Survey of infectious agents in the endangered Darwin's fox (Lycalopex fulvipes): High prevalence and diversity of hemotrophic mycoplasmas

Molecular Detection and Characterization of Mycoplasma spp. in Marine Mammals, Brazil

Mycoplasma spp. are wall-less bacteria able to infect mammals and are classified as hemotropic (hemoplasma) and nonhemotropic. In aquatic mammals, hemoplasma have been reported in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) and river dolphins (Inia spp.). We investigated Mycoplasma spp. in blood samples of West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus), pinnipeds (5 species), and marine cetaceans (18 species) that stranded or were undergoing rehabilitation in Brazil during 2002-2022. We detected Mycoplasma in blood of 18/130 (14.8%) cetaceans and 3/18 (16.6%) pinnipeds. All tested manatees were PCR-negative for Mycoplasma. Our findings indicate that >2 different hemoplasma species are circulating in cetaceans. The sequences from pinnipeds were similar to previously described sequences. We also detected a nonhemotropic Mycoplasma in 2 Franciscana dolphins (Pontoporia blainvillei) that might be associated with microscopic lesions. Because certain hemoplasmas can cause disease and death in immunosuppressed mammals, the bacteria could have conservation implications for already endangered aquatic mammals.

Molecular survey and phylogenetic analysis of Bartonella sp., Coxiella sp., and hemoplamas in pudu (Pudu puda) from Chile: first report of Bartonella henselae in a wild ungulate species

Introduction

Recent evidence shows a high diversity of infectious agents in wildlife that represent a threat to human, domestic, and wild animal health. In Chile, wild populations of the most common cervid species, pudu (Pudu puda), have been reported as hosts for novel pathogens such as Mycoplasma ovis-like and a novel ecotype of Anaplasma phagocytophilum. A better understanding of the epidemiology of this group and other intracellular bacteria that might have cervids as hosts would enlighten their population relevance. This study aimed to determine the occurrence and genetic diversity of Bartonella spp., hemotropic mycoplasmas, and Coxiella burnetii in pudus from Chile.

Methods

The DNA was extracted from the blood samples of 69 wild free-ranging and 30 captive pudus from Chile. A combination of real-time (nouG gene for Bartonella and IS1111 element for C. burnetii) and conventional PCR (16S rRNA for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. and rpoB, gltA, and ITS for Bartonella spp.) was used for pathogen screening and molecular characterization.

Results

DNA of Bartonella spp. was detected in 10.1% [95% CI (5.2-18.2%)] samples, hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in 1.7% [95% CI (0.08-10.1%)], and C. burnetii in 1.0% [95% CI (0.05-6.3%)] samples. Two sequenced samples were identified as Mycoplasma ovis-like, and one free-ranging pudu was positive for C. burnetii. While one captive and two free-ranging pudus were positive for Bartonella henselae, one wild pudu was co-positive for B. henselae and Bartonella sp., similar to Bartonellae identified in ruminants.

Discussion

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of B. henselae in wild ungulate species, and C. burnetii and Bartonella spp. in wild ungulate species in South America. Further research will be necessary to evaluate the potential role of pudu as reservoirs of infection and identify the sources for disease transmission among humans and wild and domestic animals.

Detection of bacterial and protozoan pathogens in individual bats and their ectoparasites using high-throughput microfluidic real-time PCR

Among the most studied mammals in terms of their role in the spread of various pathogens with possible zoonotic effects are bats. These are animals with a very complex lifestyle, diet, and behavior. They are able to fly long distances, thus maintaining and spreading the pathogens they may be carrying. These pathogens also include vector-borne parasites and bacteria that can be spread by ectoparasites such as ticks and bat flies. In the present study, high-throughput screening was performed and we detected three bacterial pathogens: Bartonella spp., Neoehrlichia mikurensis and Mycoplasma spp., and a protozoan parasite: Theileria spp. in paired samples from bats (blood and ectoparasites). In the samples from the bat-arthropod pairs, we were able to detect Bartonella spp. and Mycoplasma spp. which also showed a high phylogenetic diversity, demonstrating the importance of these mammals and the arthropods associated with them in maintaining the spread of pathogens. Previous studies have also reported the presence of these pathogens, with one exception, Neoehrlichia mikurensis, for which phylogenetic analysis revealed less genetic divergence. High-throughput screening can detect more bacteria and parasites at once, reduce screening costs, and improve knowledge of bats as reservoirs of vector-borne pathogens. IMPORTANCE The increasing number of zoonotic pathogens is evident through extensive studies and expanded animal research. Bats, known for their role as reservoirs for various viruses, continue to be significant. However, new findings highlight the emergence of Bartonella spp., such as the human-infecting B. mayotimonensis from bats. Other pathogens like N. mikurensis, Mycoplasma spp., and Theileria spp. found in bat blood and ectoparasites raise concerns, as their impact remains uncertain. These discoveries underscore the urgency for heightened vigilance and proactive measures to understand and monitor zoonotic pathogens. By deepening our knowledge and collaboration, we can mitigate these risks, safeguarding human and animal well-being.

Transmission of haemotropic mycoplasma in the absence of arthropod vectors within a closed population of dogs on ectoparasiticides

Dog-infecting haemotropic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas), such as Mycoplasma haemocanis and Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum are common blood-borne pathogens of canines that can potentially inflict a substantial burden of disease, particularly in immunosuppressed individuals. Nonetheless, the transmission of these pathogens remains debated as more evidence emerges that they may not be transmitted by vectors, but instead use alternative methods such as aggressive interactions and vertical transmission. Here, we treated forty dogs with two different topically-acting ectoparasiticide products able to prevent vector-borne pathogen infections during an 8-month community trial in Cambodia. A total absence of ectoparasites were observed at all time points, and no new infections caused by pathogens confirmed as being vectorially-transmitted were detected, i.e., Babesia vogeli, Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma platys, and Hepatozoon canis. Conversely, the number of haemoplasma infections in dogs on both ectoparasiticides rose significantly, with an incidence of 26 infections per 100 dogs at risk per year, providing strong evidence of non-vectorial transmission. Over the study period, dog aggression and fighting were frequently observed, highlighting a different potential mode of transmission. This study presents the first robust evidence that canine haemoplasmas may be transmitted without arthropod vectors drawing attention to the need for new methods to prevent their transmission.

Molecular identification of Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia felis in fox fleas, Chile

Seventy-five flea pools (one to ten fleas per pool) from 51 Andean foxes (Lycalopex culpaeus) and five South American grey foxes or chillas (Lycalopex griseus) from the Mediterranean region of Chile were analyzed for the presence of DNA of Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia spp. through quantitative real-time PCR for the nouG and gltA genes, respectively. Positive samples were further characterized by conventional PCR protocols, targeting gltA and ITS genes for Bartonella, and gltA, ompA, and ompB genes for Rickettsia. Bartonella was detected in 48 % of the Pulex irritans pools (B. rochalimae in three pools, B. berkhoffii in two pools, B. henselae in one pool), and 8 % of the Ctenocephalides felis felis pools (B. rochalimae, one pool). Rickettsia was confirmed in 11 % of P. irritans pools and 92 % of the Ct. felis pools. Characterization confirmed R. felis in all sequenced Rickettsia-positive pools. All Ct. canis pools were negative. A Ct. felis pool from a wild-found domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) also resulted positive for R. felis. Although opportunistic, this survey provides the first description of zoonotic pathogens naturally circulating in fleas parasitizing Chilean free-living carnivores.

