Angiostrongylus vasorum and Eucoleus aerophilus in foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Great Britain

Influence of environmental factors on the occurrence of gastrointestinal and cardiopulmonary nematodes in the red fox in the semi-arid Mediterranean areas of the Iberian Peninsula

Human-induced ecosystem fragmentation is one of the drivers causing wildlife migration from their natural habitats to urban areas, among other reasons. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the most abundant wild canid in the semi-arid Mediterranean areas of the Iberian Peninsula. Water scarcity may result in areas shared by synanthropic fox populations and domestic animals becoming hotspots for parasite transmission. This study describes the gastrointestinal and cardiopulmonary nematode species affecting fox populations in these semi-arid areas and the influence of environmental variables on parasite abundance. A total of 167 foxes collected from 2015 to 2021 in the Region of Murcia (SE Spain) were analysed. Parasite abundance and spatial distribution were evaluated using environmental variables and host characteristics with a Generalised Linear Model and the Moran index. Eleven species (seven from the gastrointestinal tract and four from the cardiopulmonary tract) were described. The influence of biotic and abiotic variables was studied for Angiostrongylus vasorum, Crenosoma vulpis, Uncinaria stenocephala, Toxocara canis and Toxascaris leonina. Temperature, humidity and areas of forest or agricultural land influenced the abundance of these parasites, providing optimal conditions for free-living stages of the direct life cycle nematodes and intermediate hosts. Absolute abundance distribution maps showed defined locations for C. vulpis, T. canis and T. leonina. The results for U. stenocephala, T. canis and T. leonina were particularly important as their higher abundance levels were found close to anthropized areas, which need to be carefully evaluated to prevent transmission of these nematodes between domestic and wild canids and human health.

Wildlife parasitology: sample collection and processing, diagnostic constraints, and methodological challenges in terrestrial carnivores

Wild terrestrial carnivores play a crucial role as reservoir, maintenance, and spillover hosts for a wide parasite variety. They may harbor, shed, and transmit zoonotic parasites and parasites of veterinary importance for domestic hosts. Although wild carnivores are globally distributed and comprise many different species, some living in close proximity to human settlements, only a few studies have investigated parasites of wild terrestrial carnivores using non-specific techniques. Access to samples of wild carnivores may be challenging as some species are protected, and others are secretive, possibly explaining the data paucity. Considering the importance of wild carnivores' health and ecological role, combined with the lack of specific diagnostic methodologies, this review aims to offer an overview of the diagnostic methods for parasite investigation in wild terrestrial carnivores, providing the precise techniques for collection and analysis of fecal, blood, and tissue samples, the environmental impact on said samples, and the limitations researchers currently face in analyzing samples of wild terrestrial carnivores. In addition, this paper offers some crucial information on how different environmental factors affect parasite detection postmortem and how insects can be used to estimate the time of death with a specific highlight on insect larvae. The paper contains a literature review of available procedures and emphasizes the need for diagnostic method standardization in wild terrestrial carnivores.

What is the sensitivity and exactness of post-mortem diagnostic method for cardiopulmonary nematodes in wild carnivores? towards the gold standard

Cardiopulmonary nematodes cause health and fitness disorders in wild and domestic carnivores. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) participates in the spread of these shared parasites at the domestic-wildlife interface. This study aimed to evaluate the sensitivity of post-mortem diagnostic method for detecting lungworms in carnivores, and its exactness to estimate the parasite intensity of each nematode species. Cardiorespiratory system of fifty-one foxes were examined through three consecutively methodological steps: first, the tracheobronchial tree, pulmonary arteries and their branches were opened (OT); next, lung parenchyma was immersed in water and squeezed (WS); finally, the parenchyma was artificially digested in a pepsin and chlorhydric acid solution (AD). Eucoleus aerophilus, Angiostrongylus vasorum, Crenosoma vulpis and Metathelazia capsulata were identified. The number of recovered nematodes in each step were 454 (OT), 285 (WS) and 141 (AD). The use of OT and WS helped to improve parasite intensity results and decreased false negative cases. Accordingly, when OT and WS were used together, the sensitivity in the detection of parasitized foxes was 96.1%, while the exactness of parasite intensity was 84%. When AD was performed, although sensitivity does not rise, results were more exact, increasing the total number of detected parasites by 16%. Moreover, AD improved the sensitivity in the detection of A. vasorum and M. capsulata, as well as quantifying more exactly the parasite intensity (92.5% and 92.3% of exactness without AD, respectively). Our study provides valuable information that should be taken into account when planning epidemiological studies based on cardiopulmonary nematode detection in carnivores.

Occurrence of Eucoleus aerophilus in wild and domestic animals: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Eucoleus aerophilus (syn. Capillaria aerophila) is a nematode with a worldwide geographical distribution. It causes a disease called lung capillariosis by affecting the respiratory tract of wild and domestic animals, and has also occasionally been described in humans. Despite steady increases in knowledge of the morphology of this neglected parasite, many aspects are still poorly understood. Epidemiological data regarding, for example, geographic distribution, range of hosts, clinical relevance and the actual zoonotic potential of this nematode are scarce and incomplete.

METHODS

This article is a systematic review based on the screening of three databases (PubMed, Web of Science and Science Direct) to identify eligible studies published from 1973 to the end of 2022.

RESULTS

From a total of 606 studies describing the occurrence of E. aerophilus, 141 articles from 38 countries worldwide were included in this meta-analysis, all of which presented results obtained mainly with flotation and necropsy. Due to the occurrence of E. aerophilus in many different species and different matrices (lungs and faeces), we decided to conduct the meta-analysis separately for each species with a given matrix. This systematic review confirmed the status of the Red fox as the main reservoir and main transmitter of E. aerophilus (average prevalence of 43% in faeces and 49% in lungs) and provided evidence of a higher prevalence of E. aerophilus in wild animals in comparison to domestic animals, such as dogs (3% in faeces) and cats (2% in faeces and 8% in lungs). Previous studies have investigated many host-related factors (age, sex, environmental/living conditions) in relation to the prevalence of E. aerophilus, but they show wide variations and no simple relationship has been demonstrates. Furthermore, mixed infections with other pulmonary nematodes, such as Crenosoma vulpis and/or Angiostrongylus vasorum, are reported very frequently, which greatly complicates the diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review focused on identifying data gaps and promoting future research directions in this area. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic review that evaluates and summarizes existing knowledge on the occurrence and prevalence of E. aerophilus in wild and domestic animals originating from different geographical locations worldwide.

Comparative biology of parasitic nematodes in the genus Angiostrongylus and related genera

The rise to prominence of some Angiostrongylus species through associated emerging disease in humans and dogs has stimulated calls for a renewed focus on the biology of this genus and three related genera. Although significant research efforts have been made in recent years these have tended to focus on individual species and specific aspects such as diagnosis and treatment of disease or new records of occurrence and hosts. This comprehensive review takes a comparative approach, seeking commonalities and differences among species and asking such questions as: Which species belong to this and to closely related genera and how are they related? Why do only some species appear to be spreading geographically and what factors might underlie range expansion? Which animal species are involved in the life cycles as definitive, intermediate, paratenic and accidental hosts? How do parasite larvae find, infect and develop within these hosts? What are the consequences of infection for host health? How will climate change affect future spread and global health? Appreciating how species resemble and differ from each other shines a spotlight on knowledge gaps and provides provisional guidance on key species characteristics warranting detailed study. Similarities exist among species, including the basic life cycle and transmission processes, but important details such as host range, climatic requirements, migration patterns within hosts and disease mechanisms differ, with much more information available for A. cantonensis and A. vasorum than for other species. Nonetheless, comparison across Angiostrongylus reveals some common patterns. Historically narrow definitive host ranges are expanding with new knowledge, combining with very broad ranges of intermediate gastropod hosts and vertebrate and invertebrate paratenic and accidental hosts to provide the backdrop to complex interactions among climate, ecology and transmission that remain only partly understood, even for the species of dominant concern. Key outstanding questions concern larval dynamics and the potential for transmission outside trophic relations, relations between infection and disease severity in different hosts, and how global change is altering transmission beyond immediate impacts on development rate in gastropods. The concept of encounter and compatibility filters could help to explain differences in the relative importance of different gastropod species as intermediate hosts and determine the importance of host community composition and related environmental factors to transmission and range. Across the group, it remains unclear what, physiologically, immunologically or taxonomically, delimits definitive, accidental and paratenic hosts. Impacts of infection on definitive host fitness and consequences for population dynamics and transmission remain mostly unexplored across the genus. Continual updating and cross-referencing across species of Angiostrongylus and related genera is important to synthesise rapid advances in understanding of key traits and behaviours, especially in important Angiostrongylus species that are emerging causative agents of disease in humans and other animals.

Wild Mesocarnivores as Reservoirs of Endoparasites Causing Important Zoonoses and Emerging Bridging Infections across Europe

Mesocarnivores are small- or mid-sized carnivore species that display a variety of ecologies and behaviours. In Europe, wild mesocarnivores are represented by the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the golden jackal (Canis aureus), the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), the Mustelidae of the genera Meles, Martes, Mustela, Lutra, the invasive species of raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and American mink (Neogale vison). These abundant animals thrive in various habitats and often develop their activity close to human settlements. Thus, they may play an important role in the introduction, maintenance, and transmission of major parasitic zoonoses and promote bridging infections with domestic animals. Against this background, this article reports and discusses some of the most important endoparasites of wild mesocarnivores living in Europe, on the basis of their actual role as reservoirs, spreaders, or sentinels. The data derived from epizootiological studies in different European countries, and the proven or speculated implications of the detected endoparasites in human and domestic animals' health, are discussed. Through older and recent literature review, the state-of-the-art knowledge on the occurrence and prevalence of the parasites under consideration is presented, showing further, warranted investigations and the need for surveillance and vigilance.

