGN

Women 26 years of age or younger seeking prenatal care in publicly funded clinics in southeast Texas were interviewed in 2012 regarding their HPV vaccination status, barriers to vaccination, and whether they would be willing to receive this vaccine postpartum if offered free of charge. Medical charts were reviewed to extract additional information.

RESULTS

Overall, 13.0% (65 of 500) stated they had initiated and 7.6% (38 of 500) completed the 3-dose vaccine series. Ethnic differences were noted with 21.0% of non-Hispanic whites, 14.6% of blacks, and 9.3% of Hispanics (P = .002) initiating the vaccine and 13.5%, 7.8%, and 5.2% (P = .006) competing all 3 doses, respectively. Lowest initiation (4.2%) and completion (1.4%) rates were observed among recently immigrated Hispanic women. Those who had not graduated from high school and older women were less likely to have been vaccinated. Almost 83% of those who had not received any HPV doses or completed the series were willing to receive the injection free of charge in the hospital after their delivery.

CONCLUSION

HPV vaccine uptake rates are very low among women receiving prenatal care in southeast Texas. Offering this vaccine free of charge to postpartum women could be an effective strategy in this population because 5 of 6 women favored receiving it in this setting.

Effectiveness of hospital-based postpartum procedures on pertussis vaccination among postpartum women

OBJECTIVE

Pertussis causes significant morbidity among adults, children, and especially infants. Since 2006, pertussis vaccination has been recommended for women after delivery. We conducted a prospective, controlled evaluation of in-hospital postpartum pertussis vaccination of birth mothers from October 2009 through July 2010 to evaluate the effectiveness of hospital-based procedures in increasing postpartum vaccination.

STUDY DESIGN

The intervention and comparison hospitals are private community facilities, each with 2000-6000 births/year. At the intervention hospital, physician opt-in orders for tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid and acellular pertussis vaccine (Tdap) before discharge were implemented in November 2009, followed by standing orders in February 2010. The comparison hospital maintained standard practice. Randomly selected hospital charts of women after delivery were reviewed for receipt of Tdap and demographic data. We evaluated postpartum Tdap vaccination rates and conducted multivariate analyses to evaluate characteristics that are associated with vaccination. We reviewed 1264 charts (658 intervention hospital; 606 comparison hospital) from women with completed deliveries.

RESULTS

Tdap postpartum vaccination was 0% at both hospitals at baseline. In the intervention hospital, the introduction of the opt-in order was followed by an increase in postpartum vaccination to 18%. The introduction of the standing order approach was followed by a further increase to 69% (P < .0001). No postpartum Tdap vaccinations were documented in the comparison hospital. Postpartum Tdap vaccination in the intervention hospital did not differ by demographic characteristics.

CONCLUSION

In-hospital ordering procedures substantially increased Tdap vaccination coverage in women after delivery. Opt-in orders increased coverage that increased substantially with standing orders.

Maternal and neonatal vaccination protects newborn baboons from pertussis infection

BACKGROUND

The United States is experiencing a pertussis resurgence that resulted in a 60-year high of 48 000 cases in 2012. The majority of hospitalizations and deaths occur in infants too young to be vaccinated. Neonatal and maternal vaccination have been proposed to protect newborns until the first vaccination, currently recommended at 2 months of age. These interventions result in elevated anti-Bordetella pertussis titers, but there have been no studies demonstrating that these measures confer protection.

METHODS

Baboons were vaccinated with acellular pertussis vaccine at 2 days of age or at 2 and 28 days of age. To model maternal vaccination, adult female baboons primed with acellular pertussis vaccine were boosted in the third trimester of pregnancy. Neonatally vaccinated infants, infants born to vaccinated mothers, and naive infants born to unvaccinated mothers were infected with B. pertussis at 5 weeks of age.

RESULTS

Naive infant baboons developed severe disease when challenged with B. pertussis at 5 weeks of age. Baboons receiving acellular pertussis vaccine and infants born to mothers vaccinated at the beginning of their third trimester were protected.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that neonatal vaccination and maternal vaccination confer protection in the baboon model and support further study of these strategies for protection of newborns from pertussis.