Advanced approaches for the diagnosis and chemoprevention of canine vector-borne pathogens and parasites-Implications for the Asia-Pacific region and beyond

Vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) of canines are a diverse range of infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa and multicellular parasites, that are pernicious and potentially lethal to their hosts. Dogs across the globe are afflicted by canine VBPs, but the range of different ectoparasites and the VBPs that they transmit predominate in tropical regions. Countries within the Asia-Pacific have had limited prior research dedicated to exploring the epidemiology of canine VBPs, whilst the few studies that have been conducted show VBP prevalence to be high, with significant impacts on dog health. Moreover, such impacts are not restricted to dogs, as some canine VBPs are zoonotic. We reviewed the status of canine VBPs in the Asia-Pacific, with particular focus on nations in the tropics, whilst also investigating the history of VBP diagnosis and examining recent progress in the field, including advanced molecular methods, such as next-generation sequencing (NGS). These tools are rapidly changing the way parasites are detected and discovered, demonstrating a sensitivity equal to, or exceeding that of, conventional molecular diagnostics. We also provide a background to the armoury of chemopreventive products available for protecting dogs from VBP. Here, field-based research within high VBP pressure environments has underscored the importance of ectoparasiticide mode of action on their overall efficacy. The future of canine VBP diagnosis and prevention at a global level is also explored, highlighting how evolving portable sequencing technologies may permit diagnosis at point-of-care, whilst further research into chemopreventives will be essential if VBP transmission is to be effectively controlled.

Hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in Aquatic Mammals, Amazon Basin, Brazil

Hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. (hemoplasmas) are uncultivable bacteria that infect mammals, including humans. We detected a potentially novel hemoplasma species in blood samples from wild river dolphins in the Amazon River Basin, Brazil. Further investigation could determine pathogenicity and zoonotic potential of the detected hemoplasma.

Haemoplasma Prevalence and Diversity in Three Invasive Rattus Species from Gauteng Province, South Africa

Invasive Rattus species are carriers of haemotropic Mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) globally, but data from Africa are lacking. Using a PCR-sequencing approach, we assessed haemoplasma prevalence and diversity in kidney and buccal swabs collected from three invasive Rattus species (Rattus rattus, R. norvegicus and R. tanezumi) in Gauteng Province, South Africa. Whilst the overall sequence-confirmed haemoplasma prevalence was 38.4%, infection rates in R. rattus (58.3%) were significantly higher (χ2 = 12.96; df = 2; n = 99 p < 0.05) than for R. tanezumi (14.3%). Differences between host sex (χ2 = 3.59 × 10−31; df = 1; n = 99; p = 1.00) and age (χ2 = 4.28; df = 2; n = 99; p = 0.12) were not significant. Whilst buccal (1.01%) and ectoparasite positivity (2.13%) were low, these results suggest that multiple transmission routes are possible. Three phylogenetically distinct lineages, consistent with global rat-associated strains described to date, were detected, namely, ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomuris subsp. Ratti’, and two Rattus-specific haemoplasmas that are yet to be formally described. These results expand the known distribution of invasive rat-associated haemoplasmas and highlight the potential for pathogen co-invasion of new territories together with invading rodent hosts.

Large-scale survey for canine vector-borne parasites in free-ranging dogs and foxes from six diverse bioclimatic regions of Chile

Chile is a large country with a marked range of climate conditions that make it an ideal scenario for the study of vector-borne parasites (VBPs); however, knowledge about their distribution is limited to a few confined areas of this country. The presence of Hepatozoon spp., piroplasmids, Leishmania spp. and filarioids was investigated through molecular and serological methods in blood and serum samples of 764 free-ranging rural dogs, 154 Andean foxes (Lycalopex culpaeus), and 91 South American grey foxes (Lycalopex griseus) from six bioclimatic regions across Chile. Hepatozoon spp. DNA was exclusively detected in foxes (43% prevalence), including sequences closely related to Hepatozoon felis (24.1%; only Andean foxes), Hepatozoon americanum (16.2%; only grey foxes), and Hepatozoon canis (1.25%; in one grey fox). Risk factor assessment identified a higher probability of Hepatozoon infection in juvenile foxes. DNA of piroplasmids was detected in 0.7% of dogs (Babesia vogeli) but in no fox, whilst antibodies against Babesia sp. were detected in 24% of the dogs and 25% of the foxes, suggesting a wider circulation of canine piroplasmids than previously believed. A positive association between the presence of antibodies against Babesia and high Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato burden was observed in dogs. Leishmania spp. DNA and antibodies were detected in 0.8% and 4.4% of the dogs, respectively. Acanthocheilonema reconditum was the only blood nematode detected (1.5% of the dogs and no fox). Differences in prevalence among bioregions were observed for some of the VBPs. These results expand our knowledge about the occurrence of vector-borne parasites in Chile, some of which are firstly reported herein. This information will facilitate the diagnosis of vector-borne diseases in domestic dogs and improve the control measures for both domestic and wild canids.

Molecular Detection and Characterization of Hemoplasmas in the Pudu (Pudu puda), a Native Cervid from Chile

Hemotropic mycoplasmas cause hemolytic anemia in a variety of wild and domestic mammals. Despite growing evidence about their widespread presence and genetic diversity in wildlife, their presence has never been investigated in Chilean artiodactyls. We aimed to describe the presence and diversity of hemoplasmas in pudus (Pudu puda), a small cervid native to Chile. Hemoplasma infection was assessed in blood samples from 43 wild and 33 captive pudus from central and southern Chile by direct sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. We detected hemoplasmas in 13%, with no statistical differences between wild (19%) and captive animals (6%). A sequence closely related to Mycoplasma ovis was present both in wild (14%) and captive (6%) pudus. Two previously undescribed sequences, classified in a clade including hemoplasmas from carnivores, were found in one wild pudu each. This study presents the first evidence of the presence of M. ovis-like organisms in Chile and of the susceptibility of pudus to infection with hemoplasmas. Further research is needed to understand the pathologic consequences of this pathogen for pudus, its effects at the population level, and their potential impact on the health small ruminants and other wildlife species in Chile.

SEROSURVEY FOR SELECTED PARASITIC AND BACTERIAL PATHOGENS IN DARWIN'S FOX (LYCALOPEX FULVIPES): NOT ONLY DOG DISEASES ARE A THREAT

The Darwin's fox (Lycalopex fulvipes) is one of the most endangered carnivores worldwide, with the risk of disease spillover from domestic dogs being a major conservation threat. However, lack of epidemiologic information about generalist, non-dog-transmission-dependent protozoal and bacterial pathogens may be a barrier for disease prevention and management. To determine the exposure of some of these agents in Darwin's fox populations, 54 serum samples were collected from 47 Darwin's foxes in Southern Chile during 2013-18 and assessed for the presence of antibodies against Brucella abortus, Brucella canis, Coxiella burnetii, pathogenic Leptospira (serovars Grippotyphosa, Pomona, Canicola, Hardjo, and Copehageni), Toxoplasma gondii, and Neospora caninum. The highest seroprevalence was detected for T. gondii (78%), followed by pathogenic Leptospira (14%). All the studied Leptospira serovars were confirmed in at least one animal. Two foxes seroconverted to Leptospira and one to T. gondii during the study period. No seroconversions were observed for the other pathogens. No risk factors, either intrinsic (sex, age) or extrinsic (season, year, and degree of landscape anthropization), were associated with the probability of being exposed to T. gondii. Our results indicate that T. gondii exposure is widespread in the Darwin's fox population, including in areas with minimal anthropization, and that T. gondii and pathogenic Leptospira might be neglected threats to the species. Further studies identifying the causes of morbidity and mortality in Darwin's fox are needed to determine if these or other pathogens are having individual or population-wide effects in this species.

Protozoan and Microbial Pathogens of House Cats in the Province of Tekirdag in Western Turkey

Domestic felines’ re-emerging infectious and neglected zoonotic diseases are a significant focus of global “One Health” efforts. This study aimed to rapidly diagnose 14 pathogens, including zoonoses by using PCR primers in 167 client-owned symptomatic cats, routinely accepted to the Veterinary Clinics of Tekirdag. The prevalence of pathogens investigated were as follows: Babesia canis canis (24%), Babesia microti (2.4%), Hepatozoon felis (10.8%), Cytauxzoon felis (6.6%), Bartonella henselae (40.1%), Anaplasma platys (30.5%), Anaplasma phagocytophilum (7.2%), Rickettsia felis (26.3%), Borrelia burgdorferi (21%), and hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. (11.4%). There was a significant difference between the prevalence of the pathogens (χ² = 152.26, df = 9, p < 0.001). There was also a statistical difference between the gender of the cats in terms of the prevalence of all pathogens considered together (χ² = 4.80, df = 1, p = 0.028), where the female cats showed a higher prevalence. This was not the case for the different age groups (χ² = 2.92, df = 1, p = 0.088). The lowest infection was observed for B. microti (p < 0.001), while the highest infection was observed for B. henselae (p < 0.01). Leishmania donovani, Plasmodium spp., Ehrlichia chaffeensis, and Neoehrlichia mikurensis PCR test results were negative in all samples. In conclusion, house cats of Tekirdag are apparently highly susceptible to some neglected zoonoses important for “One Health”, and their prevalence in the region is most probably underestimated. Hence, applying PCR tests to assist fast clinic diagnosis in routine, may be an efficient option to protect the public as well as the cats from severe diseases.