Cardiorespiratory nematodes and co-infections with gastrointestinal parasites in new arrivals at dog and cat shelters in north-western Spain

Metastrongyloid and trichuroid cardiorespiratory nematodes of dogs and cats are considered emergent in several European countries, and an increase in the number and extent of endemic foci has been described. Since data on their prevalence are limited in this continent, faecal samples from new arrivals (365 dogs and 65 cats) at two animal shelters in North-western Spain were analysed using both floatation and Baermann techniques. In order to confirm the microscopic identification of Metastrongylidae first stage larvae, molecular characterization based on the sequence of the ITS-2 was performed. The possible influence of some variables such as the species, sex and age of the animals and the co-infection with other gastrointestinal parasites on the prevalence of cardiorespiratory nematodes was analysed. The most prevalent metastrongylid was Aelurostrongylus abstrusus (15.4%) followed by Angiostrongylus vasorum (4.1%) and Crenosoma vulpis (1.1%). Regarding trichuroids, Eucoleus aerophilus and/or Eucoleus boehmi eggs were detected in 28 dogs (7.7%) and four cats (6.2%). Almost all animals positive to cardiorespiratory nematodes (86.8%) were co-infected with gastrointestinal parasites. The prevalence of Metastrongylidae and respiratory trichuroids was significantly higher in dogs co-infected with Taenia spp. and Toxocara canis or Giardia duodenalis and Sarcocystis spp., respectively. In cats, a significant higher prevalence of Metastrongylidae nematodes was found in animals co-infected with Toxocara cati. Our results reveal that cardiorespiratory nematodes are common in companion animals from north-western Spain, showing higher prevalences than those previously reported from this country. This investigation represents the first report of C. vulpis, E. aerophilus and E. boehmi in dogs from Spain. The identification of a number of zoonotic parasites is of public health concern. Our results indicate that these nematodes should be included in the differential diagnosis of dogs and cats from north-western Spain showing respiratory or cardiac clinical signs.

Systemic Infection by Angiostrongylus vasorum in a Fennec (Vulpeszerda) in an Italian Zoological Garden

This paper reported a case of a metastrongyloid nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum infection in a fennec (Vulpes zerda) kept in a zoo in central Italy. The fennec had shown paralysis of the hind limbs, anorexia, weakness and respiratory signs before death. Cardiomegaly and granulomatous pneumonia were the major anatomopathological findings. Inflammatory lesions associated with parasitic larvae were observed in the lungs, brain, liver, heart, spinal cord and kidney of the fennec at histology. A. vasorum diagnosis was confirmed by both morphological and molecular identification of adult worms recovered at necropsy. Fennecs are active predators and maintain their hunting behaviour in captivity. Hence, it is likely that the animal was exposed to infection by preying on parasitised gastropods, intermediate hosts of A. vasorum, entering zoo enclosures from the surrounding environment. This is the first report of A. vasorum systemic infection in a captive fennec (V. zerda) in a zoo in Italy.

Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: Current Risk of Spreading in Central and Northern Europe

In the past few decades, the relevance of Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens, causing cardiopulmonary and subcutaneous dirofilariosis in dogs and cats, and of Angiostrongylus vasorum, causing canine angiostrongylosis, has steadily increased in Central and Northern Europe. In this review, a summary of published articles and additional reports dealing with imported or autochthonous cases of these parasites is provided for Central (Austria, Czechia, Germany, Hungary, Luxemburg, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Switzerland) and Northern (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) Europe. Research efforts focusing on Dirofilaria spp. and A. vasorum have varied by country, and cross-border studies are few. The housing conditions of dogs, pet movements, the spread of competent vectors, and climate change are important factors in the spread of these nematodes. Dogs kept outside overnight are a major factor for the establishment of Dirofilaria spp. However, the establishment of invasive, diurnal, synanthropic, competent mosquito vectors such as Aedes albopictus may also influence the establishment of Dirofilaria spp. The drivers of the spread of A. vasorum remain not fully understood, but it seems to be influenced by habitats shared with wild canids, dog relocation, and possibly climatic changes; its pattern of spreading appears to be similar in different countries. Both Dirofilaria spp. and A. vasorum merit further monitoring and research focus in Europe.

Angiostrongylosis in Animals and Humans in Europe

Lungworms in the genus Angiostrongylus cause disease in animals and humans. The spread of Angiostrongylus vasorum within Europe and the recent establishment of Angiostrongylus cantonensis increase the relevance of these species to veterinary and medical practitioners, and to researchers in parasitology, epidemiology, veterinary science and ecology. This review introduces the key members of the genus present in Europe and their impacts on health, and updates the current epidemiological situation. Expansion of A. vasorum from localized pockets to wide distribution across the continent has been confirmed by a rising prevalence in foxes and increasing reports of infection and disease in dogs, while the list of carnivore and mustelid definitive hosts continues to grow. The tropically distributed rat lungworm A. cantonensis, meanwhile, has been recorded on islands south of Europe, previously the Canary Islands, and now also the Balearic Islands, although so far with limited evidence of zoonotic disease. Other members of the genus, namely, A. chabaudi, A. daskalovi and A. dujardini, are native to Europe and mainly infect wildlife, with unknown consequences for populations, although spill-over can occur into domestic animals and those in zoological collections. The epidemiology of angiostrongylosis is complex, and further research is needed on parasite maintenance in sylvatic hosts, and on the roles of ecology, behaviour and genetics in disease emergence. Improved surveillance in animals and humans is also required to support risk assessments and management.

Co-Occurrence of Domestic Dogs and Gastropod Molluscs in Public Dog-Walking Spaces and Implications for Infection with Angiostrongylus vasorum: A Preliminary Study

Simple Summary

Angiostrongylus vasorum is a serious parasitic disease increasing in range and prevalence in Europe. The parasite passes through land slugs and snails before it can infect dogs but contact between dogs and these intermediate hosts is not well studied. We surveyed dogs and slugs/snails in parks and on streets in an urban A. vasorum hotspot area in southern England, United Kingdom, with the aim of determining the conditions under which they overlap. We counted 1672 slugs/snails and 763 dogs across seven sites. We found that habitat types in which the hosts were present differed, with dogs occurring 15× more often on hard surfaces (e.g., concrete) than woodland/scrub, but also occurring on natural grassland. Large numbers of slugs/snails were present 5.82× more often in woodland/scrub and natural grassland than on hard surfaces. Slug and snail species at risk of a greater likelihood of infection with A. vasorum were present 65.12× more often in woodland/scrub and 62.17× more often in amenity grassland than other habitats. The results suggest that contact between dogs and slugs/snails is most likely in amenity and natural grassland but that infection risk with A. vasorum is greatest in amenity grassland and woodland/scrub.

Abstract

Angiostrongylusvasorum is a helminth parasite of domestic dogs that is increasing in range and prevalence. Its lifecycle requires terrestrial gastropod mollusc (“gastropod”) intermediate hosts, but research is lacking regarding contact risk in situ. We studied co-occurrence between dogs and gastropods in dog-walking spaces in an A. vasorum hotspot in southern England, United Kingdom, with the aim of quantifying environmental and spatio-temporal overlap. We surveyed 390 quadrats and 180 point-counts along 3 km transects at seven sites, yielding 1672 gastropod and 763 dog observations. Common gastropods comprised Arion, Cornu, Monacha, Deroceras, Tandonia, Cochlicella, and Trochulus species. Habitat was the most important factor structuring both gastropod and dog presence and abundance. Likelihood ratio comparisons from conditional probability trees revealed that dogs were 15× more likely to be present on hardstanding surfaces than other habitats but were also present on natural and amenity grassland. Presence of gastropod species associated with high A. vasorum prevalence was 65.12× more likely in woodland/scrub and 62.17× more likely in amenity grassland than other habitats. For gastropods overall, high abundance was 5.82× more likely in woodland/scrub and natural grassland. The findings suggest co-occurrence is highest in amenity and natural grassland, but infection risk is greatest in amenity grassland and woodland/scrub.

Autochthonous Angiostrongylus cantonensis, Angiostrongylus vasorum and Aelurostrongylus abstrusus infections in native terrestrial gastropods from the Macaronesian Archipelago of Spain

The presence of zoonotic relevant Angiostrongylus cantonensis infections has recently been reported in rat final hosts and gastropod intermediate hosts in Tenerife, Spain. However, data on A. cantonensis, Angiostrongylus vasorum and Aelurostrongylus abstrusus prevalences in endemic gastropods for other islands of the Macaronesian Archipelago are still missing. In order to fill this gap, we conducted an epidemiological study on terrestrial native slug (Plutonia lamarckii) and snail (Cornu aspersum, Theba pisana, Rumina decollata) species in 27 selected locations of Tenerife, Gran Canaria, El Hierro, Lanzarote, La Palma and Fuerteventura. Overall, 131 terrestrial gastropods were collected in winter/spring season 2018/2019 and examined for the presence of metastrongyloid lungworm larvae via artificial digestion. The current data revealed a total prevalence of 4.6% for A. vasorum, 3.8% for A. abstrusus and 0.8% for A. cantonensis. In Tenerife, three lungworm species were detected, thereby re-confirming A. cantonensis endemicity for this island. Prevalences of snails (C. aspersum) originating from El Hierro were 5% for A. abstrusus and 15% for A. vasorum, respectively, with larval burdens up to 290 larvae per specimen. This epidemiological study indicates the presence of human, canine and feline lungworm species in Macaronesia, Spain. The current data-particularly those on anthropozoonotic A. cantonensis-call for a regular large-scale monitoring on intermediate hosts, paratenic hosts and definitive hosts to prevent further spread of lungworm-related diseases in humans and animals.

