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Barta BA, Radovits T, Dobos AB, Tibor Kozma G, Mészáros T, Berényi P, Facskó R, Fülöp T, Merkely B, Szebeni J. Comirnaty-induced cardiopulmonary distress and other symptoms of complement-mediated pseudo-anaphylaxis in a hyperimmune pig model: Causal role of anti-PEG antibodies. Vaccine X 2024; 19:100497. [PMID: 38933697 PMCID: PMC11201123 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvacx.2024.100497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Comirnaty, Pfizer-BioNTech's polyethylene-glycol (PEG)-containing Covid-19 vaccine, can cause hypersensitivity reactions (HSRs), or rarely, life-threatening anaphylaxis in a small fraction of immunized people. A causal role of anti-PEG antibodies (Abs) has been proposed, but causality has not yet proven in an animal model. The aim of this study was to provide such evidence using pigs immunized against PEG, which displayed very high levels of anti-PEG antibodies (Abs). We also aimed to find evidence for a role of complement activation and thromboxane A2 release in blood to explore the mechanism of anaphylaxis. Methods Pigs (n = 6) were immunized with 0.1 mg/kg PEGylated liposome (Doxebo) i.v., and the rise of anti-PEG IgG and IgM were measured in serial blood samples with ELISA. After ∼2-3 weeks the animals were injected i.v. with 1/3 human dose of the PEGylated mRNA vaccine, Comirnaty, and the hemodynamic (PAP, SAP) cardiopulmonary (HR, EtCO2,), hematological (WBC, granulocyte, lymphocyte and platelet counts) parameters and blood immune mediators (anti-PEG IgM and IgG antibodies, thromboxane B2, C3a) were measured as endpoints of HSRs (anaphylaxis). Results The level of anti-PEG IgM and IgG rose 5-10-thousand-fold in all of 6 pigs immunized with Doxebo by day 6, after which time all animals developed anaphylactic shock to i.v. injection of 1/3 human dose of Comirnaty. The reaction, starting within 1 min involved maximal pulmonary hypertension and decreased systemic pulse pressure amplitude, tachycardia, granulo- and thrombocytopenia, and skin reactions (flushing or rash). These physiological changes or their absence were paralleled by C3a and TXB2 rises in blood. Conclusions Consistent with previous studies, these data show a causal role of anti-PEG Abs in the anaphylaxis to Comirnaty, which involves complement activation, and, hence, it represents C activation-related pseudo-anaphylaxis. The setup provides the first large-animal model for mRNA-vaccine-induced anaphylaxis in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tamás Radovits
- Heart and Vascular Center, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Gergely Tibor Kozma
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
- SeroScience LCC, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Tamás Mészáros
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
- SeroScience LCC, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Petra Berényi
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
- SeroScience LCC, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Réka Facskó
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
- SeroScience LCC, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Béla Merkely
- Heart and Vascular Center, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - János Szebeni
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
- SeroScience LCC, Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Nanobiotechnology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Miskolc University, Miskolc 2880, Hungary
- School of Chemical Engineering and Translational Nanobioscience Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
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2
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Zhang J, Ali K, Wang J. Research Advances of Lipid Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Colorectal Cancer. Int J Nanomedicine 2024; 19:6693-6715. [PMID: 38979534 PMCID: PMC11229238 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s466490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common type of gastrointestinal tract (GIT) cancer and poses an enormous threat to human health. Current strategies for metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) therapy primarily focus on chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and radiotherapy; however, their adverse reactions and drug resistance limit their clinical application. Advances in nanotechnology have rendered lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) a promising nanomaterial-based drug delivery system for CRC therapy. LNPs can adapt to the biological characteristics of CRC by modifying their formulation, enabling the selective delivery of drugs to cancer tissues. They overcome the limitations of traditional therapies, such as poor water solubility, nonspecific biodistribution, and limited bioavailability. Herein, we review the composition and targeting strategies of LNPs for CRC therapy. Subsequently, the applications of these nanoparticles in CRC treatment including drug delivery, thermal therapy, and nucleic acid-based gene therapy are summarized with examples provided. The last section provides a glimpse into the advantages, current limitations, and prospects of LNPs in the treatment of CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyi Zhang