Molecular Survey of Parvoviruses and Mycoplasma spp. in Invasive American Mink (Neovison vison) from Southern Chile

Using PCR, we evaluated the presence of parvoviruses and Mycoplasma spp. in 123 American mink (Neovison vison), an introduced invasive carnivore in Chile. Our results showed all analyzed animals were negative for both pathogen groups. We cannot completely dismiss their presence, but if present, their prevalence should be lower than 2%.

Widespread Infection with Hemotropic Mycoplasmas in Free-Ranging Dogs and Wild Foxes Across Six Bioclimatic Regions of Chile

Blood samples of 626 rural dogs, 140 Andean foxes (Lycalopex culpaeus), and 83 South American grey foxes (L. griseus) from six bioregions of Chile spanning 3000 km were screened for Mycoplasma DNA by conventional PCR and sequencing. Risk factors of infection were inferred using Generalized Linear Mixed Models and genetic structure by network analyses. Overall, Mycoplasma haemocanis/Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhc/Mhf) and Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum (CMhp) observed prevalence was 23.8% and 12.8% in dogs, 20.1% and 7.2% in Andean foxes, and 26.5% and 8.4% in grey foxes, respectively. Both hemoplasmas were confirmed in all the bioregions, with higher prevalence in those where ticks from the Rhipicephalus sanguineus species group were absent. Candidatus M. haematominutum and a Mycoplasma sp. previously found in South American carnivores were detected in one fox each. Although the most prevalent Mhc/Mhf and CMhp sequence types were shared between dogs and foxes, network analysis revealed genetic structure of Mhc/Mhf between hosts in some regions. Male sex was associated with a higher risk of Mhc/Mhf and CMhp infection in dogs, and adult age with CMhp infection, suggesting that direct transmission is relevant. No risk factor was identified in foxes. Our study provides novel information about canine hemoplasmas with relevance in distribution, transmission routes, and cross-species transmission.

International Rickettsia Disease Surveillance: An Example of Cooperative Research to Increase Laboratory Capability and Capacity for Risk Assessment of Rickettsial Outbreaks Worldwide

Cooperative research that addresses infectious disease surveillance and outbreak investigations relies heavily on availability and effective use of appropriate diagnostic tools, including serological and molecular assays, as exemplified by the current COVID-19 pandemic. In this paper, we stress the importance of using these assays to support collaborative epidemiological studies to assess risk of rickettsial disease outbreaks among international partner countries. Workforce development, mentorship, and training are important components in building laboratory capability and capacity to assess risk of and mitigate emerging disease outbreaks. International partnerships that fund cooperative research through mentoring and on-the-job training are successful examples for enhancing infectious disease surveillance. Cooperative research studies between the Naval Medical Research Center's Rickettsial Diseases Research Program (RDRP) and 17 institutes from nine countries among five continents were conducted to address the presence of and the risk for endemic rickettsial diseases. To establish serological and molecular assays in the collaborative institutes, initial training and continued material, and technical support were provided by RDRP. The laboratory methods used in the research studies to detect and identify the rickettsial infections included (1) group-specific IgM and IgG serological assays and (2) molecular assays. Twenty-six cooperative research projects performed between 2008 and 2020 enhanced the capability and capacity of 17 research institutes to estimate risk of rickettsial diseases. These international collaborative studies have led to the recognition and/or confirmation of rickettsial diseases within each of the partner countries. In addition, with the identification of specific pathogen and non-pathogen Rickettsia species, a more accurate risk assessment could be made in surveillance studies using environmental samples. The discoveries from these projects reinforced international cooperation benefiting not only the partner countries but also the scientific community at large through presentations (n = 40) at international scientific meetings and peer-reviewed publications (n = 18). The cooperative research studies conducted in multiple international institutes led to the incorporation of new SOPs and trainings for laboratory procedures; biosafety, biosurety, and biosecurity methods; performance of rickettsia-specific assays; and the identification of known and unknown rickettsial agents through the introduction of new serologic and molecular assays that complemented traditional microbiology methods.

Molecular detection and characterization of novel haemotropic Mycoplasma in free-living mole rats from South Africa

The importance of haemotropic Mycoplasma (haemoplasma) infections to animal and human health is increasingly recognised. Although wild rodents are known to host these bacteria, haemoplasma prevalence and diversity in small mammals is under-documented, globally. This is due to the reliance on molecular approaches to detect these unculturable, obligate bacteria and to a paucity of assays targeting informative gene regions. We attempted to address these challenges by evaluating the performance of three 16S rRNA PCR assays for detecting Mycoplasma in four African mole-rat species of the family Bathyergidae. This was achieved by screening DNA samples prepared from lung and liver samples of 260 bathyergids, sampled from natural and urban landscapes in the Western Cape Province with one published and two novel conventional PCR assays. Sequence-confirmed Mycoplasma presence guided calculations of the relative sensitivity and specificity of the assays and revealed that 26.5% of the rodents were haemoplasma-positive. Bathyergus suillus sampled near an informal human settlement had a significantly higher infection rate (42%) than the three bathyergid species sampled from natural settings, for which PCR-positivity ranged from 0% to 36%. The 16S rRNA gene phylogeny identified the presence of six Mycoplasma strains in bathyergids that form a novel monophyletic lineage belonging to the haemofelis group, with 16S rRNA and Rnase P gene phylogenies indicating that the bathyergid-associated haemoplasmas were novel and closely related to Mycoplasma coccoides. Assay sensitivity ranged from 60.3% to 76.8% and specificity from 94.8% to 100% and both were highest for the novel assay targeting a ~ 300 bp region of the 16S rRNA gene. Results confirm the presence of novel haemoplasma strains in bathyergid species from South Africa and emphasise the need for expanded studies on haemoplama prevalence, diversity, and transmission routes in other small mammal species from this biodiverse region.

Worldwide occurrence of haemoplasmas in wildlife: Insights into the patterns of infection, transmission, pathology and zoonotic potential

Haemotropic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) have increasingly attracted the attention of wildlife disease researchers due to a combination of wide host range, high prevalence and genetic diversity. A systematic review identified 75 articles that investigated haemoplasma infection in wildlife by molecular methods (chiefly targeting partial 16S rRNA gene sequences), which included 131 host genera across six orders. Studies were less common in the Eastern Hemisphere (especially Africa and Asia) and more frequent in the Artiodactyla and Carnivora. Meta-analysis showed that infection prevalence did not vary by geographic region nor host order, but wild hosts showed significantly higher prevalence than captive hosts. Using a taxonomically flexible machine learning algorithm, we also found vampire bats and cervids to have greater prevalence, whereas mink, a subclade of vesper bats, and true foxes all had lower prevalence compared to the remaining sampled mammal phylogeny. Haemoplasma genotype and nucleotide diversity varied little among wild mammals but were marginally lower in primates and bats. Coinfection with more than one haemoplasma species or genotype was always confirmed when assessed. Risk factors of infection identified were sociality, age, males and high trophic levels, and both prevalence and diversity were often higher in undisturbed environments. Haemoplasmas likely use different and concurrent transmission routes and typically display enzootic dynamics when wild populations are studied longitudinally. Haemoplasma pathology is poorly known in wildlife but appears subclinical. Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohominis, which causes disease in humans, probably has it natural host in bats. Haemoplasmas can serve as a model system in ecological and evolutionary studies, and future research on these pathogens in wildlife must focus on increasing the geographic range and taxa of studies and elucidating pathology, transmission and zoonotic potential. To facilitate such work, we recommend using universal PCR primers or NGS protocols to detect novel haemoplasmas and other genetic markers to differentiate among species and infer cross-species transmission.