Occurrence of Endoparasites in Adult Swedish Dogs: A Coprological Investigation

The occurrence of endoparasites in Swedish adult dogs (n = 303) was investigated between January and October 2014. Included dogs had to be clinically healthy, older than 1 year and untreated with anthelmintics or endectocides for at least 3 months prior to sampling. They were grouped according to age, category of dog and time since last antiparasitic treatment. Samples were analyzed by flotation to detect parasitic eggs and cysts/oocysts. Among these, 129 (43%) dogs were also analyzed with the Baermann-technique to detect cardiopulmonary larval stages. Parasite dispersal stages were found in 24 (7.9%, CI 95% 4.9–10.1) of the dogs at flotation, while no dog shed cardiopulmonary larval stages. Giardia sp. cysts were observed in 2.6% (n = 8) of dogs examined, cysts of Sarcocystis spp. were observed in 0.6% (n = 2), oocysts of Cystosisopora ohioensis were found in one dog (0.3%). Eggs of Toxocara canis (2.3%, n = 7), Uncinaria stenocephala (1.3%, n = 4) and Trichuris vulpis (0.3%, one dog) were found. None of the dogs were diagnosed with more than one species. Although the occurrence of endoparasites was above the average in dogs ≤ 2 years of age (11.5%), nematodes were more common in older dogs ≥4 years (77.0%). Although the occurrence was lower in working/exhibition dogs (5.9%) than in companion dogs (8.4%) and hunting-dogs (8.6%), these differences were not significant. However, dogs exposed to prey according to the owner had a statistically significant higher prevalence than other dogs (20.5 vs. 5.7%). The Odds Ratio (OR) was 4.0 (CI 95%, 1.58–10.11) for dogs having access to prey, 2.4 (CI 95%, 0.37–8.06) for dogs staying at day-care, and 2 (CI 95%, 0.96–5.96) for bitches. Furthermore, a significant association was observed between infection with nematodes and exposures to prey (p = 0.006). As a reference, data on the endoparasites in canine fecal samples submitted to the National Veterinary Institute (SVA, Uppsala) during 2014 are presented. Overall, this study shows a low occurrence of endoparasites among dogs in Sweden. Any risk-assessment on zoonotic parasites as well as deworming recommendations will take advantage from these updated figures.

Investigation of the occurrence of Angiostrongylus vasorum in coyotes in southern Ontario, Canada

In North America, the only endemic focus for Angiostrongylus vasorum (French heartworm) was historically thought to occur in the southeastern part of the island of Newfoundland. However, reports of A. vasorum infection in wild canids in West Virginia, USA, and Nova Scotia, Canada, suggest the introduction of the parasite to mainland North America. We screened for A. vasorum in coyotes from across southern Ontario. Additionally, we evaluated the performance of ELISAs for detection of circulating A. vasorum antigen (Ag-ELISA) and antibodies against A. vasorum (Ab-ELISA) designed for use in sera or blood of foxes for use with coyotes in this region. Autopsies were performed on 397 coyotes, and lung tissue extract prepared from each carcass was tested via both ELISAs. The sensitivity and specificity for both tests were estimated in the absence of a gold standard using a 2-test single population Bayesian model; sensitivity and specificity priors were based on the performance of the assays in foxes in Switzerland. Eight coyotes tested positive for A. vasorum antigen; no animal was antibody positive. The estimated sensitivity and specificity of the Ag-ELISA were 90.8% (95% credible interval [CrI]: 83.8–95.6%) and 95.5% (95% CrI: 93.4–97.2%), respectively. For the Ab-ELISA, the estimated sensitivity and specificity were 41.9% (95% CrI: 32.1–51.9%) and 98.0% (95% CrI: 96.3–99.0%), respectively. Based on these findings and negative postmortem data for the same animals, there is insufficient evidence to suggest the presence of A. vasorum in southern Ontario coyotes.

What the fox? Cryptic Eucoleus [Capillaria] sp. in the respiratory tract of a cat from Australia

Eucoleus aerophilus (syn. Capillaria aerophila) is a zoonotic trichuroid nematode parasite of dogs, cats and wild carnivores with a global distribution. The main reservoir species in Europe is the red fox, where it has been detected in up to 97% of animals surveyed. Despite the burgeoning feral cat and fox population in Australia, there is a paucity of information about the occurrence and molecular identity of E. aerophilus in these species. The occurrence of a gravid capillariid nematode in the bronchoalveolar lavage of a 12-week-old kitten from central New South Wales (NSW), with a history of lower respiratory signs that had been non-responsive to treatment with metronidazole or amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, prompted a detailed morphological and molecular investigation into the identity of the parasite including the examination of opportunistically-collected red fox tracheas from the region. A combination of PCR and next-generation sequencing yielded the first complete mitochondrial genome of E. aerophilus, collected from the red foxes in Australia, and revealed the presence of a cryptic Eucoleus [Capillaria] sp. in the kitten from central NSW. The protein-coding genes were 14–23% and 5–30% different (pairwise distance) at the nucleotide and amino acid sequences, respectively, which suggests the occurrence of a genetically distinct Eucoleus sp. lineage in Australia. The phylogenetic analysis using both Bayesian and the maximum likelihood methods demonstrated monophyly of the Trichuridae plus Capillariidae using amino acid sequences encoded by mitochondrial DNA. Analysis based on complete SSU rDNA sequences of Eucoleus [Capillaria] sp. and E. aerophilus placed them within Eucoleus spp. from the respiratory tract of their hosts. While Eucoleus spp. may not currently pose a significant threat to companion animals in Australia, their status as a recently emerged pathogen in Europe suggest that greater efforts should be made to understand the distribution and epidemiology of these parasites.

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Discovery of a cryptic Eucoleus [Capillaria] sp. in the respiratory tract of a kitten.

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Morphological and molecular comparison of Eucoleus aerophilus from red foxes with the cryptic Eucoleus [Capillaria] sp.

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First two complete mitochondrial genomes for the Capillariidae assembled using whole genome next-generation sequencing.

Capillaria plica in Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Serbia: Epidemiology and Diagnostic Approaches to Urinary Capillariosis in Domestic Carnivores

PURPOSE

This study aimed to determine the presence of C. plica in red foxes and to point out the possibilities of different diagnostic methods, that could be used for diagnosis of urinary capillariosis in domestic carnivores.

METHODS

Seventeen red foxes from hunting grounds in the Kolubara District, Republic of Serbia, were examined in February 2019. Animals to be shot were selected based on the criteria of gamekeepers and the permission of the competent Ministry. After hunting, the foxes were examined by ultrasound and autopsied. After the necropsy, biochemical and sediment analysis of urine morphological identification of isolated adult parasites, and macroscopic/microscopic examination of the urinary bladder and kidney tissue were performed.

RESULTS

Adults of C. plica were detected in 3/17 foxes (17.6%) by ultrasound imaging and in 6/17 foxes (35.3%) by necropsy examination. Parasite eggs were found in the urinary sediment of 9/17 foxes (52.9%). The predominant histopathologic changes were amyloid degeneration of the renal glomeruli and proximal tubules (8/17 foxes-47%) as well as acute cystitis (7/17 foxes-41.2%). The occurrence of C. plica was determined in 12/17 (70.6%) of the examined foxes.

DISCUSSION

This study is the first record of the C. plica in red foxes in the Republic of Serbia. Diagnostic methods used in this study could make possible the early revealing of capillariosis in domestic carnivores and could provide reliable clinical and parasitological screening of suspect animals.

CONCLUSION

The study presents the first report of urinary capillariosis in a fox population in Serbia. The established high prevalence of C. plica in foxes could presume its higher prevalence in domestic and wild carnivores in the future.

Genetic diversity of the cardiopulmonary canid nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum within and between rural and urban fox populations

Angiostrongylus vasorum is an emerging parasitic cardiopulmonary nematode of dogs, foxes, and other canids. In dogs, the infection causes respiratory and bleeding disorders along with other clinical signs collectively known as canine angiostrongylosis, while foxes represent an important wildlife reservoir. Despite the spread of A. vasorum across various countries in Europe and the Americas, little is known about the genetic diversity of A. vasorum populations at a local level in a highly endemic area. Thus, in the present study, we investigated the genetic diversity of 323 adult A. vasorum nematodes from 64 foxes living in the canton of Zurich, Switzerland. Among those, 279 worms isolated from 20 foxes were analyzed separately to investigate the genetic diversity of multiple worms within individual foxes. Part of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCOI) gene was amplified and sequenced. Overall, 16 mitochondrial haplotypes were identified. The analysis of multiple worms per host revealed 12 haplotypes, with up to 5 different haplotypes in single individuals. Higher haplotype diversity (n = 10) of nematodes from foxes of urban areas than in rural areas (n = 7) was observed, with 5 shared haplotypes. Comparing our data with published GenBank sequences, five haplotypes were found to be unique within the Zurich nematode population. Interestingly, A. vasorum nematodes obtained from foxes in London and Zurich shared the same dominating haplotype. Further studies are needed to clarify if this haplotype has a different pathogenicity that may contribute to its dominance. Our findings show the importance of foxes as a reservoir for genetic parasite recombination and indicate that high fox population densities in urban areas with small and overlapping home ranges allow multiple infection events that lead to high genetic variability of A. vasorum.