- Department of Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of School of Medicine, and International School of Medicine, International Institutes of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Yiwu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Kamran Ali
- Department of Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of School of Medicine, and International School of Medicine, International Institutes of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Yiwu, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianwei Wang
- Department of Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of School of Medicine, and International School of Medicine, International Institutes of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Yiwu, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Colorectal Surgery and Oncology, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, Ministry of Education, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
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3
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Kang DD, Hou X, Wang L, Xue Y, Li H, Zhong Y, Wang S, Deng B, McComb DW, Dong Y. Engineering LNPs with polysarcosine lipids for mRNA delivery. Bioact Mater 2024; 37:86-93. [PMID: 38523704 PMCID: PMC10957522 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2024.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Since the approval of the lipid nanoparticles (LNP)-mRNA vaccines against the SARS-CoV-2 virus, there has been an increased interest in the delivery of mRNA through LNPs. However, current LNP formulations contain PEG lipids, which can stimulate the generation of anti-PEG antibodies. The presence of these antibodies can potentially cause adverse reactions and reduce therapeutic efficacy after administration. Given the widespread deployment of the COVID-19 vaccines, the increased exposure to PEG may necessitate the evaluation of alternative LNP formulations without PEG components. In this study, we investigated a series of polysarcosine (pSar) lipids as alternatives to the PEG lipids to determine whether pSar lipids could still provide the functionality of the PEG lipids in the ALC-0315 and SM-102 LNP systems. We found that complete replacement of the PEG lipid with a pSar lipid can increase or maintain mRNA delivery efficiency and exhibit similar safety profiles in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana D. Kang
- Icahn Genomics Institute, Precision Immunology Institute, Department of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute, Friedman Brain Institute, Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Division of Pharmaceutics & Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Xucheng Hou
- Icahn Genomics Institute, Precision Immunology Institute, Department of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute, Friedman Brain Institute, Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Leiming Wang
- Icahn Genomics Institute, Precision Immunology Institute, Department of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute, Friedman Brain Institute, Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Yonger Xue
- Icahn Genomics Institute, Precision Immunology Institute, Department of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute, Friedman Brain Institute, Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Division of Pharmaceutics & Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Haoyuan Li
- Icahn Genomics Institute, Precision Immunology Institute, Department of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute, Friedman Brain Institute, Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Yichen Zhong
- Icahn Genomics Institute, Precision Immunology Institute, Department of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute, Friedman Brain Institute, Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Siyu Wang
- Icahn Genomics Institute, Precision Immunology Institute, Department of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute, Friedman Brain Institute, Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Binbin Deng
- Center for Electron Microscopy and Analysis, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43212, USA
| | - David W. McComb
- Center for Electron Microscopy and Analysis, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43212, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Yizhou Dong
- Icahn Genomics Institute, Precision Immunology Institute, Department of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute, Friedman Brain Institute, Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Division of Pharmaceutics & Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
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4
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Li Y, Ettah U, Jacques S, Gaikwad H, Monte A, Dylla L, Guntupalli S, Moghimi SM, Simberg D. Optimized Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Anti-PEG Antibody Detection in Healthy Donors and Patients Treated with PEGylated Liposomal Doxorubicin. Mol Pharm 2024; 21:3053-3060. [PMID: 38743264 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.4c00278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
