Vaccine potential of recombinant saposin-like protein 2 against Fasciolosis gigantica in mice

Construction and mouse antibody response evaluation of juvenile stage-specific chimeric protein from Fasciola gigantica

Fasciolosis, caused by the liver fluke Fasciola gigantica, is a major parasitic disease that affects livestock and therefore causes significant economic losses in tropical countries. Although anthelminthic drugs can kill the parasite, drug-resistant liver fluke populations are increasing. In this study, a recombinant F. gigantica chimeric protein (rFgCHI) consisting of cathepsin L1H (FgCL1H), cathepsin B3 (FgCB3), and Saposin-like protein 1 (FgSAP1) was designed and expressed in Escherichia coli (BL21). The molecular weight of rFgCHI was 61 kDa. To study the antibody response, male BALB/c mice were immunized via the subcutaneous injection of rFgCHI combined with Quil A. Immunization with rFgCHI showed the induction of IgG1 and IgG2a with a higher IgG1 isotype level, indicating the potential of mixed Th1/Th2 immune responses, with Th2 predominating. However, the results showed high levels of IgG against the single proteins, except for rFgSAP1. Through Western blotting, mouse anti-rFgCHI polyclonal antibodies could be detected to the native proteins obtained from the parasite at all stages. Immunolocalization also revealed that the anti-rFgCHI antibodies could detect targeted antigens in the cecal epithelium of the parasite. These results demonstrated that rFgCHI is immunogenic to the mouse immune system and may potentially be a protein candidate for the development of a fasciolosis vaccine.

Combination Vaccines of Fasciola gigantica Saposin-like Protein-2 and Leucine Aminopeptidase

Saposin-like protein-2 (SAP-2) and leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) are major proteins involved in the digestive process of Fasciola gigantica (Fg). Both SAP-2 and LAP are highly expressed in F. gigantica; therefore, they could be vaccine candidates for fasciolosis. The aims of this study are (1) to observe the tissue expression of F. gigantica SAP-2 (FgSAP-2) and F. gigantica LAP (FgLAP) in F. gigantica by indirect immunofluorescence technique under confocal microscopy and (2) to test the vaccine potentials of individual and combined recombinant (r) FgSAP-2 and rFgLAP against F. gigantica in Imprinting Control Region (ICR) mice (n = 10 per group). By indirect immunofluorescence-confocal microscopy, FgSAP-2 and FgLAP were localized in the caecal epithelium but at different sites: FgSAP-2 appeared in small granules that are distributed in the middle and lower parts of the cytoplasm of epithelial cells, while FgLAP appeared as a line or zone in the apical cytoplasm of caecal epithelial cells. For vaccine testing, the percent protection of combined rFgSAP-2 and rFgLAP vaccines against F. gigantica was at 80.7 to 81.4% when compared with aluminum hydroxide (alum) adjuvant and unimmunized controls, respectively. The levels of IgG1 and IgG2a in the sera were significantly increased in single and combine vaccinated groups compared with the control groups. Vaccinated mice showed reduced liver damage when compared with control groups. This study indicates that the combined rFgSAP-2 and rFgLAP vaccine had a higher vaccine potential than a single vaccine. These results support the further testing and application of this combined vaccine against F. gigantica infection in farmed livestock animals.

Proteomic analysis of Fasciola gigantica excretory and secretory products (FgESPs) co-immunoprecipitated using a time course of infected buffalo sera

Introduction

Widespread Fasciola gigantica infection in buffaloes has caused great economic losses in buffalo farming. Studies on F. gigantica excretory and secretory products (FgESP) have highlighted their importance in F. gigantica parasitism and their potential in vaccine development. Identifying FgESP components involved in F. gigantica-buffalo interactions during different periods is important for developing effective strategies against fasciolosis.

Methods

Buffaloes were assigned to non-infection (n = 3, as control group) and infection (n = 3) groups. The infection group was orally administrated 250 metacercariae. Sera were collected at 3, 10, and 16 weeks post-infection (wpi) for the non-infection group and at 0 (pre-infection), 1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 13, and 16 wpi for the infection group. FgESP components interacting with sera from the non-infection and infection groups assay were pulled down by co-IP and identified using LC-MS/MS. Interacting FgESP components in infection group were subjected to Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) metabolic pathway and gene ontology (GO) functional annotation to infer their potential functions.

