1
|
Fan C, Dai W, Zhang H, Liu S, Lin Z, Xue Q. Genomic and Proteomic Analyses of Extracellular Products Reveal Major Virulence Factors Likely Accounting for Differences in Pathogenicity to Bivalves between Vibrio mediterranei Strains. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:692. [PMID: 38473077 DOI: 10.3390/ani14050692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Vibrio mediterranei, a bacterial pathogen of bivalves, has exhibited strain-dependent virulence. The mechanisms behind the variations in bivalve pathogenicity between V. mediterranei strains have remained unclear. However, a preliminary analysis of the extracellular product (ECP) proteomes has revealed differences in protein compositions between low- and high-virulence strains; in addition to 1265 shared proteins, 127 proteins have been identified to be specific to one low-virulence strain and 95 proteins to be specific to two high-virulence strains. We further studied the ECP proteins of the three V. mediterranei strains from functional perspectives using integrated genomics and proteomics approaches. The results showed that lipid metabolism, transporter activity and membrane transporter pathways were more enriched in the ECPs of the two high-virulence strains than in those of the low-virulence strain. Additionally, 73 of the 95 high-virulence strain-specific proteins were found to have coding genes in the genome but were not expressed in the low-virulence strain. Moreover, comparisons with known virulence factors in the Virulence Factor Database (VFDB) and the Pathogen-Host Interactions Database (PHI-base) allowed us to predict more than 10 virulence factors in the categories of antimicrobial activity/competitive advantage, the effector delivery system and immune modulation, and the high-virulence strain-specific ECP proteins consisted of a greater percentage of known virulence factors than the low-virulence strain. Particularly, two virulence factors, MtrC and KatG, were identified in the ECPs of the two high-virulence strains but not in those of the low-virulence strain. Most coding genes of the ECP proteins including known virulence factors were identified on chromosome 1 of V. mediterranei. Our findings indicate that variations in virulence factor composition in the bacterial ECPs may partially account for the differences in the bivalve pathogenicity between V. mediterranei strains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Congling Fan
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo 315100, China
| | - Wenfang Dai
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo 315100, China
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, Ningbo 315604, China
| | - Haiyan Zhang
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo 315100, China
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, Ningbo 315604, China
| | - Sheng Liu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo 315100, China
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, Ningbo 315604, China
| | - Zhihua Lin
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo 315100, China
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, Ningbo 315604, China
| | - Qinggang Xue
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo 315100, China
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, Ningbo 315604, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Tian Z, Xiang F, Peng K, Qin Z, Feng Y, Huang B, Ouyang P, Huang X, Chen D, Lai W, Geng Y. The cAMP Receptor Protein (CRP) of Vibrio mimicus Regulates Its Bacterial Growth, Type II Secretion System, Flagellum Formation, Adhesion Genes, and Virulence. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:437. [PMID: 38338079 PMCID: PMC10854923 DOI: 10.3390/ani14030437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Vibrio mimicus is a serious pathogen in aquatic animals, resulting in significant economic losses. The cAMP receptor protein (CRP) often acts as a central regulator in highly pathogenic pathogens. V. mimicus SCCF01 is a highly pathogenic strain isolated from yellow catfish; the crp gene deletion strain (Δcrp) was constructed by natural transformation to determine whether this deletion affects the virulence phenotypes. Their potential molecular connections were revealed by qRT-PCR analysis. Our results showed that the absence of the crp gene resulted in bacterial and colony morphological changes alongside decreases in bacterial growth, hemolytic activity, biofilm formation, enzymatic activity, motility, and cell adhesion. A cell cytotoxicity assay and animal experiments confirmed that crp contributes to V. mimicus pathogenicity, as the LD50 of the Δcrp strain was 73.1-fold lower compared to the WT strain. Moreover, qRT-PCR analysis revealed the inhibition of type II secretion system genes, flagellum genes, adhesion genes, and metalloproteinase genes in the deletion strain. This resulted in the virulence phenotype differences described above. Together, these data demonstrate that the crp gene plays a core regulatory role in V. mimicus virulence and pathogenicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ziqi Tian
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (Z.T.); (F.X.); (K.P.); (Z.Q.); (Y.F.); (B.H.); (P.O.); (W.L.)
| | - Fei Xiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (Z.T.); (F.X.); (K.P.); (Z.Q.); (Y.F.); (B.H.); (P.O.); (W.L.)