There is considerable interest in quantifying anti-PEG antibodies, given their potential involvement in accelerated clearance, complement activation, neutralization, and acute reactions associated with drug delivery systems. Published and commercially available anti-PEG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) differ significantly in terms of reagents and conditions, which could be confusing to users who want to perform in-house measurements. Here, we optimize the ELISA protocol for specific detection of anti-PEG IgG and IgM in sera from healthy donors and in plasma from cancer patients administered with PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin. The criterion of specificity is the ability of free PEG or PEGylated liposomes to inhibit the ELISA signals. We found that coating high-binding plates with monoamine methoxy-PEG5000, as opposed to bovine serum albumin-PEG20000, and blocking with 1% milk, as opposed to albumin or lysozyme, significantly improve the specificity, with over 95% of the signal being blocked by competition. Despite inherent between-assay variability, setting the cutoff value of the optical density at the 80th percentile consistently identified the same subjects. Using the optimized assay, we longitudinally measured levels of anti-PEG IgG/IgM in cancer patients before and after the PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin chemotherapy cycle (1 month apart, three cycles total). Antibody titers did not show any increase but rather a decrease between treatment cycles, and up to 90% of antibodies was bound to the infused drug. This report is a step toward harmonizing anti-PEG assays in human subjects, emphasizing the cost-effectiveness and optimized specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
| | - Utibeabasi Ettah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
| | - Sarah Jacques
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
| | - Hanmant Gaikwad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
- Colorado Center for Nanomedicine and Nanosafety, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
| | - Andrew Monte
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
| | - Layne Dylla
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
| | - Saketh Guntupalli
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado School of Medicine Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
| | - S Moein Moghimi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
- Colorado Center for Nanomedicine and Nanosafety, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
- School of Pharmacy, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU , U.K
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, U.K
| | - Dmitri Simberg
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
- Colorado Center for Nanomedicine and Nanosafety, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045-2559, United States
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Lin W, Li A, Qiu L, Huang H, Cui P, Wang J. Albumin Nanoparticles Increase the Efficacy of Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Liposome Injection Based on Threshold Theory. Mol Pharm 2024; 21:2970-2980. [PMID: 38742943 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.4c00097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
One of the most significant reasons hindering the clinical translation of nanomedicines is the rapid clearance of intravenously injected nanoparticles by the mononuclear phagocyte system, particularly by Kupffer cells in the liver, leading to an inefficient delivery of nanomedicines for tumor treatment. The threshold theory suggests that the liver's capacity to clear nanoparticles is limited, and a single high dose of nanoparticles can reduce the hepatic clearance efficiency, allowing more nanomedicines to reach tumor tissues and enhance therapeutic efficacy. Building upon this theory, researchers have conducted numerous validation studies based on the same nanoparticle carrier systems. These studies involve the use of albumin nanoparticles to improve the therapeutic efficacy of albumin nanomedicines as well as polyethylene glycol (PEG)-modified liposomal nanoparticles to enhance the efficacy of PEGylated liposomal nanomedicines. However, there is no research indicating the feasibility of the threshold theory when blank nanoparticles and nanomedicine belong to different nanoparticle carrier systems currently. In this study, we prepared two different sizes of albumin nanoparticles by using bovine serum albumin. We used the marketed nanomedicine liposomal doxorubicin hydrochloride injection (trade name: LIBOD, manufacturer: Shanghai Fudan-zhangjiang Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd.), as the representative nanomedicine. Through in vivo experiments, we found that using threshold doses of albumin nanoparticles still can reduce the clearance rate of LIBOD, prolong its time in vivo, increase the area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC), and also lead to an increased accumulation of the drug at the tumor site. Furthermore, evaluation of in vivo efficacy and safety further