Results and discussion

Proteins of FgESP components identified in the non-infection group at 3, 10, and 16 wpi accounted for 80.5%, 84.3%, and 82.1% of all proteins identified in these three time points, respectively, indicating surroundings did not affect buffalo immune response during maintenance. Four hundred and ninety proteins were identified in the infection group, of which 87 were consistently identified at 7 time points. Following GO analysis showed that most of these 87 proteins were in biological processes, while KEGG analysis showed they mainly functioned in metabolism and cellular processing, some of which were thought to functions throughout the infection process. The numbers of specific interactors identified for each week were 1 (n = 12), 3 (n = 5), 6 (n = 8), 8 (n = 15), 10 (n = 23), 13 (n = 22), and 16 (n = 14) wpi, some of which were thought to functions in specific infection process. This study screened the antigenic targets in FgESP during a dense time course over a long period. These findings may enhance the understanding of molecular F. gigantica-buffalo interactions and help identify new potential vaccine and drug target candidates.

The combined recombinant cathepsin L1H and cathepsin B3 vaccine against Fasciola gigantica infection

Protections against Fasciola gigantica infection in mice immunized with the individual and combined cathepsin L1H and cathepsin B3 vaccines were assessed. The vaccines comprised recombinant (r) pro-proteins of cathepsin L1H and B3 (rproFgCatL1H and rproFgCatB3) and combined proteins which were expressed in Pichia pastoris. The experimental trials were performed in ICR mice (n = 10 per group) by subcutaneous injection with 50 μg of the recombinant proteins combined with Alum or Freund's adjuvants. At two weeks after the third immunization, mice were infected with 15 F. gigantica metacercariae per mouse by oral route. The percents of protection of rproFgCatL1H, rproFgCatB3 and combined vaccines against F. gigantica were approximately 58.8 to 75.0% when compared with adjuvant-infected control. These protective effects were similar among groups receiving vaccines with Alum or Freund's adjuvants. By determining the levels of IgG1 and IgG2a in the immune sera, which are indicative of Th1 and Th2 immune responses, it was found that both Th1 and Th2 humoral immune responses were significantly increased in vaccinated groups compared with the control groups, with higher levels of IgG1 (Th2) than IgG2a (Th1). Mice in vaccinated groups showed reduction in liver pathological lesions when compared with control groups. This study indicates that the combined rproFgCatB3 and rproFgCatL1H vaccine had a high protective potential than a single a vaccine, with Alum and Freund's adjuvants showing similar level of protection. These results can serve as guidelines for the testing of this F. gigantica vaccine in larger economic animals.

Identification of small molecule enzyme inhibitors as broad-spectrum anthelmintics

Targeting chokepoint enzymes in metabolic pathways has led to new drugs for cancers, autoimmune disorders and infectious diseases. This is also a cornerstone approach for discovery and development of anthelmintics against nematode and flatworm parasites. Here, we performed omics-driven knowledge-based identification of chokepoint enzymes as anthelmintic targets. We prioritized 10 of 186 phylogenetically conserved chokepoint enzymes and undertook a target class repurposing approach to test and identify new small molecules with broad spectrum anthelmintic activity. First, we identified and tested 94 commercially available compounds using an in vitro phenotypic assay, and discovered 11 hits that inhibited nematode motility. Based on these findings, we performed chemogenomic screening and tested 32 additional compounds, identifying 6 more active hits. Overall, 6 intestinal (single-species), 5 potential pan-intestinal (whipworm and hookworm) and 6 pan-Phylum Nematoda (intestinal and filarial species) small molecule inhibitors were identified, including multiple azoles, Tadalafil and Torin-1. The active hit compounds targeted three different target classes in humans, which are involved in various pathways, including carbohydrate, amino acid and nucleotide metabolism. Last, using representative inhibitors from each target class, we demonstrated in vivo efficacy characterized by negative effects on parasite fecundity in hamsters infected with hookworms.

A Survey on the Adjuvant Role of Naloxone Alone or Combined with Alum in Vaccination Against Fasciolosis in BALB/c Mice

BACKGROUND

Fasciolosis is a zoonotic parasitic disease imposing a heavy load of livestock losses worldwide.

PURPOSE

We aimed to evaluate immune-stimulatory effects of naloxone (NLX), an opioid receptor antagonist, in combination with alum in mice vaccinated with excretory-secretory antigens (E/S) of Fasciola hepatica.