Molecular survey of Bartonella spp. and haemoplasmas in American minks (Neovison vison)

The aim of this study was to perform a molecular survey and characterize Bartonella spp. and haemotropic Mycoplasma (haemoplasmas) in invasive American minks (Neovison vison) from Southern Chile. Additionally, we addressed risk factors for positivity in both groups of agents. Blood and/or tissue samples from 246 minks were analysed by qPCR targeting the nuoG gene for Bartonella spp. and conventional (c)PCR for 16S rRNA for haemotropic Mycoplasma spp. nuoG qPCR-positive Bartonella spp. samples were submitted to cPCR assays (ITS, ribC, gltA, rpoB, pap-31 and ftsZ genes) to perform phylogenetic inferences. Haemotropic Mycoplasma spp. 16S-positive samples were further amplified by cPCR targeting RNaseP gene (160-210 bp) and by two overlapping 16S rRNA cPCR assays to amplify a larger portion of the gene (1,200bp) for phylogenetics. Bartonella DNA was detected in 8.9% of minks (22/246). Out of 22 nuoG qPCR-positive samples, one and two showed positive results in cPCR assays based on ITS and ribC, respectively. Consistent sequencing results were obtained for only one ITS sample (464 bp sequence), which shared 99.6% identity with B. clarridgeiae. Two per cent of minks (5/246) were positive for 16S rRNA haemotropic Mycoplasma-cPCR assay. Two concatenated sequences of 16S rRNA (1,176 and 1,230 bp) were obtained: one sample shared 97.87% identity with haemotropic Mycoplasma sp. from a wild rodent, and the other 96.49% identity with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum' from a dog. All BLAST results were supported by phylogenetic analysis. One haemoplasma RNase P sequence shared 94.86% identity with Mycoplasma haemofelis from a cat. No risk factors for PCR positivity were identified. In a nutshell, Bartonella clarridgeiae and a potentially novel haemoplasma closely related to haemoplasmas previously reported in rodents, dogs, domestic and wild cats were described for the first time in American minks.

Molecular Survey and Genetic Diversity of Hemoplasmas in Rodents from Chile

Even though hemotrophic mycoplasma (hemoplasma) infections are well documented in a wide variety of hosts worldwide, there is a gap in the knowledge aobut hemoplasmas in rodents. This study aimed to molecularly survey and investigate the genetic diversity of hemoplasmas in rodents from Chile. Synanthropic and wild rodents (n = 74) were captured in the southern province of Valdivia (Corral, Valdivia, Riñihue, and Reumén localities). Spleen samples were submitted to a conventional PCR for hemotrophic Mycoplasma spp. targeting the 16S rRNA gene (800 bp), followed by sequencing, phylogenetic, and genetic diversity analyses. The overall occurrence of hemotrophic mycoplasmas in rodents from Valdivia was 24.5% (18/74) [95% CI (14.5; 34.1)]. Hemoplasmas were detected in Mus musculus (1/4), Rattus norvegicus (1/16), Abrothrix longipilis (7/13), A. olivaceo (6/8), and Oligoryzomys longicaudatus (3/10). The nucleotide polymorphism analysis of the targeted 16S rRNA region showed low diversity, with two genotypes and a high identity to the variants detected in wild rodents from Brazil. Hemoplasmas are described for the first time in rodents from Chile with a moderate occurrence and low 16S rDNA genetic diversity within the sampled rodent population. The detected hemoplasma genotypes were specific to rodents and were not shared with other mammals.

Trypanosomatid Infections among Vertebrates of Chile: A Systematic Review

We present a review on the natural infection by trypanosomatids of nonhuman vertebrates in Chile, aiming to synthesize and update the knowledge on the diversity of trypanosomatids infecting native and alien vertebrate species. To this end, we conducted a systematic review of literature records published from 1900 to April 2020 on four databases, focusing on the 21 genera of trypanosomatids and Chile. The methods and findings of our review have been based on the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (prisma) checklist. We found 29,756 records but only 71 presented relevant information for this review. Overall, there are only two reported trypanosomatid genera infecting vertebrate species in Chile, the genera Trypanosoma and Leishmania. The former is mostly represented by Trypanosoma cruzi (90% of the total records) and to a much lesser extent by Trypanosoma avium, Trypanosoma humboldti, Trypanosoma lewisi, and a couple of unidentified trypanosomatids. A total of 25 mammals have been reported as being infected by T. cruzi, including 14 native and 11 alien species from Orders Artiodactyla, Carnivora, Chiroptera, Didelphimorphia, Lagomorpha, Perissodactyla, and Rodentia. Extensive screening studies using new analytical tools are necessary to grasp the whole potential diversity of trypanosomatid species infecting vertebrates in Chile.

Zoonotic and vector-borne pathogens in tigers from a wildlife safari park, Italy

Infectious diseases by pathogens, including those of zoonotic concern, may act as a primary or contributory cause of threat to wildlife conservation and may represent a risk for human health, mainly for people working at, or visiting the zoological parks. Given the paucity of data on pathogens infecting wild tigers, we investigated the occurrence of infectious agents in this animal species, with a special focus on those of zoonotic concern. Blood and serum samples from tigers (n = 20) living in a wildlife safari park of southern Italy were screened by serological and molecular tests. All animals scored positive for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii (100%), whereas they displayed different prevalence of seropositivity for Rickettsia conorii (30%), Bartonella henselae (15%) and Leptospira interrogans sv Icterohaemorrhagiae and/or Leptospira kirschneri sv Grippotyphosa (15%). No antibodies against Coxiella burnetii were detected. In addition, 8 tigers (40%) tested molecularly positive to "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum", and 3 (15%) to Hepatozoon canis. No DNA of R. conorii, Bartonella spp., Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp. and piroplasmids was amplified. The occurrence of tiger infections by bacteria and parasites may represent a risk for morbidity and, in some circumstances, mortality in this endangered species and a source of infection for other animals, including humans. These findings indicate that the circulation of zoonotic pathogens such as T. gondii, R. conorii, L. interrogans sv Icterohaemorrhagiae, "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" and B. henselae in given environments may represent a relevant health issue considering the close association among animals and humans visiting, or working at, the wildlife safari park. Preventative measures are advocated in order to control ectoparasites and other sources of infection (e.g., small rodents), thus for minimizing the risk of infection for animals as well as for humans.

Investigation of hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. genotypes in client-owned cats in Thailand

The genetic information for three feline hemoplasmas is limited in Southeast Asia. According to the limited genetic data, this study modified a nested-PCR method targeting the 16S rRNA gene by designing a novel primary forward degenerate primer. Two hundred and thirty-one archived DNA extracts from the blood of client-owned cats with a variety of diseases were used. The modified nested PCR detected feline hemoplasma DNA in 64 of 231 (27.7 %) samples. Sanger DNA sequencing, BLAST, and phylogenetic analyses revealed nine nucleotide sequences of Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf) (3.9 %, 9/231), fifty-three nucleotide sequences of Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum (CMhm) (22.94 %, 53/231) and two nucleotide sequences of Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis (CMtc) (0.86 %, 2/231). The phylogenetic analysis demonstrated separate genotypes of 30 DNA sequences of Thai CMhm. In addition, this analysis elucidated distinct genotypes of CMhm in Thai fishing cats (Prionailurus viverrinus). The domestic cat and Thai fishing cat groups were the two major groups separating Thai CMhm genotypes based on the 16S rRNA. One CMhm sequence in Thai fishing cats was also present in domestic cat CMhm genotypes. This result suggests that transmission of CMhm between domestic cats and Thai fishing cats has likely occurred. One Mhf sequence had low genetic identity (82 % similarity). The phylogenetic analysis confirmed that this sequence was still very closely related to Mhf reference sequences. This Mhf-like genotype could be a candidate novel Mhf genotype. This new genetic information for feline hemotropic Mycoplasma provides valuable information for future feline-related clinical studies.