indicates that threshold doses of 100 nm albumin nanoparticles can enhance the antitumor effect of LIBOD without causing harm to the animals. During the study, we found that the particle size of albumin nanoparticles influenced the in vivo distribution of the nanomedicine at the same threshold dose. Compared with 200 nm albumin nanoparticles, 100 nm albumin nanoparticles more effectively reduce the clearance efficiency of LIBOD and enhance nanomedicine accumulation at the tumor site, warranting further investigation. This study utilized albumin nanoparticles to reduce hepatic clearance efficiency and enhance the delivery efficiency of nonalbumin nanocarrier liposomal nanomedicine, providing a new avenue to improve the efficacy and clinical translation of nanomedicines with different carrier systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Lin
- School of Petroleum and Chemical Engineering, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, P. R. China
- School of Pharmacy, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, P. R. China
| | - Anyin Li
- School of Pharmacy, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, P. R. China
| | - Lin Qiu
- School of Pharmacy, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, P. R. China
| | - Hai Huang
- School of Petroleum and Chemical Engineering, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, P. R. China
| | - Pengfei Cui
- School of Pharmacy, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, P. R. China
| | - Jianhao Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, P. R. China
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6
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Pan F, Liu M, Li G, Chen B, Chu Y, Yang Y, Wu E, Yu Y, Lin S, Ding T, Wei X, Zhan C, Qian J. Phospholipid Type Regulates Protein Corona Composition and In Vivo Performance of Lipid Nanodiscs. Mol Pharm 2024; 21:2272-2283. [PMID: 38607681 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.3c01084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Over the years, there has been significant interest in PEGylated lipid-based nanocarriers within the drug delivery field. The inevitable interplay between the nanocarriers and plasma protein plays a pivotal role in their in vivo biological fate. Understanding the factors influencing lipid-based nanocarrier and protein corona interactions is of paramount importance in the design and clinical translation of these nanocarriers. Herein, discoid-shaped lipid nanodiscs (sNDs) composed of different phospholipids with varied lipid tails and head groups were fabricated. We investigated the impact of phospholipid components on the interaction between sNDs and serum proteins, particle stability, and biodistribution. The results showed that all of these lipid nanodiscs remained stable over a 15 day storage period, while their stability in the blood serum demonstrated significant differences. The sND composed of POPG exhibited the least stability due to its potent complement activation capability, resulting in rapid blood clearance. Furthermore, a negative correlation between the complement activation capability and serum stability was identified. Pharmacokinetic and biodistribution experiments indicated that phospholipid composition did not influence the capability of sNDs to evade the accelerated blood clearance phenomenon. Complement deposition on the sND was inversely associated with the area under the curve. Additionally, all lipid nanodiscs exhibited dominant adsorption of apolipoprotein. Remarkably, the POPC-based lipid nanodisc displayed a significantly higher deposition of apolipoprotein E, contributing to an obvious brain distribution, which provides a promising tool for brain-targeted drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Pan
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education & Department of Pharmacy, Jing'an District Central Hospital of Shanghai Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, P. R. China
| | - Mengyuan Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education & Department of Pharmacy, Jing'an District Central Hospital of Shanghai Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, P. R. China
| | - Guanghui Li
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education & Department of Pharmacy, Jing'an District Central Hospital of Shanghai Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, P. R. China
| | - Boqian Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center & Department of Pharmacology School of Basic Medical Sciences & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P. R. China
| | - Yuxiu Chu
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center & Department of Pharmacology School of Basic Medical Sciences & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P. R. China
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center & Department of Pharmacology School of Basic Medical Sciences & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P. R. China
| | - Ercan Wu
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center & Department of Pharmacology School of Basic Medical Sciences & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P. R. China
| | - Yifei Yu