METHODS

8-week-old female BALB/c mice were subcutaneously vaccinated using E/S antigens of F. hepatica. Experimental groups (14 mice per group) included: vaccine (E/S antigen), alum vaccine (E/S antigen plus alum), NLX vaccine (E/S antigen plus NLX), and alum-NLX vaccine (E/S antigen plus a mixture of alum-NLX). The control group was infused with PBS. Lymphocyte proliferation and the levels of IFN-γ, IL-4, IgG2a, IgG1, and total IgG were measured.

RESULTS

Mice vaccinated with NLX or alum-NLX adjuvants showed significantly higher rates of lymphocyte proliferation, IFN-γ, total IgG, and IgG2a levels. The mice that were injected with alum showed a significantly higher concentration of IL-4. Ratios of IFN-γ/Il-4 and IgG2a/IgG1 were significantly higher in the NLX and alum-NLX groups in comparison with the groups vaccinated either with alum or without any adjuvant. A significantly higher protection rate (62.5%) was seen in mice vaccinated with the alum-NLX adjuvant compared to the other groups.

CONCLUSION

NLX can be effective in conferring cellular immunity and protection against F. hepatica. It is recommended to consider this agent as a potential adjuvant in vaccines against fasciolosis.

Trematode Genomics and Proteomics

Trematode infections are among the most neglected tropical diseases despite their worldwide distribution and extraordinary ability to parasitise many different host species and host tissues. Furthermore, these parasites are of great socioeconomic, medical, veterinary and agricultural importance. During the last 10 years, there have been increasing efforts to overcome the lack of information on different "omic" resources such as proteomics and genomics. Herein, we focus on the recent advances in genomics and proteomics from trematodes of human importance, including liver, blood, intestinal and lung flukes. We also provide information on the latest technologies applied to study the biology of trematodes as well as on the resources available for the study of the molecular aspects of this group of helminths.

Naltrexone; as an efficient adjuvant in induction of Th1 immunity and protection against Fasciola hepatica infection

Toxic effects of available therapeutics are major drawbacks for conventional management approaches in parasitic infections. Vaccines have provided a promising opportunity to obviate such unwanted complications. In present study, we examined immune augmenting capacities of an emerging adjuvant, Naltrexone, against Fasciola hepatica infection in BALB/c mice. Seventy BALB/c mice were divided into five experimental groups (14 mice per group) including 1- control (received PBS), 2- vaccine (immunized with F. hepatica E/S antigens), 3- Alum-vaccine (immunized with Alum adjuvant and E/S antigens), 4- NLT-vaccine (immunized with NLT adjuvant and E/S antigens), and 5- Alum-NLT-vaccine (immunized with mixed Alum-NLT adjuvant and E/S antigens). Lymphocyte stimulation index was assessed by MTT assay. Production of IFN-γ, IL-4, IgG2a and IgG1 was assessed by ELISA method. Results showed that NLT, either alone or in combination with alum, can induce immune response toward production of IFN-γ and IgG2a as representatives of Th1 immune response. Also, using this adjuvant in immunization experiment was associated with significantly high proliferative response of splenocytes/lymphocytes. Utilization of mixed Alum-NLT adjuvant revealed the highest protection rate (73.8%) in challenge test of mice infected with F. hepatica. These findings suggest the potential role of NLT as an effective adjuvant in induction of protective cellular and Th1 immune responses against fasciolosis.

Congenital melanocytic nevi in young children: Histopathologic features and clinical outcomes

BACKGROUND

Although only large congenital melanocytic nevi (CMN) are associated with a significantly high risk for malignant transformation, CMN of all sizes are prone to changes in clinical appearance in early childhood and thus are often biopsied or excised. While CMNs typically exhibit benign behavior, atypical histopathologic findings might be common and may prompt additional unnecessary procedures.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the prevalence and associated clinical outcomes of atypical histopathologic features in CMN in children.

METHODS

A single center retrospective study was conducted with patients 0-35 months of age with CMN diagnosed by histopathology between 1993-2013.

RESULTS

One hundred seventy-nine patients with a total of 197 CMNs were identified. Cytologic atypia, architectural disorder, or pagetoid spread were present in 73% of CMN. With a mean follow up of 7.3 years, no cases of melanoma or CMN-related deaths were identified.