Decline in Distribution and Abundance: Urban Hedgehogs under Pressure

Simple Summary

Hedgehogs have been found in higher densities in urban compared to rural areas. Recent dramatic declines in rural hedgehog numbers lead us to pose the question: how are hedgehogs faring in urban areas? In this study, we examined how hedgehog numbers have changed in the city of Zurich, Switzerland, in the last 25 years. We compared data collected through citizen science projects conducted in 1992 and 2016–2018, including: observations of hedgehogs, data from footprint tunnels, and capture-mark recapture studies. We found that hedgehog numbers have declined by 41%, from the former average of more than 30 individuals per km², in the last 25 years. In the same time span, hedgehogs have lost 18% of their former urban distribution. The reasons for this decline are still unknown. Intensification of urban buildup, reduction of green space quality, the use of pesticides, parasites, or diseases, as well as increasing numbers of badgers, which are hedgehog predators, in urban areas are discussed as potential causes. Worryingly, these results suggest that hedgehogs are now under increasing pressure not only in rural but also in urban areas, their former refuges.

Abstract

Increasing urbanization and densification are two of the largest global threats to biodiversity. However, certain species thrive in urban spaces. Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus have been found in higher densities in green areas of settlements as compared to rural spaces. With recent studies pointing to dramatically declining hedgehog numbers in rural areas, we pose the question: how do hedgehogs fare in urban spaces, and do these spaces act as refuges? In this study, recent (2016–2018) and past (1992) hedgehog abundance and distribution were compared across the city of Zurich, Switzerland using citizen science methods, including: footprint tunnels, capture-mark recapture, and incidental sightings. Our analyses revealed consistent negative trends: Overall hedgehog distribution decreased by 17.6% ± 4.7%, whereas abundance declined by 40.6% (mean abundance 32 vs. 19 hedgehogs/km², in past and recent time, respectively), with one study plot even showing a 91% decline in this period (78 vs. 7 hedgehogs/km², respectively). We discuss possible causes of this rapid decline: increased urban densification, reduction of insect biomass, and pesticide use, as well as the role of increasing populations of badgers (a hedgehog predator) and parasites or diseases. Our results suggest that hedgehogs are now under increasing pressure not only in rural but also in urban areas, their former refuges.

Cardiopulmonary nematodes of wild carnivores from Denmark: Do they serve as reservoir hosts for infections in domestic animals?

The cardiopulmonary nematodes Angiostrongylus vasorum, Crenosoma vulpis, Capillaria aerophila and Aelurostrongylus abstrusus, are a cause of concern in the scientific and veterinary community, potentially causing significant disease in domestic animals. To investigate the potential of wild carnivores as reservoir hosts to these parasites, a total of 1041 animals from seven regions of Denmark were sampled: 476 raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides), 367 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 123 American mink (Neovison vison), 31 beech martens (Martes foina), 30 Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) and 14 polecats (Mustela putorius). Hearts and lungs were collected and examined for cardiopulmonary parasites. Capillaria aerophila was identified using morphology, whereas A. vasorum and C. vulpis were identified by a duplex real-time PCR, and A. abstrusus by conventional PCR. This is the first Danish report of A. vasorum and C. vulpis infections in raccoon dogs, mink and polecats, and of C. aerophila in raccoon dogs and beech martens. In addition, this is the first time A. vasorum and C. vulpis have been identified in wild animals from the island of Bornholm, just as it is the first report of C. vulpis in American mink, and C. vulpis and A. vasorum in polecats in Europe. The prevalence of A. vasorum appears to have increased in red foxes in Denmark compared to previous studies, while C. vulpis and C. aerophila prevalences are lower. Our data show that several wild carnivores can serve as reservoir hosts for A. vasorum, C. vulpis and C. aerophila in Denmark, and that A. vasorum appears more abundant than previously reported. It is speculated that the A. vasorum increase might relate to increased snail abundance, which may be due to a rise in mean yearly temperatures in Denmark.

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The first report of C. vulpis in American mink.

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The first report of C. vulpis and A. vasorum in polecats.

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The first report of A. vasorum in raccoon dogs, mink, and polecats from Denmark.

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The first report of C. vulpis in raccoon dogs, mink, and polecats from Denmark.

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The first report of C. aerophila in raccoon dogs and beech martens from Denmark.

Biotic and abiotic factors influencing the prevalence, intensity and distribution of Eucoleus aerophilus and Crenosoma vulpis in red foxes, Vulpes vulpes from Romania

To understand the importance of host’ habitat choice in determining parasite burden, we studied the distribution of two helminth parasites of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in south-eastern Europe (Romania): Crenosoma vulpis and Eucoleus aerophilus, both widely distributed respiratory nematodes parasitic in various carnivores. Even though the life cycle and biology of the two nematodes follow a different pattern, both parasites appear to be co-distributed and often co-infect foxes with variable prevalences across their range. Between July 2016 and August 2018, 550 red foxes, V. vulpes were collected by hunters in different localities from 22 counties of Romania and examined by necropsy. All parasites found in the trachea and bronchial system were collected and preserved in 70% ethanol. We characterised red fox/parasite habitats using seven predictors (fragmentation, altitude, presence/absence of water surface, per cent cover of arable land/grassland/urbanized areas/forest cover/wetlands). Prevalence, abundance, intensity, and sex ratio were calculated and statistically analysed using the R software. Out of the 550 examined foxes, 76.2% were infected with lungworms. The overall prevalence was 32.0% for C. vulpis and 72.5% for E. aerophilus. The mean intensity of infection was 13.70 for C. vulpis 6.15 for E. aerophilus. For both nematodes, the prevalence was significantly higher in males than in females, and there was no influence of hosts’ age. No statistical differences were found for intensity and mean intensity in the case of infection with C. vulpis and E. aerophilus between age and sex categories. The abundance of C. vulpis showed a strong positive relationship with the presence of wetlands and habitat fragmentation. We found a significant correlation between the abundance of E. aerophilus and altitude, with foxes from higher elevations showing higher prevalences.

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Crenosoma vulpis and Eucoleus aerophilus are widely distributed respiratory nematodes.

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Prevalence, abundance, intensity were calculated and statistically analysed using R software Grs.

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There was a significant correlation between the abundance of E. aerophilus and altitude.

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The abundance of C. vulpis showed a strong positive relationship with the presence of wetland.

Conquering Switzerland: the emergence of Angiostrongylus vasorum in foxes over three decades and its rapid regional increase in prevalence contrast with the stable occurrence of lungworms

Angiostrongylus vasorum, Crenosoma vulpis and Capillaria aerophila are the most common lungworms of domestic and wild canids. We investigated the short- and long-term lungworm prevalence changes in the Swiss fox population with a focus on A. vasorum. Between 2012 and 2017, lungs and hearts of 533 foxes from north-eastern Switzerland were necropsied and blood samples tested for circulating A. vasorum antigen. Angiostrongylus vasorum prevalence increased steadily from 21.5% in 2012 to 81.8% in 2017. In contrast, C. aerophila and C. vulpis prevalences fluctuated between 41.8 and 74.7%, and 3.6 and 14.9%, respectively. Based on 3955 blood samples collected between 1986 and 2017 from three geographic areas and during four time periods, antigen seropositivity increased from 2.4 to 62.0%. In north-eastern Switzerland, seropositivity was initially low (1.9 and 1.7% in the first two time periods) but increased in the following two decades to 22.2 and 62.0%, respectively. Our findings depict the spectacular expansion of A. vasorum in the past three decades. Regionally, the prevalence in foxes increased 4-fold within 6 years in some regions. This underpins the important role of foxes as reservoir hosts, likely explaining the increasing number of cases of canine angiostrongylosis in Switzerland. Our findings are representative of central Europe and may help anticipating future developments in areas where A. vasorum is present but (still) infrequent.

Survey of UK pet owners quantifying internal parasite infection risk and deworming recommendation implications

Background

Dogs and cats in the UK are exposed to many internal parasites which can pose risks to the health of both the pet and their owners. By understanding these endemic parasites and the risks they pose, we can assess the lifestyle of pets and recommend the correct deworming frequency. Studies identifying risk factors were discussed in the European Scientific Counsel Companion Animal Parasites (ESCCAP) guidelines. To this date, there has been very little information on how pet owners in the UK deworm their pets and if the protocols they follow align with ESCCAP recommendations. The objective of this study was to look at the current deworming protocols of UK cat and dog owners in conjunction with their lifestyle and risk.

Methods

An online survey was conducted in the UK targeting pet owners who own at least one dog and/or cat and were responsible for product purchase, the pet’s health care and veterinary visits. These survey results were analysed against the ESCCAP guidelines and each pet placed into a risk category. By comparing the current deworming frequency with that recommended for their risk category, the compliance of UK pet owners with ESCCAP recommendations was evaluated.

Results

A total of 500 dog owners and 500 cat owners completed surveys. Overall, the study found none of the pets fell into risk group A, with all pets meeting the risk level for at least deworming four times a year (risk group B and above). The majority of animals fell into the highest risk category D with 97% of dogs and 68% of cats. The average deworming per year in the UK was 3.1 for dogs and 3.1 cats, below the minimum recommended by ESCCAP.