Intention to accept Bordetella pertussis booster vaccine during pregnancy in Mexico City

OBJECTIVE

Adult booster vaccination against pertussis can help prevent severe infections in young infants. We examined influences on intention to accept pertussis booster vaccination among pregnant women in Mexico City.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional survey, recruiting convenience samples of pregnant women receiving prenatal care from three public healthcare centers between March and May 2012. Our primary outcome was intention to accept pertussis vaccination during pregnancy. We examined socio-demographic factors, vaccination history, pertussis knowledge, perceptions of vaccine information sources, and other potential influences on vaccine decision-making.

RESULTS

A total of 402 pregnant women agreed to participate, of which 387 (96%) provided their intention to accept or decline pertussis vaccination. Among respondents, 57% intended to accept a pertussis booster vaccine if offered, but only 16% had ever heard of pertussis, and only 2% knew someone who had contracted this disease. Over 80% of respondents would accept pertussis vaccination if recommended by an obstetrician-gynecologist. The most frequently selected reasons to refuse pertussis vaccination were concerns that the vaccine might harm the unborn baby or pregnant woman. In multivariate analysis, rating doctors and nurses as good sources of vaccine information, and having ever heard of pertussis, were independently associated with intention to accept pertussis vaccination.

CONCLUSIONS

Promoting patient awareness about pertussis disease and vaccine safety, and encouraging general practitioners, nurses and obstetricians to recommend pertussis booster vaccine, may increase vaccine uptake among pregnant women.

Immune responses in infants whose mothers received Tdap vaccine during pregnancy

BACKGROUND

The effect of maternal Tdap vaccination on infant immunologic responses to routine pediatric vaccines is unknown.

METHODS

This was a cohort study of infants whose mothers received or did not receive Tdap vaccine during pregnancy. Maternal and cord blood samples were collected at delivery; infant blood samples were collected before and after primary series and booster dose of diphtheria, tetanus, and acellular pertussis (DTaP) and other vaccines. Geometric mean antibody concentrations or titers to pertussis, hepatitis B, tetanus, diphtheria, Haemophilus influenzae type b and polio antigens were measured. Mean maternal-to-cord blood antibody ratios were calculated.

RESULTS

At delivery, maternal and cord antibody concentrations to pertussis antigens were higher in the Tdap group (n=16) than control group (n=54; maternal: 1.9- to 20.4-fold greater; cord: 2.7- to 35.5-fold greater). Increased antibody concentrations persisted for infants at first DTaP (3.2- to 22.8-fold greater). After primary series, antibody concentrations to pertussis antigens were lower in Tdap group (0.7- to 0.8-fold lower), except for fimbriae types 2 and 3 (FIM) (1.5-fold greater). Antibody concentrations to pertussis antigens before and after booster dose were comparable (prebooster: Tdap group 1.0- to 1.2-fold higher than controls; postbooster: 0.9- to 1.0-fold lower). Differences in FIM values at these time points are difficult to interpret, due to varying FIM content among DTaP vaccines administered to infants in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal Tdap immunization resulted in higher pertussis antibody concentrations during the period between birth and the first vaccine dose. Although slightly decreased immune responses following the primary series were seen compared with controls, differences did not persist following the booster.

Knowledge and attitudes of postpartum women toward immunization during pregnancy and the peripartum period