LIMITATIONS

Our findings were based on a largely Caucasian population and might not apply to darker skin types. Our findings might not apply to older children or adults with CMN.

CONCLUSION

Atypical histopathologic features of cytologic atypia, architectural disorder, and pagetoid spread are common in benign CMN of young children.

Development of Fasciola Vaccine in an Animal Model

Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica are the parasites that cause the zoonotic parasitic disease called fasciolosis. Although several anthelmintic drugs have been used to treat these parasitic infections, recombinant protein vaccines have been developed to overcome the anthelmintic resistance that has recently been reported in many regions of the world. These vaccines have been shown to induce high levels of immune responses and high percentages of protection in experimental and large animals. Efficacies of these vaccines suggest they could be an alternative and sustainable strategy to prevent fasciolosis in animals as well as humans in the future. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a protocol to develop a recombinant protein-based vaccine against Fasciola infection in mice. Moreover, this method can also be used as a guideline when the vaccination is performed in larger animals.

Characterization and vaccine potential of Fasciola gigantica saposin-like protein 1 (SAP-1)

The recombinant Fasciola gigantica Saposin-like protien-1 (rFgSAP-1) was cloned by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from NEJ cDNA, expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) and used for production of a polyclonal antibody in rabbits (anti-rFgSAP-1). By immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry, rabbit IgG anti-rFgSAP-1 reacted with rFgSAP-1 at a molecular weight 12kDa, but not with rFgSAP-2. The rFgSAP-1 reacted with antisera from mouse infected with F. gigantica metacercariae collected at 2, 4, and 6 weeks after infection. The FgSAP-1 protein was expressed at a high level in the caecal epithelium of metacercariae and NEJs. The vaccination was performed in Imprinting Control Region (ICR) mice (n=10) by subcutaneous injection with 50μg of rFgSAP-1 combined with Alum adjuvant. Two weeks after the second boost, mice were infected with 15 metacercariae per mouse by the oral route. The percents protection of rFgSAP-1 vaccine were estimated to be 73.2% and 74.3% when compared with non vaccinated-infected and adjuvant-infected controls, respectively. The levels of IgG1 and IgG2a specific to rFgSAP-1 in the immune sera, which are indicative of Th2 and Th1 immune responses, were inversely and significantly correlated with the numbers of worm recoveries. The rFgSAP-1-vaccinated mice showed significantly reduced levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and liver damage. These indicated that rFgSAP-1 has strong potential as a vaccine candidate against F. gigantica, whose efficacy will be studied further in large economic animals including cattle, sheep, and goat.

Cytosolic superoxide dismutase can provide protection against Fasciola gigantica

Superoxide dismutases (SOD), antioxidant metallo-enzymes, are a part of the first line of defense in the trematode parasites which act as the chief scavengers for reactive oxygen species (ROS). A recombinant Fasciola gigantica cytosolic SOD (FgSOD) was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) and used for immunizing rabbits to obtain polyclonal antibodies (anti-rFgSOD). This rabbit anti-rFgSOD reacted with the native FgSOD at a molecular weight of 17.5kDa. The FgSOD protein was expressed at high level in parenchyma, caecal epithelium and egg of the parasite. The rFgSOD reacted with antisera from rabbits infected with F. gigantica metacercariae collected at 2, 5, and 7 weeks after infection, and reacted with sera of infected mice. Anti-rFgSOD exhibited cross reactivity with the other parasites' antigens, including Eurytrema pancreaticum, Cotylophoron cotylophorum, Fischoederius cobboldi, Gastrothylax crumenifer, Paramphistomum cervi, and Setaria labiato papillosa. A vaccination was performed in imprinting control region (ICR) mice by subcutaneous injection with 50μg of rFgSOD combined with Freund's adjuvant. At 2 weeks after the second boost, mice were infected with 15 metacercariae by oral route. IgG1 and IgG2a in the immune sera were determined to indicate Th2 and Th1 immune responses. It was found that the parasite burden was reduced by 45%, and both IgG1 and IgG2a levels showed correlation with the numbers of worm recoveries.