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center & Department of Pharmacology School of Basic Medical Sciences & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P. R. China
| | - Shiqi Lin
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center & Department of Pharmacology School of Basic Medical Sciences & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P. R. China
| | - Tianhao Ding
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center & Department of Pharmacology School of Basic Medical Sciences & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoli Wei
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center & Department of Pharmacology School of Basic Medical Sciences & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P. R. China
| | - Changyou Zhan
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center & Department of Pharmacology School of Basic Medical Sciences & State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P. R. China
| | - Jun Qian
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education & Department of Pharmacy, Jing'an District Central Hospital of Shanghai Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, P. R. China
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7
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Mora J, Palmer R, Wagner L, Wu B, Partridge M, Meena, Sonderegger I, Smeraglia J, Bivi N, Dakappagari N, Diebold S, Garofolo F, Grimaldi C, Kalina W, Kamerud J, Kar S, Marshall JC, Mayer C, Melton A, Merdek K, Nolan K, Picard S, Shao W, Seitzer J, Tanaka Y, Tounekti O, Vigil A, Walravens K, Xu J, Xu W, Xu Y, Yang L, Zhu L, Verthelyi D, Kubiak RJ, Coble K, Gupta S, Abhari MR, Richards S, Song Y, Ullmann M, Calderon B, Cludts I, Gunn GR, Gupta S, Ishii-Watabe A, Manangeeswaran M, Maxfield K, McCush F, O'Day C, Peng K, Poetzl J, Rasamoelisolo M, Saad OM, Scheibner K, Shubow S, Song S, Thacker S. 2023 White Paper on Recent Issues in Bioanalysis: ISR for ADA Assays, the Rise of dPCR vs qPCR, International Reference Standards for Vaccine Assays, Anti-AAV TAb Post-Dose Assessment, NanoString Validation, ELISpot as Gold Standard (Part 3 - Recommendations on Gene Therapy, Cell Therapy, Vaccines Immunogenicity & Technologies; Biotherapeutics Immunogenicity & Risk Assessment; ADA/NAb Assay/Reporting Harmonization). Bioanalysis 2024; 16:77-119. [PMID: 38389403 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2024-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The 17th Workshop on Recent Issues in Bioanalysis (17th WRIB) took place in Orlando, FL, USA on June 19-23, 2023. Over 1000 professionals representing pharma/biotech companies, CROs, and multiple regulatory agencies convened to actively discuss the most current topics of interest in bioanalysis. The 17th WRIB included 3 Main Workshops and 7 Specialized Workshops that together spanned 1 week to allow an exhaustive and thorough coverage of all major issues in bioanalysis of biomarkers, immunogenicity, gene therapy, cell therapy and vaccines. Moreover, in-depth workshops on "EU IVDR 2017/746 Implementation and impact for the Global Biomarker Community: How to Comply with these NEW Regulations" and on "US FDA/OSIS Remote Regulatory Assessments (RRAs)" were the special features of the 17th edition. As in previous years, WRIB continued to gather a wide diversity of international, industry opinion leaders and regulatory authority experts working on both small and large molecules as well as gene, cell therapies and vaccines to facilitate sharing and discussions focused on improving quality, increasing regulatory compliance, and achieving scientific excellence on bioanalytical issues. This 2023 White Paper encompasses recommendations emerging from the extensive discussions held during the workshop and is aimed to provide the bioanalytical community with key information and practical solutions on topics and issues addressed, in an effort to enable advances in scientific excellence, improved quality and better regulatory compliance. Due to its length, the 2023 edition of this comprehensive White Paper has been divided into three parts for editorial reasons. This publication (Part 3) covers the recommendations on Gene Therapy, Cell therapy, Vaccines and Biotherapeutics Immunogenicity. Part 1A (Mass Spectrometry Assays and Regulated Bioanalysis/BMV), P1B (Regulatory Inputs) and Part 2 (Biomarkers, IVD/CDx, LBA and Cell-Based Assays) are published in volume 16 of Bioanalysis, issues 8 and 9 (2024), respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Meena
- Stoke, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Joshua Xu
- US FDA, Jefferson, AR, USA
- Regenxbio, Rockville, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Lin Yang
- US FDA, Jefferson, AR, USA
- Regenxbio, Rockville, MD, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yuan Song
- Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Kate Peng
- Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA
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8