Hemoplasmas Are Endemic and Cause Asymptomatic Infection in the Endangered Darwin's Fox (Lycalopex fulvipes)

Mycoplasma haemocanis is prevalent in the endangered Darwin's fox (Lycalopex fulvipes) in its main stronghold, Chiloé Island (Chile). The origin of the infection, its dynamics, its presence in other fox populations and the potential consequences for fox health remain unexplored. For 8 years, hemoplasmal DNA was screened and characterized in blood from 82 foxes in Chiloé and two other fox populations and in 250 free-ranging dogs from Chiloé. The prevalence of M. haemocanis in foxes was constant during the study years, and coinfection with "Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum" was confirmed in 30% of the foxes. Both hemoplasma species were detected in the two mainland fox populations and in Chiloé dogs. M. haemocanis was significantly more prevalent and more genetically diverse in foxes than in dogs. Two of the seven M. haemocanis haplotypes identified were shared between these species. Network analyses did not show genetic structure by species (foxes versus dogs), geographic (island versus mainland populations), or temporal (years of study) factors. The probability of infection with M. haemocanis increased with fox age but was not associated with sex, season, or degree of anthropization of individual fox habitats. Some foxes recaptured years apart were infected with the same haplotype in both events, and no hematological alterations were associated with hemoplasma infection, suggesting tolerance to the infection. Altogether, our results indicate that M. haemocanis is enzootic in the Darwin's fox and that intraspecific transmission is predominant. Nevertheless, such a prevalent pathogen in a threatened species represents a concern that must be considered in conservation actions.IMPORTANCE Mycoplasma haemocanis is enzootic in Darwin's foxes. There is a higher M. haemocanis genetic diversity and prevalence in foxes than in sympatric dogs, although haplotypes are shared between the two carnivore species. There is an apparent tolerance of Darwin's foxes to Mycoplasma haemocanis.

Hemotropic mycoplasmas in bats captured near human settlements in Nigeria

The presence of DNA of hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) was investigated for the first time in bats in Africa. Blood samples from 90 bats captured within or near human settlements in nine study areas from five states in Nigeria belonging to six genera of the families Pteropodidae, Rhinolophidae, and Molossidae were analyzed using conventional PCR protocol targeting a 391 bp part of the 16S rRNA gene. Of these, 32 samples (35 %) resulted positive. Eight nucleotide sequence types were identified, which were assigned to five genotypes showing between 93-99 % similarity with hemoplasmas from bats and/or rodents from other parts of the world, and/or Candidatus Mycoplasma haemohominis from a human patient. Network analysis showed genetic structure of hemoplasma sequences among bat species, but some sequences were shared among bats of different taxonomic groups and distant study areas. Further characterization of the samples using a protocol targeting ∼1200 bp of the 16S rRNA gene resulted in seven sequences that confirmed the results of the screening protocol. Hemoplasmas in Nigerian bats are prevalent, widely distributed and genetically diverse. The zoonotic risk to local inhabitants should not be neglected, due to the high similarity of some of the retrieved sequences with the human pathogen C. M. haemohominis.

Assessing cross-species transmission of hemoplasmas at the wild-domestic felid interface in Chile using genetic and landscape variables analysis

The co-occurrence of domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) and wild felids in rural landscapes can facilitate pathogen transmission. However, in the relatively-isolated regions of southern South America there have been no comprehensive studies to assess disease transmission risks between domestic cats and forest-dwelling wild felids such as guigna (Leopardus guigna). We evaluated hemoplasma infection and the possibility of transmission between domestic cats and guignas by comparing spatial and phylogenetic patterns of pathogen prevalence. Blood/spleen samples were collected from 102 wild guignas and 262 co-occurring rural domestic cats across the entire distribution range of guigna in Chile. Hemoplasma infection was assessed by direct sequencing of the 16S RNA gene. Infection with hemoplasmas was common and geographically widespread across different bioclimatic areas for both species. The most common feline Mycoplasma species in guigna and domestic cats were Candidatus M. haemominutum (CMhm) (15.7% guigna; 10.3% domestic cat) and Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf) (9.8% guigna, 6.1% domestic cat). A previously undescribed Mycoplasma sp. sequence was found in two guignas and one cat. Continuous forest-landscapes were associated with higher hemoplasma-prevalence in guignas. Shared hemoplasma nucleotide sequence types between guigna and domestic cats were rare, suggesting that cross-species transmission between guignas and domestic cats may occur, but is probably uncommon. Ectoparasites, which have been linked with hemoplasma transmission, were not found on guignas and were infrequent on domestic cats. Our results suggest that transmission pathways vary among hemoplasma species and, contrary to our predictions, domestic cats did not appear to be the main driver of hemoplasma infection in guignas in these human-dominated landscapes.

Molecular and serological survey of carnivore pathogens in free-roaming domestic cats of rural communities in southern Chile

Owned, free-roaming domestic cats are abundant in the Chilean countryside, having high probability of contact with wildlife and potentially participating as reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens. In the present study, 131 cats from two remote study areas (Valdivia and Chiloe Island) in southern Chile were analyzed for infection/exposure to eight pathogens. Serum samples from 112 cats were tested for antigens against feline leukemia virus (FeLV antigen-ELISA) and antibodies against feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV-ELISA) and canine distemper virus (CDV-serum neutralization), yielded occurrence of 8.9, 1.7 and 0.8% respectively. The presence of DNA of five vector-borne pathogens, piroplasmids, Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., Rickettsia spp. and Bartonella spp. was investigated in thirty cats. Overall observed occurrence was 6.6% (2/30) for both Anaplasma platys, and B. henselae, and 3.3% (1/30) for both Bartonella sp. and Theileria equi. Observed occurrence for all vector-borne pathogens in Valdivia area was significantly higher than in Chiloe Island (5/15 vs 0/15; P=0.04). Our results represent the first description of exposure to CDV and DNA detection of T. equi and A. platys in domestic cats in Chile. The results highlight the importance of performing pathogen screening in owned, free-roaming rural cats to evaluate their potential role as reservoirs of infection and vectors for disease transmission to wildlife.

Assessment of a metabarcoding approach for the characterisation of vector-borne bacteria in canines from Bangkok, Thailand

BACKGROUND

Globally, bacterial vector-borne disease (VBD) exerts a large toll on dogs in terms of morbidity and mortality but nowhere is this more pronounced than in the tropics. Tropical environments permit a burgeoning diversity and abundance of ectoparasites some of which can transmit an extensive range of infectious agents, including bacteria, amongst others. Although some of these vector-borne bacteria are responsible for both animal and human diseases in the tropics, there is a scarcity of epidemiological investigation into these pathogens' prevalence. The situation is further exacerbated by frequent canine co-infection, complicating symptomatology that regular diagnostic techniques may miss or be unable to fully characterise. Such limitations draw attention to the need to develop screening tools capable of detecting a wide range of pathogens from a host simultaneously.

RESULTS

Here, we detail the employment of a next-generation sequencing (NGS) metabarcoding methodology to screen for the spectrum of bacterial VBD that are infecting semi-domesticated dogs across temple communities in Bangkok, Thailand. Our NGS detection protocol was able to find high levels of Ehrlichia canis, Mycoplasma haemocanis and Anaplasma platys infection rates as well as less common pathogens, such as "Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum", Mycoplasma turicensis and Bartonella spp. We also compared our high-throughput approach to conventional endpoint PCR methods, demonstrating an improved detection ability for some bacterial infections, such as A. platys but a reduced ability to detect Rickettsia.

CONCLUSIONS

Our methodology demonstrated great strength at detecting coinfections of vector-borne bacteria and rare pathogens that are seldom screened for in canines in the tropics, highlighting its advantages over traditional diagnostics to better characterise bacterial pathogens in environments where there is a dearth of research.