Conclusions

For both felines and canines, the dosing frequencies are lower than recommended to both reduce zoonotic risk for reducing Toxocara spp. egg-shedding and improve pet health. This research highlights the need for improved education around dog and cat patient risk assessments and greater adherence to recommended deworming aligned with the ESCCAP guidelines.

Spatial distribution of sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei) in urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Great Britain as determined by citizen science

Urban areas may support high densities of wild carnivores, and pathogens can strongly influence carnivore populations. Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are hosts of sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei), which infects numerous species, and transmission can be density dependent. In Great Britain, urban red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have recently increased in population density and undergone range expansions. Here we investigate corresponding changes in urban fox mange prevalence. We predicted a higher prevalence closer to historic epi/enzootics and lower prevalence where urban features reduce fox density and movements, i.e. large areas of public green space, and fragmented habitat, as measured by road length and urban perimeter shape complexity. We visually assessed mange symptoms from georeferenced images of urban foxes submitted online by the public, thus surveying private land on a national scale. We measured the proportion of foxes apparently showing mange and used SATSCAN to identify spatial clusters of high infection risk. Landscape features were extracted from urban layers in GIS to determine associations. Although mange was widespread, we identified a single cluster of high prevalence (37.1%) in Northwest and Central England, which exceeded double mean prevalence overall (15.1%) and mirrors the northward expansion of urban fox distribution. Prevalence was positively correlated with perimeter shape complexity and negatively correlated with distance to the nearest city with mange, although the latter association was weak. Our findings show that citizen science can effectively monitor diseases with highly visible symptoms and suggest that fox movements are influential in explaining spatial patterns of prevalence.

Cardiopulmonary nematode infections in wild canids: Does the key lie on host-prey-parasite evolution?

Cardiopulmonary nematodes are among the most pathogenic parasites of domestic and wild canids. The aim of this study was to describe the species diversity, prevalence and infection intensity of these parasites in the Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) and the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. 257 foxes and 74 wolves were necropsied between 2008 and 2014. Four nematode species were identified: Angiostrongylus vasorum, Eucoleus aerophilus, Crenosoma vulpis and Filaroides hirthi. This last species was only found in wolves, being the first time that is cited worldwide in this wild canid. The overall parasite prevalence was significantly higher in foxes (70%) than in wolves (28%). Specifically, prevalences in foxes and wolves were, respectively, 43% and 22% for A. vasorum, 33% and 5% for E. aerophilus, and 30% and 9% for C. vulpis. The prevalence of F. hirthi was 16%. The A. vasorum intensity was significantly higher in foxes than in wolves. Differences between host species in the risk of infection would be associated to diverging feeding behavior, and possibly reflects a parasite-host adaptation related to host's hunting strategies and cardiorespiratory requirements. This study revealed an association between infection and environmental factors, and highlighted a wide variation in the spatial distribution of A. vasorum. Our results indicate that cardiopulmonary parasites are widespread in wild canids in northwest Spain, and further agrees with other studies indicating the expansion of A. vasorum in Europe and, therefore, the urgent need to investigate infection in dogs in sympatric areas.

Are golden jackals (Canis aureus) definitive hosts for Angiostrongylus vasorum?

Angiostrongylosis caused by Angiostrongylus vasorum is an emerging disease in Europe. Recent reports have shown that, besides the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) recognized as the main definitive host and reservoir for the parasite, the role of the definitive host can be taken by a range of mammals. We considered that, due to the rapid large-scale expansion of its populations in Europe, the golden jackal (Canis aureus) could assume an important role in the epidemiology of the disease. The aim of the investigations was to explore the role of the golden jackal as the definitive host for A. vasorum. Sixty-three golden jackals, legally hunted in lowlands around the Danube River in Serbia recognized as the core area of the species' distribution in Europe, were subjected to patho-morphological and parasitological examination. The adult forms of A. vasorum were detected in the pulmonary arteries in six golden jackals with gross lesions manifested in the lungs. The finding of first stage larvae (L1) of A. vasorum in microscopic smears of the lung tissue altered by infection, which was consistent with the presence of adult parasites and manifestation of gross lesions in the lungs, confirms the successful reproduction of the parasite in the golden jackal. Migration of L1 from the blood vessels to the airways was confirmed by histopathology and, subsequently, their shedding was demonstrated by the Baermann method. The results support the hypothesis that the golden jackal acts as a suitable definitive host for A. vasorum. As a definitive host with a large-scale expansion of its populations in Europe, the golden jackal may be an important part of the parasite's host repertoire by spreading the parasite into previously non-endemic areas and by being an additional definitive host in endemic areas of vulpine angiostrongylosis.

A grid-cell based fecal sampling scheme reveals: land-use and altitude affect prevalence rates of Angiostrongylus vasorum and other parasites of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)

In view of the role of foxes as a reservoir for Angiostrongylus vasorum, a nematode of the heart and lungs of dogs and foxes, its occurrence across Switzerland was investigated in foxes applying a standardized sampling scheme for fox fecal samples. In 72 study areas, which consisted of three 1-km² grid cells, a total of 1481 samples were collected by walking transects following linear features in the terrain, and analyzed by a flotation-sieving method. The overall prevalence rate of A. vasorum in fecal samples was 8.8% (95% confidence interval, CI 7.4-10.3%), being significantly higher in the Swiss Plateau (11.4%, CI. 9.4-13.8%) compared with other bioregions, and more prevalent in areas with less than 50% of cultivated land (p = 0.043). Prevalence rates increased with decreasing altitudes being significantly higher below 400 m above sea level (20.6%, 95% CI 15.2-26.9%), while all samples collected above 900 m asl were negative. Eggs of Toxocara sp. (12.1%), Taeniidae (10.5%), Capillaria spp. (8.3%), Trichuris vulpis (5.5%), hookworms (5.3%), Toxascaris leonina (1.3%) and Strongyloides sp. (0.4%) were furthermore identified. Taeniid eggs were positively and Capillaria spp. negatively associated with the amount of cultivated land. The prevalence rates based on our fecal analyses were generally lower compared with previous studies from Switzerland which were based on fox necropsies. However, the grid cell-based sampling scheme with replicable transects for fox feces collection proved to be a suitable, non-invasive method for parasitic large-scale surveys providing information on the relative infectious pressure for the local dog population.

Occurrence of canine and feline extra-intestinal nematodes in key endemic regions of Italy

Extra-intestinal nematodes of companion animals are of growing concern in veterinary medicine for their pathogenic potential and the current expansion throughout Europe. The present study has evaluated the occurrence of major canine and feline extra-intestinal nematodes in regions of Italy having epidemiological relevance. Associations of various recorded parameters related to the examined animals have been statistically evaluated, along with a comparative analysis with the most recent epidemiological data. Overall, 1055 dogs and 1000 cats were tested. Among extra-intestinal nematodes Angiostrongylus vasorum was the most common in dogs followed by Capillaria aerophila and Dirofilaria spp.; Aelurostrongylus abstrusus was the most recorded parasite in cats, followed by C. aerophila and Troglostrongylus brevior. The statistical analysis revealed that outdoor access is associated with A. vasorum, A. abstrusus and T. brevior infections, that were also more prevalent in animals with cardio-respiratory signs. Moreover, cats aged less than 12 months had more chances to be infected by lungworms. The data herein presented confirm the occurrence and the possible risk of expansion of different extra-intestinal parasitoses of dogs and cats in Italy, underlining the importance of a constant epidemiologic vigilance and of appropriate control methods.

Cardiopulmonary parasitic nematodes of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Serbia

Among the wild canids, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is recognised as an important reservoir species for a range of parasites, including cardiopulmonary nematodes of public health and veterinary importance. As cross-host transmission between the red fox and domestic carnivores can play an important role in the epizootiology of cardiopulmonary parasitic diseases, the aim of the present investigations was to obtain data on the geographical distribution of cardiopulmonary nematodes of the red fox. The material for examination consisted of 83 foxes which were legally hunted at different locations during a three-month period from December 2017 to February 2018. The presence of four emerging species in Europe (Angiostrongylus vasorum, Crenosoma vulpis, Dirofilaria immitis and Eucoleus aerophilus) was revealed in red foxes of Serbia. Crenosoma vulpis and E. aerophilus were detected in foxes in both the plain and the mountainous areas across the country. Dirofilaria immitis is distributed in red foxes near alluvial rivers in Vojvodina province (northern Serbia). Angiostrongylosis caused by A. vasorum was demonstrated to exist in two enzootic foci with a high percentage of infected foxes in a plain area of northern Serbia. To the best of our knowledge, C. vulpis and A. vasorum were discovered for the first time in red foxes in central Serbia. The results provide strong evidence for veterinarians to take into consideration the parasitic nematodes discovered in red foxes in the differential diagnosis of diseases of companion animals. In the context of the 'One Health' approach the results related to the distribution of the zoonotic species E. aerophilus and D. immitis can be useful for medical epidemiology.