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Bakos T, Mészáros T, Kozma GT, Berényi P, Facskó R, Farkas H, Dézsi L, Heirman C, de Koker S, Schiffelers R, Glatter KA, Radovits T, Szénási G, Szebeni J. mRNA-LNP COVID-19 Vaccine Lipids Induce Complement Activation and Production of Proinflammatory Cytokines: Mechanisms, Effects of Complement Inhibitors, and Relevance to Adverse Reactions. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:3595. [PMID: 38612407 PMCID: PMC11012056 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25073595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 03/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
A small fraction of people vaccinated with mRNA-lipid nanoparticle (mRNA-LNP)-based COVID-19 vaccines display acute or subacute inflammatory symptoms whose mechanism has not been clarified to date. To better understand the molecular mechanism of these adverse events (AEs), here, we analyzed in vitro the vaccine-induced induction and interrelations of the following two major inflammatory processes: complement (C) activation and release of proinflammatory cytokines. Incubation of Pfizer-BioNTech's Comirnaty and Moderna's Spikevax with 75% human serum led to significant increases in C5a, sC5b-9, and Bb but not C4d, indicating C activation mainly via the alternative pathway. Control PEGylated liposomes (Doxebo) also induced C activation, but, on a weight basis, it was ~5 times less effective than that of Comirnaty. Viral or synthetic naked mRNAs had no C-activating effects. In peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) cultures supplemented with 20% autologous serum, besides C activation, Comirnaty induced the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines in the following order: IL-1α < IFN-γ < IL-1β < TNF-α < IL-6 < IL-8. Heat-inactivation of C in serum prevented a rise in IL-1α, IL-1β, and TNF-α, suggesting C-dependence of these cytokines' induction, although the C5 blocker Soliris and C1 inhibitor Berinert, which effectively inhibited C activation in both systems, did not suppress the release of any cytokines. These findings suggest that the inflammatory AEs of mRNA-LNP vaccines are due, at least in part, to stimulation of both arms of the innate immune system, whereupon C activation may be causally involved in the induction of some, but not all, inflammatory cytokines. Thus, the pharmacological attenuation of inflammatory AEs may not be achieved via monotherapy with the tested C inhibitors; efficacy may require combination therapy with different C inhibitors and/or other anti-inflammatory agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamás Bakos
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary; (T.B.); (T.M.); (G.T.K.); (P.B.); (R.F.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
| | - Tamás Mészáros
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary; (T.B.); (T.M.); (G.T.K.); (P.B.); (R.F.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
- SeroScience LCC., 1089 Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Cardiology, Heart and Vascular Center, Semmelweis University, 1122 Budapest, Hungary;
- Department of Surgical Research and Techniques, Heart and Vascular Center, Semmelweis University, 1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gergely Tibor Kozma
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary; (T.B.); (T.M.); (G.T.K.); (P.B.); (R.F.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
- SeroScience LCC., 1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Petra Berényi
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary; (T.B.); (T.M.); (G.T.K.); (P.B.); (R.F.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
- SeroScience LCC., 1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Réka Facskó
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary; (T.B.); (T.M.); (G.T.K.); (P.B.); (R.F.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
- SeroScience LCC., 1089 Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Cardiology, Heart and Vascular Center, Semmelweis University, 1122 Budapest, Hungary;
- Department of Surgical Research and Techniques, Heart and Vascular Center, Semmelweis University, 1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Henriette Farkas
- Hungarian Center of Reference and Excellence, Department of Internal Medicine and Hematology, Semmelweis University, 1088 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - László Dézsi
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary; (T.B.); (T.M.); (G.T.K.); (P.B.); (R.F.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
| | - Carlo Heirman
- Etherna Biopharmaceuticals, 2845 Niel, Belgium; (C.H.); (S.d.K.)
| | - Stefaan de Koker
- Etherna Biopharmaceuticals, 2845 Niel, Belgium; (C.H.); (S.d.K.)
| | - Raymond Schiffelers
- Division of Laboratories and Pharmacy, University Medical Center, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | | | - Tamás Radovits
- Department of Cardiology, Heart and Vascular Center, Semmelweis University, 1122 Budapest, Hungary;
- Department of Surgical Research and Techniques, Heart and Vascular Center, Semmelweis University, 1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gábor Szénási
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary; (T.B.); (T.M.); (G.T.K.); (P.B.); (R.F.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
| | - János Szebeni
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary; (T.B.); (T.M.); (G.T.K.); (P.B.); (R.F.); (L.D.); (G.S.)