A review on the occurrence of companion vector-borne diseases in pet animals in Latin America

Companion vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) are an important threat for pet life, but may also have an impact on human health, due to their often zoonotic character. The importance and awareness of CVBDs continuously increased during the last years. However, information on their occurrence is often limited in several parts of the world, which are often especially affected. Latin America (LATAM), a region with large biodiversity, is one of these regions, where information on CVBDs for pet owners, veterinarians, medical doctors and health workers is often obsolete, limited or non-existent. In the present review, a comprehensive literature search for CVBDs in companion animals (dogs and cats) was performed for several countries in Central America (Belize, Caribbean Islands, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico) as well as in South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana (British Guyana), Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela) regarding the occurrence of the following parasitic and bacterial diseases: babesiosis, heartworm disease, subcutaneous dirofilariosis, hepatozoonosis, leishmaniosis, trypanosomosis, anaplasmosis, bartonellosis, borreliosis, ehrlichiosis, mycoplasmosis and rickettsiosis. An overview on the specific diseases, followed by a short summary on their occurrence per country is given. Additionally, a tabular listing on positive or non-reported occurrence is presented. None of the countries is completely free from CVBDs. The data presented in the review confirm a wide distribution of the CVBDs in focus in LATAM. This wide occurrence and the fact that most of the CVBDs can have a quite severe clinical outcome and their diagnostic as well as therapeutic options in the region are often difficult to access and to afford, demands a strong call for the prevention of pathogen transmission by the use of ectoparasiticidal and anti-feeding products as well as by performing behavioural changes.

Underlying social attitudes towards conservation of threatened carnivores in human-dominated landscapes

Carnivore conservation depends on people's willingness to implement management practices to reduce threats to carnivores and mitigate conflicts between carnivores and domestic animals. We assessed the willingness of rural communities in central-southern Chile to (1) conserve carnivores, and (2) adopt management practices to reduce predation of domestic animals, a key factor triggering carnivore–human conflicts in rural areas. The study focused on five carnivores: the chilla Lycalopex griseus, the culpeo Lycalopex culpaeus, Darwin's fox Lycalopex fulvipes, the guiña or kodkod Leopardus guigna, and the puma Puma concolor. We found that rural communities perceived that threats towards carnivores rarely occurr in their region, contrary to the literature on this subject; people's attitudes differed depending on the carnivore; and people were willing to adopt management practices to help conserve carnivores (e.g. overnight protection of domestic animals and investment in infrastructure for henhouses and cowsheds), except leashing dogs. The willingness to conserve carnivores and adopt practices that would help do so may be associated with how these measures affect people's well-being. Although rural communities would like carnivores to be conserved, this cannot be achieved unless some pivotal practices, such as management of domestic dogs, are adopted by these communities. For successful biodiversity conservation outcomes in human-dominated landscapes, the social incentives necessary for rural communities to adopt appropriate management practices must be identified and implemented.

Comparative Ecology of Bartonella and Brucella Infections in Wild Carnivores

Phylogenetic sister clades Bartonella and Brucella within the order Rhizobiales present some common biological characteristics as well as evident differences in adaptations to their mammalian reservoirs. We reviewed published data on Bartonella and Brucella infections in wild carnivores to compare the ecology of these bacteria in relatively similar host environments. Arthropod vectors are the main mechanism for Bartonella species transmission between mammalian hosts. The role of arthropods in transmission of Brucella remains disputed, however experimental studies and reported detection of Brucella in arthropods indicate potential vector transmission. More commonly, transmission of Brucella occurs via contact exposure to infected animals or the environment contaminated with their discharges. Of 26 species of carnivores tested for both Bartonella and Brucella, 58% harbored either. Among them were bobcats, African lions, golden jackals, coyotes, wolves, foxes, striped skunks, sea otters, raccoons, and harbor seals. The most common species of Bartonella in wild carnivores was B. henselae, found in 23 species, followed by B. rochalimae in 12, B. clarridgeiae in ten, and B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii in seven. Among Brucella species, Br. abortus was reported in over 30 terrestrial carnivore species, followed by Br. canis in seven. Marine carnivores, such as seals and sea lions, can host Br. pinnipedialis. In contrast, there is no evidence of a Bartonella strain specific for marine mammals. Bartonella species are present practically in every sampled species of wild felids, but of 14 Brucella studies of felids, only five reported Brucella and those were limited to detection of antibodies. We found no reports of Bartonella in bears while Brucella was detected in these animals. There is evident host-specificity of Bartonella species in wild carnivores (e.g., B. henselae in felids and B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii in canids). A co-adaptation of Brucella with terrestrial wild carnivore hosts is not as straightforward as in domestic animals. Wild carnivores often carry the same pathogens as their domesticated relatives (cats and dogs), but the risk of exposure varies widely because of differences in biology, distribution, and historical interactions.

Assessing the natural circulation of canine vector-borne pathogens in foxes, ticks and fleas in protected areas of Argentine Patagonia with negligible dog participation

We collected blood and/or ectoparasites from 49 South American grey foxes (Lycalopex griseus) and two Andean foxes (L. culpaeus) caught in two National Parks of southern Argentine Patagonia (Bosques Petrificados, BPNP; and Monte León, MLNP) where dogs are nearly absent (density < 0.01 dog/km²). Common ectoparasites were the flea Pulex irritans (88% prevalence) and the tick Amblyomma tigrinum (29%). Conventional PCR and sequencing of 49 blood samples, 299 fleas analysed in 78 pools, and 21 ticks revealed the presence of DNA of the following canine vector-borne pathogens: in grey foxes, Rickettsia sp. (3%), hemoplasmas (8%), including Mycoplasma haemocanis, and Hepatozoon sp. (50%); in P. irritans, Bartonella spp. (72% of flea pools from 76% of foxes), mostly B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii but also B. rochalimae, Anaplasmataceae (Wolbachia sp.; 60% and 54%), and M. haemocanis/haemofelis (29% and 18%); and in A. tigrinum, Hepatozoon sp. (33% of ticks in 4 of 7 foxes). No piroplasmid DNA was detected in any sample. Andean foxes were negative for all tested pathogens. Two different Hepatozoon haplotypes were detected: the most prevalent was phylogenetically associated with H. felis, and the other with H. americanum and related sequences. Amblyomma tigrinum and Hepatozoon sp. were more abundant and/or prevalent in BPNP than in colder MLNP, 300 km southwards, perhaps located close to the limit for tick suitability. Bartonella v. berkhoffii was also significantly more prevalent in fleas of foxes in BPNP than in MLNP. This study provides novel information about natural host-pathogen associations in wildlife, markedly extends the distribution area in South America of arthropods and vector-borne pathogens of veterinary and public health interest, and contributes preliminary evidence about the potential role of A. tigrinum and P. irritans as vectors, respectively, for potentially new species of Hepatozoon from Lycalopex spp. and for M. haemocanis that should be further investigated.

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Foxes and their ticks and fleas analysed in two remote areas of Argentine Patagonia.

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Hepatozoon (50%), hemoplasmas (8%), Rickettsia (3%) DNA detected in foxes.

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Two Hepatozoon haplotypes: one related with H. felis, the other with H. americanum.

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Role of Amblyomma tigrinum as Hepatozoon vector is proposed.

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Bartonella and hemoplasma DNA detected in P. irritans from 76% and 18% of foxes.

Polychromophilus melanipherus and haemoplasma infections not associated with clinical signs in southern bent-winged bats (Miniopterus orianae bassanii) and eastern bent-winged bats (Miniopterus orianae oceanensis)

While bats are often viewed as carriers of infectious disease agents, little research has been conducted on the effects these pathogens may have on the bat populations themselves. The southern bent-winged bat (Miniopterus orianae bassanii) is a critically endangered subspecies endemic to south-eastern Australia. Population numbers of this bat have declined over the past 50 years, but the reasons for this are unclear. As part of a larger study to determine if disease could be a contributing factor to this decline, southern bent-winged bats from several locations in Victoria and South Australia were captured and examined for the presence of the blood parasite, Polychromophilus melanipherus, and haemoplasmas (Mycoplasma sp.). Results were compared with those obtained from populations of the more common, partially sympatric, eastern bent-winged bat (Miniopterus orianae oceanensis) from three different locations in Victoria. Both organisms were found in both subspecies (prevalence of P. melanipherus 60% by PCR for southern bent-winged bats compared with 46% for eastern bent-winged bats; prevalence of haemoplasmas 10% for southern bent-winged bats compared with 8% for eastern bent-winged bats), with no association between the probability of infection, body weight, abnormal blood parameters or any other indicators of ill health. However, Victorian southern bent-winged bats had heavier burdens of P. melanipherus than both the South Australian southern bent-winged bats and eastern bent-winged bats. Further investigations are required to determine if these differences are impacting population health.