Vaccine potential of recombinant cathepsinL1G against Fasciola gigantica in mice

In this study, we characterized and investigated the vaccine potential of FgCatL1G against Fasciola gigantica infection in mice. Recombinant mature FgCatL1G (rmFgCatL1G) was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21. The vaccination was performed in Imprinting Control Region (ICR) mice (n=10) by subcutaneous injection with 50μg of rmFgCatL1G combined with Freund's adjuvant. Two weeks after the second boost, mice were infected with 15 metacercariae by the oral route. The percents of protection of rmFgCatL1G vaccine were estimated to be 56.5% and 58.3% when compared with non vaccinated-infected and adjuvant-infected controls, respectively. Antibodies in the immune sera of vaccinated mice were shown by immunoblot to react with the native FgCatL1s in the extract of all stages of parasites and rmFgCatL1H, recombinant pro - FgCatL1 (rpFgCatL1). By immunohistochemistry, the immune sera also reacted with FgCatL1s in the caecal epithelial cells of the parasites. The levels of IgG1 and IgG2a in the immune sera, which are indicative of Th2 and Th1 immune responses, were also increased with IgG1 predominating. The levels of serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) and serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) in rmFgCatL1G-immunized group showed no significant difference from the control groups, but pathological lesions of livers in rmFgCatL1G-immunized group showed significant decrease when compared to the control groups. This study indicates that rmFgCatL1G has a vaccine potential against F. gigantica in mice, and this potential will be tested in larger livestock animals.

Adjuvant-enhanced antibody and cellular responses to inclusion bodies expressing FhSAP2 correlates with protection of mice to Fasciola hepatica

Fasciola hepatica saposin-like protein-2 (FhSAP2) is a protein differentially expressed in various developmental stages of F. hepatica. Recombinant FhSAP2 has demonstrated the induction of partial protection in mice and rabbits when it is administered subcutaneously (SC) in Freund's adjuvant. Because FhSAP2 is overexpressed in bacteria in the form of inclusion bodies (IBs), we isolated IBs expressing FhSAP2 and tested their immunogenicity when administered SC in mice emulsified in two different adjuvants: QS-21 and Montanide TM ISA720. Animals received three injections containing 20 μg of protein two weeks apart and 4 weeks after the third injection, mice were infected with 10 F. hepatica metacercariae by oral route. The percentages of protection induced by FhSAP2-IBs were estimated to be between 60.0 and 62.5% when compared with adjuvant-vaccinated, infected controls. By determining the levels of IgG1 and IgG2a antibodies and IL-4 and IFNγ cytokines in the serum of experimental animals, it was found that both Th1 and Th2 immune responses were significantly increased in the FhSAP2-IBs vaccinated groups compared with the adjuvant-vaccinated, infected control groups. The adjuvant-vaccinated groups had significantly lower IgG1 to IgG2a ratios and lower IL-4 to IFNγ ratios than the FhSAP2-IBs vaccinated animals, which is indicative of higher levels of Th2 immune responses. Irrespective to the adjuvant used, animals vaccinated with FhSAP2-IBs exhibited significantly higher survival percentage and less liver damage than the adjuvant-control groups. This study suggests that FhSAP2 has potential as vaccine against F. hepatica and that the protection elicited by this molecule could be linked to a mechanism driven by the CD4-Th1 cells.

Vaccine potential of recombinant pro- and mature cathepsinL1 against fasciolosis gigantica in mice

In Fasciola gigantica cathepsin L1 (CatL1) is a family of predominant proteases that is expressed in caecal epithelial cells and secreted into the excretory-secretory products (ES). CatL1 isotypes are expressed in both early and late stages of the life cycle and the parasites use them for migration and digestion. Therefore, CatL1 is a plausible target for vaccination against this parasite. Recombinant pro-F.gigantica CatL1 (rproFgCatL1) and recombinant mature F.gigantica CatL1 (rmatFgCatL1) were expressed in Escherichia coli BL21. The vaccination was performed in Imprinting Control Region (ICR) mice (n=10) by subcutaneous injection with 50μg of rproFgCatL1 and rmatFgCatL1 combined with Freund's adjuvant. Two weeks after the second boost, mice were infected with 15 metacercariae by the oral route. The level of protection of rproFgCatL1 and rmatFgCatL1 vaccines was estimated to be 39.1, 41.7% and 44.9, 47.2% when compared with non vaccinated-infected and adjuvant-infected controls, respectively. Antibodies in the immune sera of vaccinated mice were shown by immuno-blotting to react with the native FgCatL1 in the extract of newly excysted juveniles (NEJ), 4-week-old juveniles and the ES products of 4 week-old juveniles. By determining the levels of IgG1 and IgG2a in the immune sera, which are indicative of Th2 and Th1 immune response, respectively, it was found that both Th1 and Th2 responses were significantly increased in rproFgCatL1- and rmatFgCatL1-immunized groups compared with the control groups, with higher levels of Th2 (IgG1) than Th1 (IgG2a). The levels of serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) in rmatFgCatL1-immunized group showed a significant decrease when compared to rproFgCatL1-immunized group, indicating that rmatFgCatL1-vaccinated mice had reduced liver parenchyma damage. The pathological lesions of liver in vaccinated groups were significantly decreased when compared with control groups. This study indicates that rFgCatL1 has a potential as a vaccine candidate against F. gigantica in mice, and this potential will be tested in ruminants.