- SeroScience LCC., 1089 Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Nanobiotechnology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Miskolc University, 3530 Miskolc, Hungary
- Translational Nanobioscience Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 06351, Republic of Korea
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9
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Davis E, Caparco AA, Jones E, Steinmetz NF, Pokorski JK. Study of uricase-polynorbornene conjugates derived from grafting-from ring-opening metathesis polymerization. J Mater Chem B 2024; 12:2197-2206. [PMID: 38323642 DOI: 10.1039/d3tb02726k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
PEGylation has been the 'gold standard' in bioconjugation due to its ability to improve the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of native proteins. However, growing clinical evidence of hypersensitivity reactions to PEG due to pre-existing anti-PEG antibodies in healthy humans have raised concerns. Advancements in controlled polymerization techniques and conjugation chemistries have paved the way for the development of protein-polymer conjugates that can circumvent these adverse reactions while retaining the benefits of such modifications. Herein, we show the development of polynorbornene based bioconjugates of therapeutically relevant urate oxidase (UO) enzymes used in the treatment of gout synthesized by grafting-from ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP). Notably, these conjugates exhibit comparable levels of bioactivity to PEGylated UO and demonstrate increased stability across varying temperatures and pH conditions. Immune recognition of conjugates by anti-UO antibodies reveal low protein immunogenicity following the conjugation process. Additionally, UO conjugates employing zwitterionic polynorbornene successfully avoid recognition by anti-PEG antibodies, further highlighting a potential replacement for PEG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabathe Davis
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Adam A Caparco
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Elizabeth Jones
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Shu and K.C. Chien and Peter Farrell Collaboratory, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jonathan K Pokorski
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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10
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Hyldbakk A, Hansen T, Hak S, Borgos SEF. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) as a broad applicability marker for LC-MS/MS-based biodistribution analysis of nanomedicines. J Control Release 2024; 366:611-620. [PMID: 38215988 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
Polyethylene glycol (PEG) conjugation (PEGylation) is a well-established strategy to improve the pharmacokinetic and biocompatibility properties of a wide variety of nanomedicines and therapeutic peptides and proteins. This broad use makes PEG an attractive 'allround' candidate marker for the biodistribution of such PEGylated compounds. This paper presents the development of a novel strategy for PEG quantification in biological matrices. The methodology is based on sample hydrolysis which both decomposes the sample matrix and degrades PEGylated analytes to specific molecular fragments more suitable for detection by LC-MS/MS. Method versatility was demonstrated by applying it to a wide variety of PEGylated compounds, including polymeric poly(ethylbutyl cyanoacrylate) (PEBCA) nanoparticles, lipidic nanoparticles (Doxil®, LipImage 815™ and lipid nanoparticles for nucleic acid delivery) and the antibody Cimzia®. Method applicability was assessed by analyzing plasma and tissue samples from a comprehensive drug biodistribution study in rats, of both PEBCA and LipImage 815™ nanoparticles. The results demonstrated the method's utility for biodistribution studies on PEG. Importantly, by using the method described herein in tandem with quantification of nanoparticle payloads, we showed that this approach can provide detailed understanding of various critical aspects of the in vivo behavior of PEGylated nanomedicines, such as drug release and particle stability. Together, the presented results demonstrate the novel method as a robust, versatile and generic approach for biodistribution analysis of PEGylated therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Hyldbakk
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Terkel Hansen
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sjoerd Hak
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sven Even F Borgos
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway.