A comparison of helminth infections as assessed through coprological analysis and adult worm burdens in a wild host

Coprological analysis is the most widely used diagnostic tool for helminth infection in both domestic and wild mammals. Evaluation of the efficacy of this technique is rare, due to the lack of availability of adult worm burden. Where information is available the majority of studies are in small ruminants and seldom in a wild host. This study of 289 wild badgers is the first to report the relationship between faecal egg/larval counts and adult worm burden in badgers whilst also evaluating the reliability of coprological analysis as a diagnostic tool for hookworm (Uncinaria criniformis) and lungworm (Aelurostrongylus falciformis) infection. The prevalence of hookworm and lungworm infection, as assessed through adult worm burden was 59.2% and 20.8% respectively. For both species of helminth, infection was consistently under-reported by coprological analysis compared to adult worm burden with a reported 41% sensitivity for hookworm and 10% for lungworm. A significant positive relationship was found between faecal counts and adult worm burden for both species of helminths. Additionally the density –dependent relationship often reported in helminth infection appears to be weak or non-existent in this study, up to the observed worm intensity of 500.

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Hookworm infection is endemic within the Irish badger population.

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Lungworm infection is also common in Irish badgers.

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Coprological analysis has a low sensitivity for diagnosing infection compared to adult worm burden.

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Faecal is a reliable indicator of intensity of infection.

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Density-dependence is weak, or non-existent up to the observed intensity of 500 worms.

Angiostrongylosis in Cerdocyon thous (crab-eating fox) and Lycalopex gymnocercus (Pampas fox) in Southern Brazil

The objective of this study was to identify species of Angiostrongylus spp. infecting wild carnivores in Southern Brazil, as well as to describe gross and histopathological findings associated with the infection. Necropsy was conducted in 16 wild carnivores parasitized by Angiostrongylus spp. Analysed lungs revealed multifocal dark-red areas of consolidation; in one case, multifocal firm white nodules spread in all pulmonary lobes were observed. In one animal, a focally extensive area of malacia associated with haemorrhage was noted in the encephalon. Histologically, multifocal granulomatous pneumonia or bronchopneumonia, associated with eggs and larvae in blood vessels, lung interstitium, alveoli, and sometimes in bronchi and bronchioles was observed. Adult nematodes were seen within blood vessels. The lesion observed in the brain was characterized as a focally extensive area of malacia associated with gitter cells, haemorrhage, thrombosis and a free intralesional larva. Through molecular techniques, seven positive samples of Angiostrongylus cantonensis were obtained, including the brain sample, and a positive sample of Angiostrongylus vasorum-like, all in Cerdocyon thous. The positive sample for A. vasorum showed 97% similarity with sequences deposited in GenBank, suggesting a new species or subspecies of Angiostrongylus sp. Infection of Lycalopex gymnocercus by Angiostrongylus spp. was confirmed by histological evaluation.

Genetic diversity and population structure of Angiostrongylus vasorum parasites within and between local urban foxes (Vulpes Vulpes)

Angiostrongylus vasorum is a nematode parasite of the pulmonary arteries and heart that infects domestic and wild canids. Dogs (Canis familiaris) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are the most commonly affected definitive hosts. Recent studies suggest that angiostrongylosis is an emerging disease, and that red foxes may play an important role in the epidemiology of the parasite. Genetic analyses of parasites collected from dogs and foxes throughout Europe have shown that the same parasite haplotypes are commonly shared between different host species. However, the extent of genetic diversity within local A. vasorum populations and individual hosts is unknown. The objective of the present study was to assess the occurrence of genetic diversity among A. vasorum (a) recovered from different foxes within the Greater London area (a localised population, single worm per fox dataset); and (b) hosted within single foxes (multiple worms per fox dataset). During 2016, A. vasorum worms were collected from foxes culled for other purposes in London. DNA was extracted from each parasite and a partial fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (mtCOI) gene was amplified and sequenced. Sequences from the single worm dataset were compared with those published elsewhere. Combined, 19 haplotypes were described of which 15 were identified from foxes found in London, indicating that considerable genetic diversity can be detected within a local geographic area. Analysis of the multiple worm dataset identified 22 haplotypes defining worms recovered from just six foxes, emphasising the relevance of wild canines as reservoirs of genetic diversity. This is the first study to explore the genetic complexity of individual fox-hosted A. vasorum populations.

Respiratory and Cardiopulmonary Nematode Species of Foxes and Jackals in Serbia

As part of routine monitoring of foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and jackals (Canis aureus) on the territory of Vojvodina province (northern Serbia), an analysis of respiratory and cardiopulmonary parasitic nematodes was conducted. Both host species harbored Eucoleus aerophilus, E. boehmi and Crenosoma vulpis, whereas Angiostrongylus vasorum was found only in foxes. A high prevalence of infection (72.6 %) was noted for E. aerophilus in foxes. The remaining parasite species occurred less frequently in both host species. In all species where it could be quantified, a high degree of parasite aggregation within host individuals was noted. Single species infections were most common, whereas two and three species infections occurred less frequently in both host species. The distribution of abundance of E. aerophilus was affected by host sex, with abundances higher in male foxes. Sampling site and year influenced abundance variation in E. boehmi.

Veterinary parasitology teaching at London - Meeting the 'Day-One Competency' needs of new veterinarians

Over the past four decades, there has been an exponential increase in veterinary parasitology knowledge, coinciding with the advent of molecular biology in research. Therefore, it is unrealistic for teachers to expect students to graduate with an encyclopaedic knowledge of the subject. As a result, a new curriculum was introduced at The Royal Veterinary College (University of London) in 2007, designed to meet the needs of our new graduates, i.e. RCVS Day-One Competences. The aims of this curriculum are, inter alia, to ensure that new graduates have an up-to-date body of core knowledge and are able to apply such knowledge and newly-acquired information to scientific and clinical problem-solving. Veterinary parasitology is taught primarily in Year 2, following a brief introduction in Year 1; clinical aspects are covered in Year 3, with original research projects undertaken in Years 4 and 5. Parasitology is taught in parallel with other subjects, enabling both horizontal and vertical integration. Core material is provided in lectures supplemented by directed learning (DL) in small groups and interactive, clinical scenario-based practical classes. Student learning is supported by Moodle 3.2 (Virtual Learning Environment [VLE], RVC Learn) which provides access to an on-line study guide (annotated using Adobe Reader), PowerPoint presentations with synchronized lecturer commentary (Echo Active Learning Platform [ALP]), detailed feedback for DL and practical classes, parasite 'potcasts' and CAL packages, and a Clinical Skills Centre. A parasitology textbook has also been published recently to support courses taught at the College. Assessment of student learning is achieved using a variety of written formats (essay, problem-solving questions [PSQ], multiple choice questions [MCQ] and extended matching questions [EMQ]), integrated oral examinations and objective structured clinical examinations (OSCEs).

Prevalence survey on lungworm (Angiostrongylus vasorum, Crenosoma vulpis, Eucoleus aerophilus) infections of wild red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in central Germany

Background

Angiostrongylus vasorum, Crenosoma vulpis and Eucoleus aerophilus are a source of increasing concern, potentially causing significant pulmonary and severe cardiac/systemic diseases in domestic dogs and wild canids, especially red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). To investigate the prevalence and geographical distribution of these parasites in central Germany, a total of 569 foxes were examined by dissection.

Methods

Pluck (heart and lung) and faecal samples of red foxes were collected from three regions of Germany. Lungs, hearts and adjacent vessels were processed for adult nematode detection. Parasitological diagnoses of faecal samples were performed by SAF technique, Giardia- and Cryptosporidium-Coproantigen-ELISAs and by a duplex copro-PCR for the detection of A. vasorum and C. vulpis DNA.

Results

Foxes originated from three Federal States of central Germany: Thuringia (n = 359); Rhineland-Palatinate (n = 121) and Hesse (n = 89). High prevalences for all three nematodes were detected, with E. aerophilus (69.4%; 395/569), followed by C. vulpis (32.3%; 184/569) and A. vasorum (14.1%; 80/569). In case of A. vasorum, prevalences varied significantly between Federal States, with the highest prevalence of 27.3% in Rhineland-Palatinate, followed by 19.1% and 8.4% in Hesse and Thuringia, respectively. The presence of A. vasorum in fox populations showed a rather patchy distribution, increasing from north-eastern to south-western regions. Analyses on C. vulpis revealed prevalences of 35.1%, 30.3% and 25.6% (Thuringia, Hesse and Rhineland-Palatinate, respectively). The most prevalent lungworm nematode was E. aerophilus, with a prevalence of 75.2%, 71.9% and 66.9% (Rhineland-Palatinate, Hesse and Thuringia, respectively) and an almost area-wide equal distribution. Significant differences for single parasite prevalences within geographical regions of the Federal States could be detected whilst no correlation between age or gender and parasite occurrence was estimated. Weak seasonality for the winter months for A. vasorum, stronger correlation to spring and late summer for C. vulpis and no correlation to any season for E. aerophilus were detected. The method of dissection revealed a significantly higher sensitivity for C. vulpis when compared with the results of the duplex copro-PCR.

Conclusions

A sylvatic cycle was confirmed for all three lungworm nematodes in the examined area. The prevalences for all three lungworm nematodes are some of the highest recorded so far in German foxes. The data suggest that A. vasorum might be spreading from south-western to north-eastern parts of Germany.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-2672-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

First report of pneumonia caused by Angiostrongylus vasorum in a golden jackal

Angiostrongylosis caused by metastrongyloid nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum is an emerging parasitic disease in Europe and the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is considered as a main reservoir species for this parasite. Little is known about the role of other wild canids in the epidemiology of angiostrongylosis. The present paper provides the first description of pathomorphological lesions caused by A. vasorum in a golden jackal (Canis aureus). The paper describes a case of co-infection with A. vasorum and Dirofilaria immitis in a one-year-old female golden jackal, legally hunted near the City of Kovin, South Banat, Serbia. The postmortem examination revealed severe pneumonia, proliferative endarteritis, the presence of two adult males of D. immitis in the right atrium, and the presence of 15 adult forms of A. vasorum (11 females and 4 males) in the pulmonary arteries. Native microscopy of an impression smear of the lung tissue found numerous larvae compatible with the A. vasorum first larval stage. This paper provides the first evidence that angiostrongylosis exists in the golden jackal in Serbia and confirms that the golden jackal should be considered as a very suitable definitive host for A. vasorum. The results suggest the possibility that the golden jackal may act as reservoir species and as an important transmitter of A. vasorum larvae.

