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Schwarz ER, Long MT. Comparison of West Nile Virus Disease in Humans and Horses: Exploiting Similarities for Enhancing Syndromic Surveillance. Viruses 2023; 15:1230. [PMID: 37376530 DOI: 10.3390/v15061230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) neuroinvasive disease threatens the health and well-being of horses and humans worldwide. Disease in horses and humans is remarkably similar. The occurrence of WNV disease in these mammalian hosts has geographic overlap with shared macroscale and microscale drivers of risk. Importantly, intrahost virus dynamics, the evolution of the antibody response, and clinicopathology are similar. The goal of this review is to provide a comparison of WNV infection in humans and horses and to identify similarities that can be exploited to enhance surveillance methods for the early detection of WNV neuroinvasive disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika R Schwarz
- Montana Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, MT Department of Livestock, Bozeman, MT 59718, USA
| | - Maureen T Long
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, & Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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Luethy D. Eastern, Western, and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis and West Nile Viruses: Clinical and Public Health Considerations. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2023; 39:99-113. [PMID: 36737290 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2022.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The continued recognition and emergence of alphavirus and flavivirus diseases is a growing veterinary and public health concern. As the global environment continues to change, mosquito-borne diseases will continue to evolve and expand. Continued development of readily available vaccines for the prevention of these diseases in humans and animals is essential to controlling epizootics of these diseases. Further research into effective antiviral treatments is also sorely needed. This article describes equine encephalitis viruses with a focus on clinical and public health considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Luethy
- Large Animal Internal Medicine, Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, PO Box 100136, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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Fehér OE, Fehérvári P, Tolnai CH, Forgách P, Malik P, Jerzsele Á, Wagenhoffer Z, Szenci O, Korbacska-Kutasi O. Epidemiology and Clinical Manifestation of West Nile Virus Infections of Equines in Hungary, 2007-2020. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112551. [PMID: 36423160 PMCID: PMC9694158 DOI: 10.3390/v14112551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 11/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging pathogen in Hungary, causing severe outbreaks in equines and humans since 2007. The aim of our study was to provide a comprehensive report on the clinical signs of West Nile neuroinvasive disease (WNND) in horses in Hungary. Clinical details of 124 confirmed equine WNND cases were collected between 2007 and 2019. Data about the seasonal and geographical presentation, demographic data, clinical signs, treatment protocols, and disease progression were evaluated. Starting from an initial case originating from the area of possible virus introduction by migratory birds, the whole country became endemic with WNV over the subsequent 12 years. The transmission season did not expand significantly during the data collection period, but vaccination protocols should be always reviewed according to the recent observations. There was not any considerable relationship between the occurrence of WNND and age, breed, or gender. Ataxia was by far the most common neurologic sign related to the disease, but weakness, behavioral changes, and muscle fasciculation appeared frequently. Apart from recumbency combined with inappetence, no other clinical sign or treatment regime correlated with survival. The survival rate showed a moderate increase throughout the years, possibly due to the increased awareness of practitioners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orsolya Eszter Fehér
- Institute for Animal Breeding, Nutrition and Laboratory Animal Science, University of Veterinary Medicine, István utca 2, 1078 Budapest, Hungary
- Correspondence:
| | - Péter Fehérvári
- Department of Biomathematics and Informatics, University of Veterinary Medicine, István utca 2, 1078 Budapest, Hungary
- Centre for Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Csenge Hanna Tolnai
- University Equine Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Wien, Austria
| | - Petra Forgách
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hungária Krt. 23-25, 1143 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Péter Malik
- National Food Chain Safety Office, Veterinary Diagnostic Directorate, Tábornok u. 2., 1143 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ákos Jerzsele
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine, István utca 2, 1078 Budapest, Hungary
- National Laboratory of Infectious Animal Diseases, Antimicrobial Resistance, Veterinary Public Health and Food Chain Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest, István utca 2, 1078 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zsombor Wagenhoffer
- Institute for Animal Breeding, Nutrition and Laboratory Animal Science, University of Veterinary Medicine, István utca 2, 1078 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Otto Szenci
- Department of Obstetrics and Food Animal Medicine Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine, István utca 2, 1078 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Orsolya Korbacska-Kutasi
- Institute for Animal Breeding, Nutrition and Laboratory Animal Science, University of Veterinary Medicine, István utca 2, 1078 Budapest, Hungary
- University Equine Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Wien, Austria
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Ganzenberg S, Sieg M, Ziegler U, Pfeffer M, Vahlenkamp TW, Hörügel U, Groschup MH, Lohmann KL. Seroprevalence and Risk Factors for Equine West Nile Virus Infections in Eastern Germany, 2020. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061191. [PMID: 35746662 PMCID: PMC9229339 DOI: 10.3390/v14061191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) infections were first detected in Germany in 2018, but information about WNV seroprevalence in horses is limited. The study’s overall goal was to gather information that would help veterinarians, horse owners, and veterinary-, and public health- authorities understand the spread of WNV in Germany and direct protective measures. For this purpose, WNV seroprevalence was determined in counties with and without previously registered WNV infections in horses, and risk factors for seropositivity were estimated. The cohort consisted of privately owned horses from nine counties in Eastern Germany. A total of 940 serum samples was tested by competitive panflavivirus ELISA (cELISA), and reactive samples were further tested by WNV IgM capture ELISA and confirmed by virus neutralization test (VNT). Information about potential risk factors was recorded by questionnaire and analyzed by logistic regression. A total of 106 serum samples showed antibodies against flaviviruses by cELISA, of which six tested positive for WNV IgM. The VNT verified a WNV infection for 54 samples (50.9%), while 35 sera neutralized tick-borne encephalitis virus (33.0%), and eight sera neutralized Usutu virus (7.5%). Hence, seroprevalence for WNV infection was 5.8% on average and was significantly higher in counties with previously registered infections (p = 0.005). The risk factor analysis showed breed type (pony), housing in counties with previously registered infections, housing type (24 h turn-out), and presence of outdoor shelter as the main significant risk factors for seropositivity. In conclusion, we estimated the extent of WNV infection in the resident horse population in Eastern Germany and showed that seroprevalence was higher in counties with previously registered equine WNV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Ganzenberg
- Department for Horses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Michael Sieg
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (M.S.); (T.W.V.)