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11
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Li Z, Ma A, Miller I, Starnes R, Talkington A, Stone CA, Phillips EJ, Choudhary SK, Commins SP, Lai SK. Development of anti-PEG IgG/IgM/IgE ELISA assays for profiling anti-PEG immunoglobulin response in PEG-sensitized individuals and patients with alpha-gal allergy. J Control Release 2024; 366:342-348. [PMID: 38182056 PMCID: PMC11182197 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is frequently used in various protein and nanomedicine therapeutics. However, various studies have shown that select PEGylated therapeutics can induce production of anti-PEG antibodies (APA), potentially culminating in rapid clearance from the systemic circulation, loss of efficacy and possibly increased risks of allergic reactions. Although IgE is a frequent cause of immediate hypersensitivity reactions (IHR), the role of IgE APA in PEG-related IHR is not well understood, due in part to a lack of standardized assays for measuring IgE APA. Here, we developed a rigorous competitive ELISA method to measure the concentrations of various APA isotypes, including IgE, with picomolar sensitivities. In a small number of serum samples from patients with known PEG allergy, the assay allowed us to detect a strong correlation between IgG and IgE APA in individuals with history of allergic reactions to PEG or PEGylated drugs, but not between IgM and IgE APA. We detected appreciable levels of IgG and IgM APA in individuals with history of alpha-gal allergy, however, they were not elevated relative to those detected in other healthy controls, and we found no pre-existing IgE APA. While preliminary and should be further investigated, these results suggest that differences in the route and mechanism of PEG exposure may drive variability in APA response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongbo Li
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Alice Ma
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Ian Miller
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Rachel Starnes
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Anne Talkington
- Program in Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Cosby A Stone
- Center for Drug Safety and Immunology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Elizabeth J Phillips
- Center for Drug Safety and Immunology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Shailesh K Choudhary
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Scott P Commins
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Samuel K Lai
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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12
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Neun BW, Dobrovolskaia MA. Detection of Pre-Existing Antibodies to Polyethylene Glycol and PEGylated Liposomes in Human Serum. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2789:185-192. [PMID: 38507004 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3786-9_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Polyethylene glycol, or PEG, is common in consumer products, over-the-counter medications, food, and pharmaceutical products. Concerns about PEG immunogenicity and the subsequent negative impact of pre-existing and product-induced antibodies often shadow the benefits of using PEG in nanotechnology-based products. Such anti-PEG antibodies contribute to the accelerated blood clearance of PEGylated nanomedicines and result in premature drug release and antibody-mediated toxicities. Recent data demonstrated that using PEG in COVID-19 lipid nanoparticle-mRNA vaccines is associated with an induction of anti-PEG antibodies in healthy individuals, further contributing to the development or boosting of pre-existing antibodies and increasing the risks of antibody-mediated toxicities to other products containing PEG. Therefore, monitoring the levels of pre-existing and product-induced anti-PEG antibodies provides mechanistic insights for pharmacology, toxicology, and immunological studies of PEGylated drug products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry W Neun
- Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory, Cancer Research Technology Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Marina A Dobrovolskaia
- Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory, Cancer Research Technology Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA.
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13
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Tran TT, Roffler SR. Interactions between nanoparticle corona proteins and the immune system. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2023; 84:103010. [PMID: 37852029 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2023.103010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
The corona surrounding nanoparticles (NPs) in serum contains proteins such as complement, immunoglobulins, and apolipoproteins that can interact with the immune system. This review article describes the impact of these interactions on nanomedicine stability, biodistribution, efficacy, and safety. Notably, it highlights the latest findings on the generation of antibody responses to the polyethylene glycol (PEG) component of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines and possible mechanisms of hypersensitivity reactions induced by antibodies that bind to NPs. Finally, we briefly outline how the NP interactions with immune cells can be harnessed to enhance targeted delivery of nanocargos to disease sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trieu Tm Tran
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Steve R Roffler
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan.
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14
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Forgham H, Liu L, Davis TP, Qiao R. Antifouling surface coatings for the next generation of nanomedicine: toward in vivo immune evasion. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2023; 18:1997-2000. [PMID: 37982577 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2023-0316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Helen Forgham
- Australian Institute of Bioengineering & Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Liwei Liu
- Australian Institute of Bioengineering & Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Thomas P Davis
- Australian Institute of Bioengineering & Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Ruirui Qiao
- Australian Institute of Bioengineering & Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
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