Influenza and pertussis prevention in young infants requires immunizing pregnant women and all caregivers (cocooning). We evaluated the knowledge and attitude of postpartum women about these two recommendations. A survey of predominantly Hispanic, underinsured, medically underserved postpartum women in Houston, Texas was performed during June 2010 through July 2012. Five hundred eleven postpartum women [mean age 28.8 y (18-45); 94% Hispanic] with a mean of 3 children (1-12) participated. Ninety-one (17.8%) were first-time mothers. Four hundred ninety-six (97.1%) received prenatal care; care was delayed in 24.3%. Only 313 (61.3%) received vaccine education while pregnant, and 291 (57%) were immunized. Four hundred seventy-four women (93%) were willing to be immunized during pregnancy if recommended by their healthcare provider, (the most trusted information source for 62%). Immunization of infants or infant caregivers had been discussed with 41% and 10% of mothers, respectively. Two hundred thirty women (45%) had received influenza vaccine; most intended to (79%) or had already received (15%) tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine. Preferred locations for cocooning were hospital or community clinics (97%). Insufficient knowledge (46.6%), cost (31.4%), lack of transportation (26%), work commitments (13.3%), and fear of needles (13.3%) were perceived barriers to cocooning. Level of formal education received by mothers had no effect on the quantity or quality of immunization education received during PNC or their attitude toward immunization. Immunization during pregnancy and cocooning, if recommended by providers, are acceptable in this high-risk population. Healthcare providers, as reported in infant studies, have the greatest influence on vaccine acceptance by pregnant and postpartum women.

Pregnancy dose Tdap and postpartum cocooning to prevent infant pertussis: a decision analysis

BACKGROUND

Infants <2 months of age are at highest risk of pertussis morbidity and mortality. Until recently, the US Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommended protecting young infants by "cocooning" or vaccination of postpartum mothers and other close contacts with tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis, adsorbed (Tdap) booster vaccine. ACIP recommends pregnancy vaccination as a preferred and safe alternative to postpartum vaccination. The ACIP cocooning recommendation has not changed.

METHODS

We used a cohort model reflecting US 2009 births and the diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis schedule to simulate a decision and cost-effectiveness analysis of Tdap vaccination during pregnancy compared with postpartum vaccination with or without vaccination of other close contacts (ie, cocooning). We analyzed infant pertussis cases, hospitalizations, and deaths, as well as direct disease, indirect, and public health costs for infants in the first year of life. All costs were updated to 2011 US dollars.

RESULTS

Pregnancy vaccination could reduce annual infant pertussis incidence by more than postpartum vaccination, reducing cases by 33% versus 20%, hospitalizations by 38% versus 19%, and deaths by 49% versus 16%. Additional cocooning doses in a father and 1 grandparent could avert an additional 16% of cases but at higher cost. The cost per quality-adjusted life-year saved for pregnancy vaccination was substantially less than postpartum vaccination ($414 523 vs $1 172 825).

CONCLUSIONS

Tdap vaccination during pregnancy could avert more infant cases and deaths at lower cost than postpartum vaccination, even when postpartum vaccination is combined with additional cocooning doses. Pregnancy dose vaccination is the preferred alternative to postpartum vaccination for preventing infant pertussis.

Obstetrical Healthcare Personnel's Attitudes and Perceptions on Maternal Vaccination with Tetanus-Diphtheria-Acellular Pertussis and Influenza

Objectives. To assess perceptions of obstetrical healthcare personnel (HCP) regarding routine delivery of Tdap and influenza vaccines to pregnant and postpartum women and identify perceived barriers to vaccination. Methods. Anonymous Web-based survey of obstetricians and nurses caring for pregnant and/or postpartum women. Results. We contacted 342 HCP and received 163 (48%) completed surveys (33/142 (23%) obstetricians, 130/200 (65%) nurses). Among obstetricians, 72% and 63% thought it was “beneficial” to immunize postpartum women against influenza and pertussis, respectively. Only 8% reported vaccinating >75% of pregnant women in their care against influenza. Similarly, <1% of obstetricians reported vaccinating against pertussis. Of all HCP surveyed, 92% and 58% were familiar with ACIP recommendations for influenza and pertussis, respectively. Reported perceived barriers included patient refusal to be vaccinated, reimbursement difficulties, and discomfort in providing vaccine education. Ninety-four percent of respondents agreed that standing orders would be helpful to ensure postpartum vaccination. Conclusions. HCP were less familiar with ACIP recommendations for Tdap compared to influenza vaccines. Substantial discrepancy existed between perceived benefit of vaccination and reported immunization practices. Most identified barriers could be addressed with provider training; however, other barriers require review and changes in systematic policies related to vaccine reimbursement.