The American mink (Neovison vison) is a competent host for native European parasites

The American mink (Neovison vison) is a mustelid native to North America that was introduced in Europe and the former USSR for fur farming. Throughout the last century, accidental or deliberate escapes of mink from farms caused the establishment of stable feral populations. In fact, the American mink is considered an invasive alien species in 28 European countries. The present study evaluates the gastrointestinal and cardiopulmonary helminth fauna of the American mink in Galicia (NW Spain) to understand its role as a potential reservoir for parasites affecting other autochthonous mustelids. In the period 2008-2014, fifty American mink (35 males and 15 females) of different ages (22 immature and 28 adults) from the provinces of Lugo, Ourense and Pontevedra were captured and sacrificed. Eight parasite species were found (6 nematodes and 2 trematodes) with the following prevalences: Molineus patens (68%), Aonchotheca putorii (54%), Crenosoma melesi (10%), Aonchotheca annulosa (8%), Angiostrongylus daskalovi (6%), Aelurostrongylus spp. (2%), Troglotrema acutum (2%) and an unidentified trematode (2%). Eighty-two per cent of the mink harboured helminths, including 15 animals (30%) infected by only one parasite species, 19 (38%) by two species, 5 (10%) by three species and 2 mink (4%) by four species. All helminth species identified are native to European mustelids. Statistical models were used to evaluate if animal characteristics (age, sex and weight), date and capture area influenced the prevalence, intensity or parasite richness. Statistical differences were detected only in models for intensity of M. patens, A. putorii and C. melesi. This is the first report of Angiostrongylus daskalovi, a cardiopulmonary nematode, and A. annulosa, a gastrointestinal nematode specific of rodents, in American mink. Moreover, although the fluke T. acutum has already been cited in American mink, to our knowledge, the present study represents the first report of this trematode in the lung.

Angiostrongylus vasorum in Romania: an extensive survey in red foxes, Vulpes vulpes

Background

Angiostrongylus vasorum is the causative agent of canine angiostrongylosis, a severe snail-borne disease of dogs. Red foxes are important natural reservoirs of infection, and surveys of foxes provide a more objective picture of the parasite distribution. Our aim was to investigate the possibility of the presence of A. vasorum in red foxes from the western part of Romania and to analyse the risk factors related to the sex, age and geographic origin of the foxes. Between July 2016 and April 2017, 567 hunted red foxes from 10 counties of western Romania were examined by necropsy for the presence of lungworms.

Results

Overall, the infection with A. vasorum has been found in 24 red foxes (4.2%) originating in four counties (Mureș, Hunedoara, Sălaj and Cluj). There was no significant difference between the prevalence in males and females, between juveniles and adults and between counties.

Conclusions

This is the first report of autochthonous infections of A. vasorum in Romania, showing a relatively low prevalence and extending eastwards the known distributional range of this parasite in Europe. The presence of autochthonous cases in domestic dogs in Romania remains to be confirmed by further studies.

Repeated inoculations with the lung and heartworm nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum result in increasing larval excretion and worm burden in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes)

The French heartworm Angiostongylus vasorum is found in European red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and dog populations, where it appears to be spreading geographically. Once introduced into new areas, it establishes in local fox populations, typically to over 50% prevalence in a few years. High susceptibility and constant excretion of first stage larvae (L1) by the definitive hosts are prerequisites for sustaining high parasite biomass in a particular habitat. The present study explores the hypothesis that repeated ingestion of gastropods in nature will result in accumulation of adult worms and elevated excretion of L1 in feces. Experimentally infected foxes were subsequently inoculated via stomach tube once (9 weeks post initial inoculation) or twice (9 and 13 weeks post inoculation (wpi)) with 100 third stage A. vasorum larvae (L3) previously isolated from aquatic snails infected with L1 from a naturally infected dog. Despite large variation in fecal larval excretion for the individual animals within the groups, excretion of L1 was significantly higher in foxes twice inoculated as compared to foxes inoculated only once. With an outlier in the once inoculated group removed, excretion became significantly higher in the three times inoculated group. Establishment of adult worms varied and only a trend to higher worm burdens was found in the group of foxes inoculated three times. However, this became significant with the same single outlier removed. Overall, it appears that protective immunity to A. vasorum does not appear to occur in V. vulpes with animals exhibiting high infection intensities without obvious clinical signs. The increasing larval excretion in foxes being repeatedly exposed to A. vasorum L3 support the hypothesis that foxes under natural conditions may repeatedly ingest infected gastropods and remain a source of environmental contamination for several months, potentially contributing to the establishment of endemic foci through increasing L1 excretion.

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Foxes were experimentally infected with 100 Angiostrongylus vasorum larvae (L3).

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Two groups were later challenged once or twice.

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Increasing larval counts linked to time post infection and repeated inoculation.

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Data suggests role of foxes in rapid establishment of the parasite in new areas.

Host-specific serological response to Angiostrongylus vasorum infection in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes): implications for parasite epidemiology

Angiostrongylus vasorum is a cardiovascular nematode increasingly found in dogs and foxes in endemic foci throughout Europe. The present study evaluates ELISAs for detection of circulating antigens and specific antibodies against A. vasorum in foxes. Blood and worm burdens (WBs) from carcasses of 215 Swiss wild red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and from 75 farmed foxes of different age groups experimentally inoculated once or repeatedly with infective doses of 50, 100 or 200 third-stage larvae were obtained. Antigen detection in the naturally infected Swiss foxes had 91·2% sensitivity and 89·4% specificity, whereas the corresponding figures for antibody detection were 42·2 and 92·0%. The experimentally infected foxes became positive for circulating antigens 5–10 weeks post-inoculation (wpi) and remained highly positive up to 22 wpi, irrespectively of further challenge inoculation. The antibody responses in the same foxes were highly variable: high optical density (OD) values were reached 5–7 wpi in all animals, followed by a decrease in over half of the animals despite accumulating and consequently high WBs resulting in persistent infections. After each challenge, a slight increase of OD values was observed 7 weeks later. We hypothesize that infected foxes develop a variable and non-protective immunity. Such parasite tolerance allows long-term survival of A. vasorum in the animals, and may explain why the parasite appears to spread rapidly within a fox population, an epidemiological dynamic that is evident in many parts of Europe where A. vasorum has been found over the last decades.

GIS-supported epidemiological analysis on canine Angiostrongylus vasorum and Crenosoma vulpis infections in Germany

BACKGROUND

Angiostrongylus vasorum infections are the cause of severe cardiopulmonary diseases in dogs. In the past, canine angiostrongylosis has largely been neglected in Europe, although some recent studies indicated an expansion of historically known endemic areas, a phenomenon that might also apply to Crenosoma vulpis. The aim of the present study was to analyse temporal and spatial trends of canine A. vasorum and C. vulpis infections and to perform GIS-supported risk factor analysis to evaluate the role of landscape, age and seasonality in the life-cycle of these nematodes.

METHODS

A total of 12,682 faecal samples from German dogs (collected in 2003-2015) with clinical suspicion for lungworm infection were examined for the presence of A. vasorum and C. vulpis larvae by the Baermann funnel technique and respective epidemiological data (location and age of the sampled dogs, date of sampling) were subjected to GIS-supported risk factor analysis.

RESULTS

Overall, A. vasorum and C. vulpis larvae were detected in 288 (2.3%) and 285 (2.2%) faecal samples, respectively. In general, both lungworm infections were found to be widely spread in Germany. GIS-supported analyses demonstrate spatial differences in the occurrence of canine A. vasorum and C. vulpis infections in Germany. also, risk factor analyses revealed an overlap but also diverging risk and protective factors for A. vasorum and C. vulpis infections. The current data also indicate a significant increase of A. vasorum and C. vulpis prevalences from 2003 to 2015 and from 2008 until 2015, respectively, and a potential spread of A. vasorum endemic areas to the northeastern part of Germany.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the present study show an insight into the epidemiological situation of lungworm infections (A. vasorum and C. vulpis) of the past 13 years in Germany. The data clearly demonstrate an increase of diagnosed A. vasorum prevalence in the tested dog population between 2003 and 2015 as well as spatial differences in the occurrence of diagnosed A. vasorum and C. vulpis infections of dogs in Germany. Risk factor analyses suggest possible differences in the biology of these parasites, presumably at the intermediate host level.

The effect of host age and inoculation dose on infection dynamics of Angiostrongylus vasorum in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)

BACKGROUND

Infections and clinical cases of Angiostrongylus vasorum in dogs are found increasingly across Europe, thus rendering knowledge on its infection biology more important. We used red foxes as a carnivore model to examine the effect of host age and infection dose on the establishment of adult A. vasorum in single experimental infections.