Protection against Fasciola gigantica infection in mice by vaccination with recombinant juvenile-specific cathepsin L

Fasciola gigantica cathepsin L1H (FgCatL1H) is one of the major cathepsin L released by juveniles of F. gigantica to aid in the invasion of host's tissues. Due to its high sequence similarity with other cathepsin L (CatL) isoforms of late stage F. gigantica, it was considered to be a good vaccine candidate that can block all CatL-mediated protease activities and affect juveniles as well as adult parasites. In this study, recombinant proFgCatL1H protein expressed in yeast, Pichia pastoris, system was mixed with Freund's adjuvants and used to subcutaneously immunize mice that were later challenged with metacercariae of F. gigantica. The percentage of worm protection in the rproFgCatL1H-vaccinated mice compared to the non-immunized and adjuvant control mice were approximately 62.7% and 66.1%, respectively. Anti-rproFgCatL1H antisera collected from vaccinated mice reacted specifically with rproFgCatL1H and other cathepsin L isoforms of F. gigantica, but the antibodies did not cross react with antigens from other trematode and nematode parasites, including Eurytrema pancreaticum, Opisthorchis viverrini, Fischoederius cobboldi, Cotylophoron cotylophorum, Gigantocotyle explanatum, Paramphistomum cervi, and Setaria labiato-papillosa. The levels of IgG1 and IgG2a in mouse sera increased significantly at two weeks after immunization and were highest during the sixth to eighth weeks after immunization. The IgG1 level was higher than IgG2a at all periods of immunization, implicating the dominance of the Th2 response. The levels of IgG1 and IgG2a in the immune sera were shown to be strongly correlated with the numbers of worm recovery, and the correlation coefficient was higher for IgG1. The levels of serum aspartate aminotransferase and alanine transaminase were significantly lower in the sera of rproFgCatL1H-vaccinated mice than in the infected control mice indicating a lower degree of liver damage. This study demonstrated a high potential of FgCatL1H vaccine, and its efficacy is currently being studied in the larger economic animals.

Saposin-like protein 2 has an immunodiagnostic potential for detecting Fasciolosis gigantica

Saposin-like protein 2 (SAP-2) plays an important role in the digestive process of Fasciola gigantica (Fg). It is one of the major proteins synthesized by the caecal epithelial cells and released into fluke's excretion-secretion. Therefore, FgSAP-2 is a plausible target for detecting fasciolosis. A polyclonal antibody (PoAb) against recombinant FgSAP-2 was produced by immunizing rabbits with the recombinant protein (rFgSAP-2), and used in sandwich ELISA assay to detect the circulating FgSAP-2 in sera of mice experimentally infected with F. gigantica metacercariae. The assay could detect rFgSAP-2 and the native FgSAP-2 in the excretory-secretory (ES) and whole body (WB) fractions of adult F. gigantica at the concentrations as low as 38 pg/ml, 24 ng/ml, and 102 ng/ml, respectively. As well, the sera from mice experimentally infected with F. gigantica were tested positive by this sandwich ELISA, which exhibited sensitivity, specificity, false positive rate, false negative rate and accuracy at 99.99, 98.67, 1.33, 0.01 and 99.32%, respectively. Therefore, this assay could be used for diagnosis of fasciolosis by F. gigantica.