- Agricultural and Rural Bureau of Zhongjiang County, Deyang 618100, China
| | - Kun Peng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (Z.T.); (F.X.); (K.P.); (Z.Q.); (Y.F.); (B.H.); (P.O.); (W.L.)
| | - Zhenyang Qin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (Z.T.); (F.X.); (K.P.); (Z.Q.); (Y.F.); (B.H.); (P.O.); (W.L.)
| | - Yang Feng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (Z.T.); (F.X.); (K.P.); (Z.Q.); (Y.F.); (B.H.); (P.O.); (W.L.)
| | - Bowen Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (Z.T.); (F.X.); (K.P.); (Z.Q.); (Y.F.); (B.H.); (P.O.); (W.L.)
| | - Ping Ouyang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (Z.T.); (F.X.); (K.P.); (Z.Q.); (Y.F.); (B.H.); (P.O.); (W.L.)
| | - Xiaoli Huang
- Department of Aquaculture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (X.H.); (D.C.)
| | - Defang Chen
- Department of Aquaculture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (X.H.); (D.C.)
| | - Weimin Lai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (Z.T.); (F.X.); (K.P.); (Z.Q.); (Y.F.); (B.H.); (P.O.); (W.L.)
| | - Yi Geng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China; (Z.T.); (F.X.); (K.P.); (Z.Q.); (Y.F.); (B.H.); (P.O.); (W.L.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Halter T, Köstlbacher S, Collingro A, Sixt BS, Tönshoff ER, Hendrickx F, Kostanjšek R, Horn M. Ecology and evolution of chlamydial symbionts of arthropods. ISME COMMUNICATIONS 2022; 2:45. [PMID: 37938728 PMCID: PMC9723776 DOI: 10.1038/s43705-022-00124-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The phylum Chlamydiae consists of obligate intracellular bacteria including major human pathogens and diverse environmental representatives. Here we investigated the Rhabdochlamydiaceae, which is predicted to be the largest and most diverse chlamydial family, with the few described members known to infect arthropod hosts. Using published 16 S rRNA gene sequence data we identified at least 388 genus-level lineages containing about 14 051 putative species within this family. We show that rhabdochlamydiae are mainly found in freshwater and soil environments, suggesting the existence of diverse, yet unknown hosts. Next, we used a comprehensive genome dataset including metagenome assembled genomes classified as members of the family Rhabdochlamydiaceae, and we added novel complete genome sequences of Rhabdochlamydia porcellionis infecting the woodlouse Porcellio scaber, and of 'Candidatus R. oedothoracis' associated with the linyphiid dwarf spider Oedothorax gibbosus. Comparative analysis of basic genome features and gene content with reference genomes of well-studied chlamydial families with known host ranges, namely Parachlamydiaceae (protist hosts) and Chlamydiaceae (human and other vertebrate hosts) suggested distinct niches for members of the Rhabdochlamydiaceae. We propose that members of the family represent intermediate stages of adaptation of chlamydiae from protists to vertebrate hosts. Within the genus Rhabdochlamydia, pronounced genome size reduction could be observed (1.49-1.93 Mb). The abundance and genomic distribution of transposases suggests transposable element expansion and subsequent gene inactivation as a mechanism of genome streamlining during adaptation to new hosts. This type of genome reduction has never been described before for any member of the phylum Chlamydiae. This study provides new insights into the molecular ecology, genomic diversity, and evolution of representatives of one of the most divergent chlamydial families.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Halter
- Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Doctoral School in Microbiology and Environmental Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stephan Köstlbacher
- Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Doctoral School in Microbiology and Environmental Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Astrid Collingro
- Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Barbara S Sixt
- The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå Centre for Microbial Research (UCMR), Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Elena R Tönshoff
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH), Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Rok Kostanjšek
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Matthias Horn
- Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhan L, Zhang J, Zhao B, Li X, Zhang X, Hu R, Elken EM, Kong L, Gao Y. Genomic and Transcriptomic Analysis of Bovine Pasteurella multocida Serogroup A Strain Reveals Insights Into Virulence Attenuation. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:765495. [PMID: 34859092 PMCID: PMC8631534 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.765495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pasteurella multocida is one of the primary pathogens of bovine respiratory disease (BRD), and causes huge losses in the cattle industry. The Pm3 strain was a natural isolate, which is a strong form of pathogen and is sensitive to fluoroquinolones antibiotics. A high fluoroquinolone resistant strain, Pm64 (MIC = 64 μg/mL), was formed after continuous induction with subinhibitory concentration (1/2 MIC) of enrofloxacin, with the enhanced growth characteristics and large attenuation of pathogenicity in mice. This study reports the whole genome sequence and the transcription profile by RNA-Seq of strain Pm3/Pm64. The results showed an ineffective difference between the two strains at the genome level. However, 32 genes could be recognized in the gene islands (GIs) of Pm64, in which 24 genes were added and 8 genes were lost. Those genes are involved in DNA binding, trehalose metabolism, material transportation, capsule synthesis, prophage, amino acid metabolism, and other functions. In Pm3 strain, 558 up-regulated and 568 down-regulated genes were found compared to Pm64 strain, from which 20 virulence factor-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened. Mainly differentially transcribed genes were associated with capsular polysaccharide (CPS), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), lipooligosaccharide (LOS). Iron utilization, and biofilm composition. We speculated that the main mechanism of virulence attenuation after the formation of resistance of Pm64 comes from the change of the expression profile of these genes. This report elucidated the toxicity targets of P. multocida serogroup A which provide fundamental information toward the understanding of the pathogenic mechanism and to decreasing antimicrobial drugs resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
| | - Jiaqi Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
| | - Boyu Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
| | - Xintian Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiqing Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
| | - Renge Hu
- Marine College, Shandong University, Weihai, China
| | - Emad Mohammed Elken
- Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Lingcong Kong
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China.,The Key Laboratory of Animal Production, Product Quality and Security, Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
| | - Yunhang Gao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China.,The Key Laboratory of Animal Production, Product Quality and Security, Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC): An Overview of Virulence and Pathogenesis Factors, Zoonotic Potential, and Control Strategies. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10040467. [PMID: 33921518 PMCID: PMC8069529 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10040467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) causes colibacillosis in avian species, and recent reports have suggested APEC as a potential foodborne zoonotic pathogen. Herein, we discuss the virulence and pathogenesis factors of APEC, review the zoonotic potential, provide the current status of antibiotic resistance and progress in vaccine development, and summarize the alternative control measures being investigated. In addition to the known virulence factors, several other factors including quorum sensing system, secretion systems, two-component systems, transcriptional regulators, and genes associated with metabolism also contribute to APEC pathogenesis. The clear understanding of these factors will help in developing new effective treatments. The APEC isolates (particularly belonging to ST95 and ST131 or O1, O2, and O18) have genetic similarities and commonalities in virulence genes with human uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) and neonatal meningitis E. coli (NMEC) and abilities to cause urinary tract infections and meningitis in humans. Therefore, the zoonotic potential of APEC cannot be undervalued. APEC resistance to almost all classes of antibiotics, including carbapenems, has been already reported. There is a need for an effective APEC vaccine that can provide protection against diverse APEC serotypes. Alternative therapies, especially the virulence inhibitors, can provide a novel solution with less likelihood of developing resistance.