METHODS

Fourteen juvenile and fourteen adult red foxes, free of metastrongyloid infections, were given a low (50) or high (200) dose of third-stage larvae (L3) of A. vasorum. Two groups of three foxes of each age group served as uninfected controls. Larval excretion by Baermann and blood parameters were followed for ten weeks. Worm counts were performed at necropsy by sequential perfusion, dissection and Baermann method.

RESULTS

The establishment rate (i.e. recovery in percentage of inoculation dose) of A. vasorum primary infections in red foxes was associated with host age and inoculation dose. In the low dose juveniles, 61% (range 52-72%) of the infection dose was recovered as worms in the pulmonary arteries and heart at necropsy while only 35% (21-50%) were recovered in the high dose. Corresponding establishment rates for adults were 39% (18-98%) and 8% (1-21%). In juveniles, a higher dose resulted in significantly higher adult worm counts, higher larval excretion and more pronounced pathophysiological changes, particularly in coagulation parameters. Earlier onset of patency was also found in the juveniles. In contrast, the larval excretion in high dose adults was very low and two infected animals never reached patency. However, a few adults showed only limited resistance as judged by excretion of larvae. The increase to very high larval excretion levels (> 4,000 larvae per g of faeces) after several months in a single animal, indicated that any potential acquired immunity does not affect worm fecundity.

CONCLUSIONS

Resistance to a primary A. vasorum infection was generally higher in older animals, and this age resistance was reflected in lower worm counts and reduced excretion of larvae. The juvenile red foxes were fully susceptible, as reflected in high establishment rates. Although severe clinical disease was never observed in the foxes, A. vasorum infections in red foxes appear to be chronic and moreover, to resemble infections in dogs. The results underline the red fox as a suitable model as well as natural reservoir for the parasite.

Eucoleus boehmi infection in red fox (Vulpes vulpes) from Italy

In the last decade an increase of the number of red foxes in anthropized habitats across European countries, including Italy, has been observed. This pones implications in terms of disease transmission between wildlife and domestic animals; in fact, there are evidences of the role of foxes as reservoirs and amplifiers of a broad spectrum of parasites infecting pets. The present study evaluated the prevalence of Eucoleus boehmi, an emerging extra-intestinal nematodes of the Capillariinae subfamily, in red foxes. The nasal passages and sinuses of 179 red foxes culled from several areas of northern and central Italy were inspected and the mucosal surfaces were scrapped and examined for adult nematodes and eggs, microscopically and genetically identified. Overall 55 foxes (30.7%) were found to be infected with E. boehmi, i.e. 27 on inspection of the nasal passages and sinuses and 28 on mucosal flush and scraping. The occurrence of E. boehmi was significantly (p < 0.05) correlated to the sampling location, the age and gender of the animals examined; the higher rates of prevalence were observed in animals culled in Piedmont (43.3%) and in female (60.6%) and adult (38.1%) subjects. A total of 184 adult parasites were recovered, with a mean intensity of infection of 3.34, and a more frequent localization of E. boehmi in the nasal passages rather than in the sinuses. A significant (p < 0.05) relationship was found between the parasite burden and body condition and age of the animals; the intensity of infection was significantly higher in juveniles (mean: 6.3 specimens) and in animals showing poor fox body condition (mean: 7.8 specimens). These results show that E. boehmi is highly prevalent in the red fox populations of certain areas of Italy. Epidemiological implications are discussed, with a special focus on the role that this wild canid may have in the increasing transmission of nasal eucoleosis to domestic dogs.

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) as a potential reservoir host of cardiorespiratory parasites in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is considered as reservoir of different cardiorespiratory parasites of veterinary and medical importance. Since data on cardiorespiratory parasites in foxes in Bosnia and Herzegovina are still lacking, the aims of the present study were to (i) investigate the prevalence and geographical distribution of these parasites, (ii) determine genetic diversity of detected parasite species, and (iii) to estimate the role of foxes in the transmission cycle to companion animals and humans. Four species, morphologically and molecularly identified as Eucoleus boehmi (64.6%; 51/79), Eucoleus aerophilus (69.7%; 154/221), Crenosoma vulpis (45.7%; 101/221) and Linguatula serrata (1.3%; 1/79) were retrieved from nasal cavity and lungs in 184 (83.3%) animals. The occurrence of heartworms, Angiostrongylus vasorum and Dirofilaria immitis was not detected by necropsy or PCR. Furthermore, three distinct haplotypes of E. aerophilus (I, III, XV) and two of C. vulpis (I, II) previously reported in pet animals and wild carnivores were confirmed in this study. A new haplotype of C. vulpis (designated as haplotype V) was also identified based on 12S rRNA gene for the first time. The present study indicates a high prevalence and wide distribution of nasal and lung nematodes in fox population in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and supports the existence of transmission patterns between wildlife and pet animals.

A post-mortem study of respiratory disease in small mustelids in south-west England

Background

Stoat (Mustela erminea) and weasel (Mustela nivalis) populations in south-west England are declining whilst polecats (Mustela putorius), absent for over a century, are increasing. Little is known about the health status of these species nationally. This study aimed at investigating respiratory disease in specimens found dead in south-west England.

Results

Trauma caused by road traffic, predator attack or being trapped was the predominant cause of death in 42 stoats, 31 weasels and 20 polecats; most were in good physical condition. Skrjabingylus nasicola was present in all species (weasels 37 %, polecats 39 %, stoats 41 %) and infected animals showed no evidence of loss of body condition. Even in carcases stored frozen L₁ larvae were frequently alive and highly motile. Angiostrongylus vasorum infection was diagnosed in two stoats and one weasel: in stoats infections were patent and the lung lesions were likely of clinical significance. These are believed to be the first records of A. vasorum in small mustelids. Pleuritis and pyothorax was seen in two polecats, in one case due to a migrating grass awn. Histological examination of lungs showed granulomata in stoats (38 %), weasels (52 %) and polecats (50 %). Spherules consistent with Emmonsia spp. adiaspores were present in the granulomata of stoats (60 %), weasels (36 %) and polecats (29 %). Adiaspore diameter in all three species was similar (means: stoats 39 μm, weasels 30 μm, polecats 36 μm); these are markedly smaller than that normally recorded for E. crescens. Although they lie within the accepted range for spores of Emmonsia parva this arid-zone species is not found in Britain, thus raising a question over the identity of the fungus. Cases showing numerous granulomata but few or no adiaspores were Ziehl-Neelsen-stain negative for acid-fast bacilli and IHC negative for Mycobacterium spp. However, in some cases PCR analyses revealed mycobacteria, including Mycobacterium kumamotonense and Mycobacterium avium Complex. One stoat had numerous unidentified small organisms present centrally within granulomata.

Conclusions

Stoats, weasels and polecats in south-west England share several respiratory diseases, often of high prevalence, but the pathology would appear insufficient to impact on the health status of the populations and other ultimate causes of death should be investigated when examining these species.

Geographical distribution of Angiostrongylus vasorum in foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in the Republic of Ireland

The reported incidence of the metastrongylid nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum, that infects dogs and other canids, is increasing worldwide outside recognized endemic foci. This apparent expansion of the parasite's range is causing concern to veterinary clinicians as the disease caused in dogs can be life threatening and its treatment is not straightforward. The red fox is thought to be a reservoir host for dogs. To investigate the spatial distribution of infection in foxes in Ireland, the hearts and lungs of 542 foxes from all over Ireland were examined. The incidence of infection was found to be 39·9% [95% confidence interval (CI) 35·7-44·1] with positive samples occurring in each of the country's 26 counties. This report confirms that the parasite is endemic in Ireland and the overall prevalence is the second highest in Europe. This is the first survey of A. vasorum infection in Irish foxes and highlights the potential exposure of the Irish dog population to high risk of cross-infection. Additionally, Crenosoma vulpis was found in seven of the foxes, a parasite not previously reported in the Irish fox.

Detection of Angiostrongylus vasorum in Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Brandenburg, Germany

Angiostrongylus (A.) vasorum is a nematode that causes angiostrongylosis in domestic and wild canids. Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) are suspected of providing a wildlife reservoir for A. vasorum infections in pet dogs. To obtain data on the occurrence of A. vasorum in wildlife, red fox and raccoon dog carcasses (hunted or found dead) were collected from January to September 2009 in the Federal State of Brandenburg, Germany. Lung tissue samples were subjected to DNA extraction and examined for the presence of A. vasorum DNA by means of real-time PCR. A. vasorum DNA was detected in 11 out of 122 (9.0 %) lungs of red foxes and in none of the lung samples of raccoon dogs. These data suggest that red foxes are a reservoir of A. vasorum infections for pet dogs in this area.

Cardiopulmonary helminths in foxes from the Pyrenees

The present survey was carried out to investigate the prevalence of cardiopulmonary helminths in red foxes in Pyrenees area and to evaluate the role of foxes in the eco-epidemiology of these nematodes. Hearts and entire respiratory tracts were obtained from 87 foxes from Vall d'Aran region, Pyrenees, Catalonia, north-eastern Spain. The cardiopulmonary tracts were dissected, flushed and examined for nematodes using sedimented flushing water. Of the 87 examined foxes, 53 (61%) were positive for cardiopulmonary helminths. The identified nematodes were Crenosoma vulpis (44.8%), Eucoleus aerophilus (29.9%) and Angiostrongylus vasorum (3.4%). Statistical differences were observed only on comparing age and C.vulpis prevalence, with young foxes being more infected than adults. The high prevalence of cardiopulmonary nematodes suggested that red foxes may play an important role in their transmission and maintenance in the studied area.