| | - Ute Ziegler
- Friedrich-Loeffler Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (U.Z.); (M.H.G.)
| | - Martin Pfeffer
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Thomas W. Vahlenkamp
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (M.S.); (T.W.V.)
| | - Uwe Hörügel
- Animal Diseases Fund Saxony, Pferdegesundheitsdienst, 01099 Dresden, Germany;
| | - Martin H. Groschup
- Friedrich-Loeffler Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (U.Z.); (M.H.G.)
| | - Katharina L. Lohmann
- Department for Horses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-341-97-38224
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Desanti-Consoli H, Bouillon J, Chapuis RJJ. Equids' Core Vaccines Guidelines in North America: Considerations and Prospective. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:398. [PMID: 35335029 PMCID: PMC8955191 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10030398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccination against infectious diseases is a cornerstone of veterinary medicine in the prevention of disease transmission, illness severity, and often death in animals. In North American equine medicine, equine vaccines protecting against tetanus, rabies, Eastern and Western equine encephalomyelitis, and West Nile are core vaccines as these have been classified as having a heightened risk of mortality, infectiousness, and endemic status. Some guidelines differ from the label of vaccines, to improve the protection of patients or to decrease the unnecessary administration to reduce potential side effects. In North America, resources for the equine practitioners are available on the American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP) website. Conversely, in small companion animals, peer review materials are regularly published in open access journals to guide the vaccination of dogs and cats. The aims of this review are to present how the vaccine guidelines have been established for small companion animals and horses in North America, to review the equine literature to solidify or contrast the current AAEP guidelines of core vaccines, and to suggest future research directions in the equine vaccine field considering small companion animal strategies and the current available resources in equine literature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Juliette Bouillon
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 334, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis;
| | - Ronan J. J. Chapuis
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 334, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis;
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Arfuso F, Giudice E, Di Pietro S, Piccione G, Giannetto C. Modulation of Serum Protein Electrophoretic Pattern and Leukocyte Population in Horses Vaccinated against West Nile Virus. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11020477. [PMID: 33670395 PMCID: PMC7918827 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Vaccination is the primary method of reducing the risk of West Nile virus (WNV) infection in horses but clinical disease is not fully prevented. The aim of this study was to evaluate the hematological parameters, including the leukocyte population and the serum protein electrophoretic pattern of horses subjected to two-dose vaccine administration with inactivated WNV. Vaccine-related changes in lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, serum total proteins, α1-, α-2-, β- and γ-globulin fractions are found. Abstract This study aimed to evaluate the hematological and serum protein electrophoretic profiles of horses after inactivated West Nile virus (WNV) vaccine administration. Blood samples were collected from 10 horses before (T0), after 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, 1 week, 2 weeks and 3 weeks (T1I, T2I, T3I, T4I, T5I and T6I) from the first WNV vaccine-dose administration, before the vaccine-booster (TPREII), and after 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, 1 week, 2 weeks and 3 weeks (T1I I, T2II, T3II, T4II, T5II, T6II) from the WNV vaccine-booster. There was a significant increase in lymphocytes and a decrease in neutrophils after both the first vaccine-dose and vaccine-booster administration compared to the baseline values (p < 0.01). Monocytes showed higher values after 72 h, 1 week and 2 weeks from the vaccine-booster (p < 0.01). Higher serum total protein values were found in horses after both the first vaccine-dose and booster administration (p < 0.05). α1-lobulins increased after the vaccine-booster with the highest levels measured at T4II (p < 0.05); α-2- and β-globulin fractions increased throughout the post-vaccine period compared to the baseline values (p < 0.05); and higher γ-globulin values were found before the vaccine-booster (TPREII) and after 24 h, 72 h and 3 weeks from the vaccine-booster (T1II, T3II and T6II). The findings allow us to conclude that the WNV vaccine used in the current study does not alter the overall hemogram picture of horses although it is associated with modulation of leukocyte populations and the serum protein electrophoretic pattern.
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