Pertussis re-emergence in the post-vaccination era

BACKGROUND

Resurgence of pertussis in the post-vaccination era has been reported in Western countries. A shift of cases from school-age children to adolescents, adults and children under 1 year of age has been described in the last decade, and mortality rates in infants are still sustained. We aimed to review and discuss the possible vaccination strategies which can be adopted in order to improve the pertussis control, by searches of Pubmed, and websites of US and European Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, between 1st January 2002, and 1st March 2013.

DISCUSSION

The following vaccination strategies have been retrieved and analysed: the cocooning strategy, the immunization of pregnant women and newborns, vaccination programs for preschool children, adolescents, adults and health-care workers. Cost-effectiveness studies provide some contrasting data, mainly supporting both maternal vaccination and cocooning. Adolescent and/or adult vaccination seems to be cost-effective, however data from observational studies suggest that this vaccination strategy, used alone, leads to a reduced pertussis burden globally, but does not affect the disease incidence in infants. Moreover, substantial logistical and economic difficulties have to be overcome to vaccinate the largest number of individuals.

SUMMARY

The simultaneous use of more than one strategy, including cocooning strategy plus vaccination of adolescents and adults, seems to be the most reasonable preventive measure. The development of new highly immunogenic and efficacious pertussis vaccines continues to be a primary objective for the control of pertussis.

Free vaccine programs to cocoon high-risk infants and children against influenza and pertussis

An adult immunization strategy called "cocooning" is a relatively new concept, referring to immunizing close contacts of infants and high-risk children, thereby limiting pathogen exposure. This report explores the adoption of free vaccine programs in US children's hospitals and shares our own institutions' experiences in implementing free vaccine programs for close contacts of our patients.

Importance of timing of maternal combined tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) immunization and protection of young infants

BACKGROUND

Pertussis booster vaccine (Tdap) recommendations assume that pertussis-specific antibodies in women immunized preconception, during, or after previous pregnancies persist at sufficient levels to protect newborn infants.

METHODS

Pertussis-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) was measured by IgG-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in maternal-umbilical cord serum pairs where mothers received Tdap during the prior 2 years. Geometric mean concentrations (GMCs) of pertussis antibodies and cord-maternal GMC ratios were calculated.

RESULTS

One hundred five mothers (mean age, 25.3 years [range, 15.3-38.4 years]; mean gestation, 39 weeks [range, 37-43 weeks]) immunized with Tdap vaccine a mean of 13.7 months (range, 2.3-23.9 months) previously were included; 72 (69%) had received Tdap postpartum, 31 at a routine healthcare visit and 2 as contacts of another newborn. There was no difference in GMCs for pertussis-specific IgG in maternal delivery or infant cord sera for women immunized before (n = 86) or during (n = 19) early pregnancy. Placental transport of antibodies was 121%-186% from mothers immunized before and during pregnancy, respectively. Estimated GMC of IgG to pertussis toxin was <5 ELISA units (EU)/mL at infant age 2 months (start of infant immunization series). More infants of mothers immunized during pregnancy had pertussis toxin levels estimated to be higher than the lower limit of quantitation of the assay (4 EU/mL) through age 2 months (52% vs 38%; P = .34).

CONCLUSIONS

Infants of mothers immunized preconception or in early pregnancy have insufficient pertussis-specific antibodies to protect against infection. Maternal immunization during the third trimester, immunization of other infant contacts, and reimmunization during subsequent pregnancies may be necessary.