Diagnosis of human fascioliasis by stool and blood techniques: update for the present global scenario

Before the 1990s, human fascioliasis diagnosis focused on individual patients in hospitals or health centres. Case reports were mainly from developed countries and usually concerned isolated human infection in animal endemic areas. From the mid-1990s onwards, due to the progressive description of human endemic areas and human infection reports in developing countries, but also new knowledge on clinical manifestations and pathology, new situations, hitherto neglected, entered in the global scenario. Human fascioliasis has proved to be pronouncedly more heterogeneous than previously thought, including different transmission patterns and epidemiological situations. Stool and blood techniques, the main tools for diagnosis in humans, have been improved for both patient and survey diagnosis. Present availabilities for human diagnosis are reviewed focusing on advantages and weaknesses, sample management, egg differentiation, qualitative and quantitative diagnosis, antibody and antigen detection, post-treatment monitoring and post-control surveillance. Main conclusions refer to the pronounced difficulties of diagnosing fascioliasis in humans given the different infection phases and parasite migration capacities, clinical heterogeneity, immunological complexity, different epidemiological situations and transmission patterns, the lack of a diagnostic technique covering all needs and situations, and the advisability for a combined use of different techniques, at least including a stool technique and a blood technique.

Immunization against multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii effectively protects mice in both pneumonia and sepsis models

OBJECTIVE

Acinetobacter baumannii is considered the prototypical example of a multi- or pan- drug-resistant bacterium. It has been increasingly implicated as a major cause of nosocomial and community-associated infections. This study proposed to evaluate the efficacy of immunological approaches to prevent and treat A. baumannii infections.

METHODS

Mice were immunized with outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) prepared from a clinically isolated multidrug-resistant strain of A. baumannii. Pneumonia and sepsis models were used to evaluate the efficacy of active and passive immunization with OMVs. The probable effective mechanisms and the protective potential of clonally distinct clinical isolates were investigated in vitro using an opsonophagocytic assay.

RESULTS

Intramuscular immunization with OMVs rapidly produced high levels of OMV-specific IgG antibodies, and subsequent intranasal challenge with A. baumannii elicited mucosal IgA and IgG responses. Both active and passive immunization protected the mice from challenges with homologue bacteria in a sepsis model. Bacterial burden in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF), lung, and spleen, inflammatory cell infiltration in BALF and lung, and inflammatory cytokine accumulation in BALF was significantly suppressed in the pneumonia model by both active and passive immunization strategies. The antisera from immunized mice presented with significant opsonophagocytic activities in a dose-dependent manner against not only homologous strains but also five of the other six clonally distinct clinical isolates.

CONCLUSIONS

Utilizing immunological characteristics of outer membrane proteins to elevate protective immunity and circumvent complex multidrug-resistance mechanisms might be a viable approach to effectively control A. baumannii infections.

Surface display of Clonorchis sinensis enolase on Bacillus subtilis spores potentializes an oral vaccine candidate

Clonorchis sinensis (C. sinensis) infections remain the common public health problem in freshwater fish consumption areas. New effective prevention strategies are still the urgent challenges to control this kind of foodborne infectious disease. The biochemical importance and biological relevance render C. sinensis enolase (Csenolase) as a potential vaccine candidate. In the present study, we constructed Escherichia coli/Bacillus subtilis shuttle genetic engineering system and investigated the potential of Csenolase as an oral vaccine candidate for C. sinensis prevention in different immunization routes. Our results showed that, compared with control groups, both recombinant Csenolase protein and nucleic acid could induce a mixed IgG1/IgG2a immune response when administrated subcutaneously (P<0.001), intraperitoneally (P<0.01) and intramuscularly (P<0.001) with worm reduction rate of 56.29%, 15.38% and 37.42%, respectively. More importantly, Csenolase could be successfully expressed as a fusion protein (55kDa) on B. subtilis spore indicated by immunoblot and immunofluorescence assays. Killed spores triggered reactive Th1/Th2 immune response and exhibited protective efficacy against C. sinensis infection. Csenolase derived oral vaccine conferred worm reduction rate and egg reduction rate at 60.07% (P<0.001) and 80.67% (P<0.001), respectively. The shuttle genetic engineering system facilitated the development of oral vaccine with B. subtilis stably overexpressing target protein. Comparably vaccinal trails with Csenolase in different immunization routes potentialize Csenolase an oral vaccine candidate in C. sinensis prevention.