High diversity of hemotropic mycoplasmas in Iberian wild carnivores

Two-hundred and thirty-one wild carnivores belonging to 10 species of in Spain were analyzed for the presence of DNA of hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) by means of a universal real-time PCR targeting a 16S rRNA gene fragment. Positive reactions were found for wolf (Canis lupus: 6/37), fox (Vulpes vulpes: 1/41), Eurasian badger (Meles meles: 49/85), pine marten (Martes martes: 11/23), stone marten (Martes foina: 6/9), least weasel (Mustela nivalis: 4/4), European wildcat (Felis s. silvestris: 1/2) and common genet (Genetta genetta: 7/27). Sixty-four readable sequences were obtained, resulting in 14 nucleotide sequence types (ntST). The highest diversity was detected in badger (6 ntST) and pine marten (5 ntST). The sequencing of a fragment of the RNase P gene showed that all positive reactions in wolves corresponded to Mycoplasma haemocanis. Three ntST showed an identity between 98-100% with Candidatus M. haemominutum, C. M. turicensis and C. M. haematoparvum, respectively. Four ntST were closely related to C. M. haemomeles and/or diverse genotypes reported from raccoons (Procyon lotor) in the USA. One ntST from a badger showed only 88% similarity to the closest published sequence and was phylogenetically unrelated to any other hemoplasma sequence reported. Three ntST were 99-100% similar to two different sequences reported in Spanish bats. This study confirms the widespread nature and the high genetic diversity of hemoplasma infection in carnivores. Wild carnivores might be natural hosts of some hemoplasmas infecting dogs and cats.

Occurrence and molecular characterization of hemoplasmas in domestic dogs and wild mammals in a Brazilian wetland

Hemotropic mycoplasmas are known to cause anemia in several mammalian species. The present work aimed to investigate the occurrence of Mycoplasma spp. in wild mammals, domestic dogs and their respective ectoparasites, in southern Pantanal region, central-western Brazil. Between August 2013 and March 2015, 31 Nasua nasua, 78 Cerdocyon thous, seven Leopardus pardalis, 42 dogs, 110 wild rodents, and 30 marsupials were trapped and ectoparasites (ticks and fleas) found parasitizing the animals were collected. Mammals and ectoparasites DNA samples were submitted to conventional PCR assays for Mycoplasma spp. targeting 16S rRNA and RnaseP genes. Twenty-four N. nasua, three C. thous, two domestic dogs, one L. pardalis and one wild rodent were positive for 16S rRNA PCR protocols. Fourteen N. nasua samples were also positive in RnaseP PCR. No marsupial or arthropod showed positivity for Mycoplasma spp. The phylogenetic analyses based on 16S rRNA gene showed that all sequences obtained from dogs, two sequences obtained from C. thous and ten sequences obtained from N. nasua showed to be closely related to Mycoplasma haemocanis/Mycoplasma haemofelis species. Genotypes closely related to 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' and Mycoplasma haemomuris were detected in the L. pardalis and in the wild rodent, respectively. Probably a novel Mycoplasma genotype, closely related to a sequence obtained from a Brazilian capybara was detected in 14 N. nasua, based on a concatenated phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA and RnaseP genes. The present study revealed that wild animals in southern Pantanal region, Brazil, are exposed to different species of hemoplasmas.

Prevalence, Genotype Richness, and Coinfection Patterns of Hemotropic Mycoplasmas in Raccoons (Procyon lotor) on Environmentally Protected and Urbanized Barrier Islands

Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are successful urban adapters and hosts to a number of zoonotic and nonzoonotic pathogens, yet little is known about their hemoplasma infections and how prevalence varies across habitat types. This study identifies hemotropic Mycoplasma species infection in raccoons from urban and undisturbed habitats and compares hemoplasma infection in sympatric urban cats (Felis catus) from the same geographic region. We collected blood from raccoons (n = 95) on an urban coastal island (n = 37) and an undisturbed coastal island (n = 58) and from sympatric urban cats (n = 39) in Georgia, USA. Based on 16S rRNA gene amplification, 62.1% (59/95) of raccoons and 17.9% (7/39) of feral cats were positive for hemoplasma. There was a greater percentage of hemoplasma-infected raccoons on the undisturbed island (79.3% [46/58]) than on the urban island (35.1% [13/37]; χ2 = 16.9, df = 1, P = 0.00004). Sequencing of the full-length 16S rRNA gene amplicons revealed six hemoplasma genotypes in raccoons, including five novel genotypes that were distinct from three known hemoplasma species identified in the sympatric cats. In addition, the hemoplasma genotypes detected in raccoons were not identified in sympatric cats or vice versa. Although all six hemoplasma genotypes were found in raccoons from urban and undisturbed islands, coinfection patterns differed between sites and among individuals, with the proportion of coinfected raccoons being greater in the undisturbed site. This study shows that raccoons are hosts for several novel hemoplasmas and that habitat type influences infection patterns.IMPORTANCE This study provides information about novel hemoplasmas identified in raccoons (Procyon lotor), which can be used for assessments of the prevalence of these hemoplasmas in raccoon populations and for future studies on the potential pathogenic impacts of these hemoplasmas on raccoon health. Raccoons from the undisturbed habitat had a higher prevalence of hemoplasma infection than urban raccoons. There does not appear to be cross-species transmission of hemotropic mycoplasmas between urban raccoons and feral cats. Raccoons appear to be hosts for several novel hemoplasmas, and habitat type influences infection patterns.

Molecular detection of vector-borne pathogens in blood and splenic samples from dogs with splenic disease

Background

The spleen is a highly perfused organ involved in the immunological control and elimination of vector-borne pathogens (VBP), which could have a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of splenic disease. This study aimed to evaluate certain VBP in samples from dogs with splenic lesions.

Methods

Seventy-seven EDTA-blood and 64 splenic tissue samples were collected from 78 dogs with splenic disease in a Mediterranean area. Babesia spp., Bartonella spp., Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp., Hepatozoon canis, Leishmania infantum, hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. were targeted using PCR assays. Sixty EDTA-blood samples from dogs without evidence of splenic lesions were included as a control group.

Results

More than half (51.56%) of the biopsies (33/64) were consistent with benign lesions and 48.43% (31/64) with malignancy, mostly hemangiosarcoma (25/31). PCR yielded positive results in 13 dogs with spleen alterations (16.67%), for Babesia canis (n = 3), Babesia gibsoni (n = 2), hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. (n = 2), Rickettsia massiliae (n = 1) and “Babesia vulpes” (n = 1), in blood; and for B. canis, B. gibsoni, Ehrlichia canis and L. infantum (n = 1 each), in spleen. Two control dogs (3.3%) were positive for B. gibsoni and H. canis (n = 1 each). Benign lesions were detected in the 61.54% of infected dogs (8/13); the remaining 38.46% were diagnosed with malignancies (5/13). Infection was significantly associated to the presence of splenic disease (P = 0.013). There was no difference in the prevalence of infection between dogs with benign and malignant splenic lesions (P = 0.69); however B. canis was more prevalent in dogs with hemangiosarcoma (P = 0.006).

Conclusions

VBP infection could be involved in the pathogenesis of splenic disease. The immunological role of the spleen could predispose to alterations of this organ in infected dogs. Interestingly, all dogs with B. canis infection were diagnosed with hemangiosarcoma in the present survey. As previously reported, results support that VBP diagnosis could be improved by analysis of samples from different tissues. The sample size included here warrants further investigation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2074-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Association of Ehrlichia canis, Hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. and Anaplasma platys and severe anemia in dogs in Thailand

Canine tick-borne bacteria; Ehrlichia canis, hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. and Anaplasma spp., are organisms transmitted by Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks. However, only a few clinical studies evaluating dogs infected with these organisms and anemia condition have been published. In this study, the potential tick-borne bacteria linked to anemia were investigated in eighty-one blood samples selected from anemic dogs using a broad range nested-PCR of the 16S rRNA gene. Positive results were shown in 12/81 blood specimens (14.81%). Nucleotide sequences from the PCR products were analyzed using BLAST and resulted in identification of Ehrlichia canis (8), Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum (1) and Anaplasma platys (3). Two other PCR assays were used to detect and identify the positive results of these pathogens including a specific PCR for Ehrlichia canis (gp36) and a specific nested-PCR for hemoplasma species (16S rRNA) and the phylogenetic analyses of E. canis and canine hemoplasmas were performed using these two loci. These specific PCRs revealed co-infection of E. canis and Mycoplasma haemocanis in two cases. These two male dogs had presented with jaundice, severe hemolytic anemia, severe thrombocytopenia, leukocytosis, mild azotemia and hepatitis. Ehrlichia canis was detected in a significantly greater number of severe anemia cases (PCV<15%) than moderate or mild anemia cases (PCV 16-29%) (P<0.05) and these severe anemia cases were 7-fold more at risk of having E. canis infections (odds ratio: 7.11, p=0.020). However, no statistical differences were detected between E. canis detection and degrees of thrombocytopenia or leukopenia. From the results of this study, we conclude that the severity of anemia is associated with E. canis infections rather than the severity of thrombocytopenia.