Prevention of pertussis, tetanus, and diphtheria among pregnant, postpartum women, and infants

Pertussis disease in the United States has been increasing since 1976 and many states are reporting epidemics. Pertussis is more severe in infants less than 3 months of age and is characterized by high hospital admission rates, apnea of the infant. The CDC recommends that Tdap be administered to all pregnant women after the 20th week of gestation to provide pertussis antibodies to the fetus which will offer protection against pertussis disease. Tdap is highly immunogenetic in the pregnant women and has an excellent safety profile. Tdap given to the postpartum patient and her cocoon family is an alternative strategy.

Human teratogens update 2011: can we ensure safety during pregnancy?

Anniversaries of the identification of three human teratogens (i.e., rubella virus in 1941, thalidomide in 1961, and diethylstilbestrol in 1971) occurred in 2011. These experiences highlight the critical role that scientists with an interest in teratology play in the identification of teratogenic exposures as the basis for developing strategies for prevention of those exposures and the adverse outcomes associated with them. However, an equally important responsibility for teratologists is to evaluate whether medications and vaccines are safe for use during pregnancy so informed decisions about disease treatment and prevention during pregnancy can be made. Several recent studies have examined the safety of medications during pregnancy, including antiviral medications used to treat herpes simplex and zoster, proton pump inhibitors used to treat gastroesophageal reflux, and newer-generation antiepileptic medications used to treat seizures and other conditions. Despite the large numbers of pregnant women included in these studies and the relatively reassuring results, the question of whether these medications are teratogens remains. In addition, certain vaccines are recommended during pregnancy to prevent infections in mothers and infants, but clinical trials to test these vaccines typically exclude pregnant women; thus, evaluation of their safety depends on observational studies. For pregnant women to receive optimal care, we need to define the data needed to determine whether a medication or vaccine is "safe" for use during pregnancy. In the absence of adequate, well-controlled data, it will often be necessary to weigh the benefits of medications or vaccines with potential risks to the embryo or fetus.

Cocooning: a concept to protect young children from infectious diseases

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Despite focused efforts aimed at preventing infectious diseases among infants, recent years have seen a surge of infections among this population, particularly in pertussis, reminiscent of the 1940s prevaccine era. Given these trends, this review serves to discuss cocooning for infants against pertussis and its more recent application in influenza, and the barriers to and facilitators of this important strategy.

RECENT FINDINGS

Infection with pertussis and influenza remains a significant cause of hospitalization among infants aged less than 1 year. Simultaneously, uptake of both tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) and influenza vaccines is very low among adults reporting close contact with an infant. To date, widespread implementation of cocooning has been thwarted by both individual-level and system-level issues, although general acceptance of vaccination is high in settings in which cocooning is encouraged.

SUMMARY

Better characterization and improvement of the cocooning strategy are necessary. Additionally, longitudinal research evaluating the effectiveness of cocooning against pertussis and influenza is essential. Ultimately, the effectiveness of cocooning to produce sustained control of infections will be dependent on healthcare provider advocacy, patient education, implementation and enforcement of policies, and the development of cost-effective programs.

Increasing adult Tdap vaccination rates by vaccinating infant caregivers in the pediatric office

OBJECTIVE

To increase adult caregiver Tdap vaccination rates by offering Tdap vaccine during infant well-child visits.

METHODS

We developed a pilot vaccine initiative wherein pediatricians offered Tdap vaccine to mothers and non-mother caregivers attending the 2-week well-child visit at a hospital-based clinic serving predominantly low-income families. We evaluated this initiative by asking mothers and caregivers to participate in a survey after the 2-week visit to determine self-reported Tdap vaccination status, demographics, and the source of their adult primary care.

RESULTS

Seventy (69%) participants received the Tdap vaccine during the newborns' 2-week well-child visit. Forty-six percent of the infants' 152 adult household contacts were vaccinated through this initiative. Of those mothers and caregivers, more caregivers reported not having insurance (38% vs 15%, P < .001), and no routine medical care (23% vs 8%, P = .007).

CONCLUSIONS

Through this pilot initiative, we vaccinated 69% of mothers and non-mother caregivers presenting to the 2-week well-child visit. A large proportion of caregivers did not receive routine medical care or have insurance, which suggests that they otherwise may have poor access to the vaccine. Tdap vaccination in the pediatric office represents a substantial opportunity to increase vaccination rates.