Collapse
|
6
|
Mortensen S, Johansen AE, Thøfner I, Christensen JP, Pors SE, Fresno AH, Møller-Jensen J, Olsen JE. Infectious potential of human derived uropathogenic Escherichia coli UTI89 in the reproductive tract of laying hens. Vet Microbiol 2019; 239:108445. [PMID: 31767071 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.108445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) and human uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) harbour common virulence factors in spite of being associated with disease in different hosts. APEC strains have been shown to have zoonotic potential. In contrast, it is not known whether UPEC strains can cause infection in immunologically competent hens. The objective of the current study was to compare the ability of the well-characterized UPEC strain, UTI89, and the APEC strain, F149H1S2, to infect human and avian cells in culture and to cause salpingitis in an infection model in adult laying hens. In vitro characterization showed that the strains grew equally well in human urine, and both were able to infect human intestinal (Int407) and bladder (J82) epithelial cell lines, and they survived in avian macrophages (HD11) to the same extent. Groups of adult birds were inoculated with 108 bacteria directly into the oviduct using a surgical procedure. After an infection period of 48 h, bacterial load in the oviduct was determined by dilution series, and pathology was determined based on gross lesions and histological observations. Similar counts of UPEC UTI89 (ST95) and the APEC strain F149H1S2 (ST117) were obtained from tissues of infected birds, and salpingitis as evaluated by clinical score and histopathology was observed to a similar extent after infection with the two strains. Together, the results showed that UPEC UTI89 and APEC F149H1S2 have a similar potential for causing salpingitis in laying hens in the model used. No infection differences were observed between the UPEC UTI89 wild type and a mutant strain with knock-out of the well-known virulence gene, fimH, (UPEC UTI89ΔfimH), showing that the salpingitis model is not suitable for the detection of all UPEC virulence factors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sisse Mortensen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Stigbøjlen 4, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Andreas Eske Johansen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Stigbøjlen 4, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Ida Thøfner
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Stigbøjlen 4, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Jens Peter Christensen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Stigbøjlen 4, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Susanne Elisabeth Pors
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Stigbøjlen 4, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Ana Herrero Fresno
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Stigbøjlen 4, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Jakob Møller-Jensen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - John Elmerdahl Olsen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Stigbøjlen 4, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Jindal S, Yang L, Day PJ, Kell DB. Involvement of multiple influx and efflux transporters in the accumulation of cationic fluorescent dyes by Escherichia coli. BMC Microbiol 2019; 19:195. [PMID: 31438868 PMCID: PMC6704527 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-019-1561-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It is widely believed that most xenobiotics cross biomembranes by diffusing through the phospholipid bilayer, and that the use of protein transporters is an occasional adjunct. According to an alternative view, phospholipid bilayer transport is negligible, and several different transporters may be involved in the uptake of an individual molecular type. We recognise here that the availability of gene knockout collections allows one to assess the contributions of all potential transporters, and flow cytometry based on fluorescence provides a convenient high-throughput assay for xenobiotic uptake in individual cells. Results We used high-throughput flow cytometry to assess the ability of individual gene knockout strains of E coli to take up two membrane-permeable, cationic fluorescent dyes, namely the carbocyanine diS-C3(5) and the DNA dye SYBR Green. Individual strains showed a large range of distributions of uptake. The range of modal steady-state uptakes for the carbocyanine between the different strains was 36-fold. Knockouts of the ATP synthase α- and β-subunits greatly inhibited uptake, implying that most uptake was ATP-driven rather than being driven by a membrane potential. Dozens of transporters changed the steady-state uptake of the dye by more than 50% with respect to that of the wild type, in either direction (increased or decreased); knockouts of known influx and efflux transporters behaved as expected, giving credence to the general strategy. Many of the knockouts with the most reduced uptake were transporter genes of unknown function (‘y-genes’). Similarly, several overexpression variants in the ‘ASKA’ collection had the anticipated, opposite effects. Similar results were obtained with SYBR Green (the range being approximately 69-fold). Although it too contains a benzothiazole motif there was negligible correlation between its uptake and that of the carbocyanine when compared across the various strains (although the membrane potential is presumably the same in each case). Conclusions Overall, we conclude that the uptake of these dyes may be catalysed by a great many transporters of putatively broad and presently unknown specificity, and that the very large range between the ‘lowest’ and the ‘highest’ levels of uptake, even in knockouts of just single genes, implies strongly that phospholipid bilayer transport is indeed negligible. This work also casts serious doubt upon the use of such dyes as quantitative stains for representing either bioenergetic parameters or the amount of cellular DNA in unfixed cells (in vivo). By contrast, it opens up their potential use as transporter assay substrates in high-throughput screening. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-019-1561-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Srijan Jindal
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.,Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Lei Yang
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Centre for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Building 220, Kemitorvet, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Philip J Day
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.,Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Douglas B Kell
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK. .,Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK. .,Novo Nordisk Foundation Centre for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Building 220, Kemitorvet, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark. .,Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Integrative Biology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Crown St, Liverpool, L69 7ZB, UK.
| |
Collapse
|