Occurrence of canine hemotropic mycoplasmas in domestic dogs from urban and rural areas of the Valdivia Province, southern Chile

This is the first study to investigate the occurrence, risk factors and hematological findings of hemoplasmas in dogs from Chile. Complete blood count and 16S rRNA conventional PCR for Mycoplasma spp. were performed in 278 blood samples from rural (n=139) and urban (n=139) dogs in Valdivia. Real time 16S rRNA PCR (qPCR) allowed species identification. Mycoplasma spp. occurrence was 24.8%. 'Candidatus M. haematoparvum' (CMhp) was identified in 12.2% and Mycoplasma haemocanis (Mhc) in 11.9% dogs. It was not possible to identify species in two Mycoplasma spp. samples by qPCR. Sequencing allowed identifying one of them as 'Candidatus M. turicensis' (CMt). Frequency in rural localities was higher (41.7%) than in urban (7.9%). Rural locality, maleness and older age were risk factors for hemoplasmosis. Hemoplasma-positive dogs had a higher total protein. This is the first report of Mhc, CMhp and CMt in dogs from Chile, with a high occurrence in rural localities.

Occurrence and identification of hemotropic mycoplasmas (Hemoplasmas) in free ranging and laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus) from two Brazilian zoos

BACKGROUND

Hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas), bacteria belonging to the class Mollicutes, are obligatory red blood cell pathogens of a variety of animal species. They may cause acute anemia that is life-threatening or chronic disease that is clinically silent, but may interfere with results of experimental studies when using infected animals. Since these bacteria cannot be cultivated, molecular techniques are the gold standard for diagnosing an infection, investigating its prevalence, and describing new species. Mycoplasma coccoides and M. haemomuris are the most commonly recognized hemoplasmas in the blood of wild and laboratory rodents. Neither the epidemiology nor clinical and molecular characterization of hemoplasma infection in free-ranging rodents in Brazil has been previously reported. The aims of this study were to investigate the occurrence of hemoplasmas in free-ranging rats (Rattus norvegicus) captured in the Passeio Público and Curitiba Zoo and compare hematologic parameters of infected and non-infected animals.

RESULTS

Anti-coagulated blood samples collected from 43 free-ranging and 20 nursery rats were included in the study. Overall 63.5% were positive using SYBR® Green quantitative PCR (qPCR) of the 16S rRNA gene to screen for hemoplasma infection (72% among free-ranging rats; 45% among laboratory-raised rats). Sequencing of the qPCR products showed that all but one sample had >98% identity to M. haemomuris. Phylogenetic analysis based on a fragment of approximately 1300 bp of the 16S rRNA gene showed 99% identity to a new hemoplasma from European rats and 98% identity to a hemotropic mycoplasma described infecting a European harvest mouse (Micromys minutus). No statistically significant changes in hematologic parameters between infected and non-infected rats were found, confirming the low pathogenicity and/or silent characteristics of the infection.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that hemoplasmas are likely endemic in rodent species in this region. The epidemiology, especially as it relates to the mode of transmission, needs to be further investigated as well as the possibility that other animal species, including humans, might become infected.

Ticks and associated pathogens collected from cats in Sicily and Calabria (Italy)

Background

Limited information is available about the species of ticks infesting the cat and the pathogens that they harbor. The aims of the present study were to identify the species of ticks removed from cats living in Sicily and Calabria (Italy) and to detect DNA of vector-borne pathogens in the same ticks.

Findings

Morphological identification of 132 adult ticks collected throughout the year from cats was carried out. Real-time PCRs for Hepatozoon felis, Piroplasmid, Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp., Rickettsia spp., Bartonella spp., Mycoplasma spp. and Leishmania infantum were performed from each individual tick.

Ticks belonging to Rhipicephalus (R. sanguineus sensu lato, R. pusillus) and Ixodes (I. ricinus, I. ventalloi) genera were identified. Ixodes ventalloi was the most frequently found tick species (47 %).

The positivity rate to at least one pathogen was 14.4 % (19/132 ticks). Leishmania infantum, Rickettsia spp. (R. monacensis and R. helvetica), Bartonella spp. (B. clarridgeiae), Piroplasmid (Babesia vogeli), and Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp. (E. canis) DNAs were amplified in 8.3, 5.3, 1.5, 0.75 and 0.75 % of ticks, respectively. Hepatozoon felis, Anaplasma spp. and hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. DNAs were not detected. Four (21.1 %) out of nineteen positive ticks were co-infected.

Conclusions

This study provides novel data about ticks infesting cats and the DNA of pathogens that they harbor. In Southern Italy, anti-tick prophylaxis should be implemented throughout the year in cats without neglecting winter time.

Widespread infection with hemotropic mycoplasmas in bats in Spain, including a hemoplasma closely related to "Candidatus Mycoplasma hemohominis"

Molecular analyses of blood samples revealed infection with hemoplasmas in 97% of 31 cave bats captured in three caves in North-Eastern Spain. The characterization of 1250 bp of the 16S rRNA gene in 29 of the positive bats identified two different groups of sequences. Twenty-two Schreibers' bats (Miniopterus schreibersii) and one long-eared bat (Myotis capaccinii) shared one group, composed of seven closely related sequences. These sequences showed an identity of about 97% with "Candidatus Mycoplasma hemohominis" and the phylogenetic branch including bat and human sequences showed a 100% bootstrap value, supporting a close phylogenetic relationship between these hemoplasmas. The second group, representing a potentially novel species, was composed of a single sequence shared by six Schreibers' bats that had 91% identity with the recently reported hemoplasma from little brown bats in North America. Large bat aggregations in roosting caves probably benefits intra and inter-species transmission explaining the high observed prevalence.

Beyond the disease: Is Toxoplasma gondii infection causing population declines in the eastern quoll (Dasyurus viverrinus)?

Disease is often considered a key threat to species of conservation significance. For some, it has resulted in localised extinctions and declines in range and abundance. However, for some species, the assertion that a disease poses a significant threat of extinction is based solely on correlative or anecdotal evidence, often inferred from individual clinical case reports. While a species' susceptibility to a disease may be demonstrated in a number of individuals, investigations rarely extend to measuring the impact of disease at the population level and its contribution, if any, to population declines. The eastern quoll (Dasyurus viverrinus) is a medium-sized Australian marsupial carnivore that is undergoing severe and rapid decline in Tasmania, its last refuge. Reasons for the decline are currently not understood. Feral cats (Felis catus) may be undergoing competitive release following the ongoing decline of the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), with cats suppressing eastern quolls through increased predation, competition, exclusion or exposure to diseases such as toxoplasmosis. To investigate the effects of Toxoplasma gondii infection, eastern quoll populations at four sites were regularly screened for the seroprevalence of T. gondii-specific IgG antibodies. Seroprevalence was approximately five times higher at sites with declining quoll populations, and there was a negative association between seroprevalence and quoll abundance. However, T. gondii infection did not reduce quoll survival or reproduction. Despite a high susceptibility to T. gondii infection, eastern quoll populations do not appear to be limited by the parasite or its resultant disease. Significantly higher seroprevalence is a signal of greater exposure to feral cats at sites where eastern quolls are declining, suggesting that increased predation, competition or exclusion by feral cats may be precipitating population declines.