Impact of maternal postpartum tetanus and diphtheria toxoids and acellular pertussis immunization on infant pertussis infection

BACKGROUND

Mothers often are the source of pertussis illness in young infants. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend tetanus and diphtheria toxoids and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine for postpartum women before hospital discharge. In January 2008, this recommendation was implemented in a predominantly Hispanic, medically underserved population at Ben Taub General Hospital (BTGH) in Houston (hereafter the intervention population).

METHODS

A cross-sectional study compared preintervention (July 2000 through December 2007) and postintervention (January 2008 through May 2009) periods. Pertussis diagnosis was determined using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9) codes and microbiology reports from 4 major children's hospitals in Houston. Only those infants ≤6 months of age with laboratory-confirmed pertussis illness were included. The proportions of pertussis-infected infants born at BTGH in the pre- and postintervention periods were compared.

RESULTS

Of 514 infants with pertussis, 378 (73.5%) were identified during preintervention and 136 (26.5%) during postintervention years. These groups were similar in age (mean, 79.3 vs 72 days; P = .08), sex (males, 55% vs 52%; P = .48), length of hospitalization (mean, 9.7 vs 10.7 days; P = .62), mortality (2 deaths each; P = .29) and hospital of pertussis diagnosis. After adjustment for age, sex, and ethnicity, the proportions of pertussis-infected infants born at BTGH and potentially protected through maternal postpartum Tdap immunization were similar for the 2 periods (6.9% vs 8.8%; odds ratio, 1.06; 95% confidence interval, 0.5-2.2; P = .87).

CONCLUSIONS

Immunizing only postpartum mothers with Tdap vaccine did not reduce pertussis illness in infants ≤6 months of age. Efforts should be directed at immunizing all household and key contacts of newborns with Tdap, not just mothers.

Immunizing parents and other close family contacts in the pediatric office setting

Additional strategies are needed to protect children from vaccine-preventable diseases. In particular, very young infants, as well as children who are immunocompromised, are at especially high risk for developing the serious consequences of vaccine-preventable diseases and cannot be immunized completely. There is some evidence that children who become infected with these diseases are exposed to pathogens through household contacts, particularly from parents or other close family contacts. Such infections likely are attributable to adults who are not fully protected from these diseases, either because their immunity to vaccine-preventable diseases has waned over time or because they have not received a vaccine. There are many challenges that have added to low adult immunization rates in the United States. One option to increase immunization coverage for parents and close family contacts of infants and vulnerable children is to provide alternative locations for these adults to be immunized, such as the pediatric office setting. Ideally, adults should receive immunizations in their medical homes; however, to provide greater protection to these adults and reduce the exposure of children to pathogens, immunizing parents or other adult family contacts in the pediatric office setting could increase immunization coverage for this population to protect themselves as well as children to whom they provide care.

Use of models to identify cost-effective interventions: pertussis vaccination for pediatric health care workers

OBJECTIVE

Acellular pertussis vaccine is safe and effective in adults. An explicit recommendation for pertussis booster vaccination in pediatric health care workers is based on the importance of health care workers as a potential source of infection for patients. However, limited information is available on the economic attractiveness of this intervention. We sought to evaluate the health-economic attractiveness of a diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis booster vaccination program for health care workers in a pediatric intensive care setting.

METHODS

We developed a Markov model to calculate the cost-effectiveness of vaccinating NICU health care workers in different proportions ranging from the current strategy of no pertussis booster vaccination program to a vaccination program that achieves between 25% and 95% vaccine coverage.

RESULTS

Implementation of a vaccination program that achieves 25% coverage was projected to be cost-saving compared with no vaccine program. At all coverage levels the intervention reduced costs, increased life expectancy, and was cost-effective. Projections were most sensitive to the risk of a pertussis introduction via an infected health care worker. Once the monthly risk of an introduction exceeded ∼0.3%, implementation of an immunization program with at least 25% coverage provided both greater health and greater economic benefits than having no vaccine program.

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of a hospital-based and funded diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis vaccine program administered through an occupational health program is cost-effective or cost-saving in the context of pediatric health care facilities in which many of the patients are at risk of serious morbidity and mortality should they acquire pertussis while hospitalized.

Midwife attitudes: an important determinant of maternal postpartum pertussis booster vaccination

BACKGROUND

The study was designed to determine the feasibility of implementing routine dTpa vaccination in the maternity ward to new mothers and to assess midwives' attitudes toward pertussis booster vaccination, their perceived susceptibility and severity of pertussis in their patients' communities, the perceived barriers and benefits of their patients' vaccinations, and their cues to action and self-efficacy in delivering the vaccine.

METHOD

A self-completed questionnaire was developed to evaluate constructs of the Health Belief Model as well as to measure midwife demographic information. Questionnaires were completed by midwives during in-services at both a public hospital and a private hospital in New South Wales, Australia.

RESULTS

Midwives who perceived ease in integrating booster vaccination into their workload were more likely to have high self-efficacy in delivering booster vaccination, measured through perceived importance of the role as part of their job (r = .449, p<.01), perceived confidence in delivering vaccination as part of their role (r = .608, p<.01), and perceived sufficient level of skills to deliver booster vaccination (r = .528, p<.01).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that, of the factors measured, the most important to midwives in terms of providing pertussis booster vaccination to mothers was their own perceived self-efficacy of providing the vaccination. To increase midwives' desire and confidence to provide pertussis booster to mothers, educational materials and skills workshops could be offered.

Implementation of cocooning against pertussis in a high-risk population

BACKGROUND

In 2006, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended tetanus, diphtheria, acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccination of all caregivers of infants aged <1 year ("cocooning") to prevent pertussis-related complications and deaths. We implemented cocooning in a predominantly Hispanic, medically underserved, uninsured population at a Houston hospital. Phase 1 (January 2008-January 2010) provided maternal postpartum Tdap vaccine; Phase 2 (June 2009-January 2010) also vaccinated infant contacts on-site.

METHODS

Pertussis education was provided to health care personnel and mothers. Standing orders for maternal postpartum Tdap vaccination were initiated. Mothers were interviewed to ascertain the number of additional infant contacts eligible to receive Tdap vaccine. Consenting eligible contacts received Tdap vaccine as soon as possible after delivery.

RESULTS

From 7 January 2008 through 31 January 2010, 8334 (75%) of 11,174 postpartum women received Tdap vaccine. During Phase 2, 2969 (86%) of 3455 postpartum women were vaccinated; another 197 (6%) had previously received Tdap vaccine. Mothers were Hispanic (91.4%), black (5.4%), white (0.8%), Asian (1.4%) and other (1.0%). A median of 3 (range, 1-11) other Tdap-eligible contacts per infant were identified, and a median of 2 (range, 0-10) contacts per infant received Tdap vaccine. Of 1860 contacts vaccinated, 1813 (98%) anticipated daily infant contact. A total of 1697 (91%) received Tdap vaccine before infant hospital discharge, and 144 (8%) received Tdap vaccine within 7 days after hospital discharge. Barriers to full cocooning included the need for extended vaccination hours, visiting restrictions because of pandemic H1N1 influenza, and inaccurate recall of vaccination history.

CONCLUSION

Although practical and logistical barriers exist, Tdap cocooning was well accepted by and successfully implemented in a high-risk population by using standing orders and providing vaccinations on-site.

Clinical characteristics and outcomes of neonatal pertussis: a comparative study

We describe the features and outcomes of neonatal pertussis and compare these with neonates with non-pertussis acute respiratory illness from July 2000 through December 2007. Patients with pertussis had a more severe course of disease as evidenced by the clinical presentation, length of hospitalization, and oxygen requirement. Clinicians should have a high index of suspicion so that appropriate supportive care can be initiated promptly.