Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in pigs in Shanghai, China

Global prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in pigs: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Cryptosporidium spp. are significant opportunistic pathogens causing diarrhoea in humans and animals. Pigs are one of the most important potential hosts for Cryptosporidium. We evaluated the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in pigs globally using published information and a random-effects model. In total, 131 datasets from 36 countries were included in the final quantitative analysis. The global prevalence of Cryptosporidium in pigs was 16.3% (8560/64 809; 95% confidence interval [CI] 15.0–17.6%). The highest prevalence of Cryptosporidium in pigs was 40.8% (478/1271) in Africa. Post-weaned pigs had a significantly higher prevalence (25.8%; 2739/11 824) than pre-weaned, fattening and adult pigs. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium was higher in pigs with no diarrhoea (12.2%; 371/3501) than in pigs that had diarrhoea (8.0%; 348/4874). Seven Cryptosporidium species (Cryptosporidium scrofarum, Cryptosporidium suis, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cryptosporidium muris, Cryptosporidium tyzzeri, Cryptosporidium andersoni and Cryptosporidium struthioni) were detected in pigs globally. The proportion of C. scrofarum was 34.3% (1491/4351); the proportion of C. suis was 31.8% (1385/4351) and the proportion of C. parvum was 2.3% (98/4351). The influence of different geographic factors (latitude, longitude, mean yearly temperature, mean yearly relative humidity and mean yearly precipitation) on the infection rate of Cryptosporidium in pigs was also analysed. The results indicate that C. suis is the dominant species in pre-weaned pigs, while C. scrofarum is the dominant species in fattening and adult pigs. The findings highlight the role of pigs as possible potential hosts of zoonotic cryptosporidiosis and the need for additional studies on the prevalence, transmission and control of Cryptosporidium in pigs.

First Characterization and Zoonotic Potential of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in Pigs in Hubei Province of China

The zoonotic protozoa parasites Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis infect a wide range of hosts, including humans. Pigs are reservoir hosts for Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis, which can transmit cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis to humans and other animals. The current study sought to investigate the infection rates and species/genotypes of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis in pigs in Hubei of China. The nested PCR and sequence analyses of the small ribosomal subunit RNA (SSU rRNA) gene for Cryptosporidium spp. and the β-giardin (bg) gene for G. duodenalis was utilized to screen for the infection of those parasites in a total of 826 fresh fecal samples. Both Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis infection rates were 0.97% (8/826). Of the genotyped positive isolates, 6/8 (75%) were C. scrofarum and 2/8 (25%) were C. suis, while two zoonotic species G. duodenalis assemblage E and assemblage A were also detected in 7/8 (87.5%) isolates and 1/8 (12.5%) isolates, respectively. The findings suggest that both of those parasites in pig in intensive farms of Hubei province, China, pose a potential public health risk.

Genotyping and zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in pigs transported across regions in China

Cryptosporidium spp. and Enterocytozoon bieneusi are common and important enteric parasites that can infect humans and animals, causing diarrhoea and systemic diseases. The objectives of the present study were to examine the prevalence and genetic variations of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi in pigs transferred from northeastern China to Ningbo city in Zhejiang Province. Cryptosporidium spp. was detected in 0.9% (2/216) of these samples and belonged to the zoonotic species Cryptosporidium parvum. A high E. bieneusi infection rate (25.0%, 54/216) was observed in this study, with 7 possible novel ITS genotypes (JLNB-1 to JLNB-7) and 10 known genotypes (EbpA, CM11, H, CM6, pigEBITS1, EbpC, CS-4, pigEBITS5, CHS5, and Henan-Ⅳ) identified, and zoonotic EbpA was the dominant genotype. Genotypes H and pigEBITS1 were reported for the first time in pigs in China. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that all the genotypes found in these samples belonged to zoonotic group 1. These findings indicated the potential threat of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi to humans or the environment during cross-regional transportation. An effective management control system should be built to avoid parasitic transmission as well as other animal diseases while travelling across different regions. In further studies, attention should be given to the transmission routes and the role of pigs as a potential source of human Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi infections in China.

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium in pigs in China: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Cryptosporidium is an important zoonotic parasite that can infect a variety of hosts, including pigs and humans, through water and food. Many studies on Cryptosporidium infection in pigs have been reported worldwide. However, the meta-analysis of Cryptosporidium infection in pigs in China has not been published. This study retrieved articles related to Cryptosporidium in pigs in China by using four databases: Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), PubMed, VIP Chinese journal database and Wanfang Data. We retrieved 40 studies related to Cryptosporidium infection in China, and those articles were harvested from the inception to 1 January 2020. We estimated that the overall prevalence of pigs with Cryptosporidium in the selected period was 12.2% (4,349/30,404). In the sampling year subgroup, the prevalence rate after 2010 was the lowest at 8.7% (2,087/18,100). In Northern China, the Cryptosporidium prevalence was 47.9% (34/71). By contrast, the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in Southwestern China was only 6.9% (778/6,445). The infection rate of Cryptosporidium in diarrhoea pigs of 15.6% (74/384) was higher than that in non-diarrhoea pigs at 10.8% (378/2,840). Among the four age groups, the prevalence of weaning pigs of 16.2% (530/3,243) was the highest, and the difference was significant (p < .05). The prevalence of Cryptosporidium in extensive farming was 25.7% (660/3,121), which was significantly higher than in intensive farming 8.7% (566/6,336), and the prevalence of infection was related to the farming modes (p < .05). We also analysed the impact of different geographic factor subgroups (longitude, latitude, precipitation, temperature, humidity, climate and altitude) on the prevalence of pigs. The results showed that cryptosporidiosis was widespread in pigs in China. We suggest that appropriate control schemes should be developed according to the differences in breeding patterns and geographic conditions in different regions, and effective management measures should be developed to reduce the spread between pigs.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in pigs in Xinjiang, China

Cryptosporidium spp. are distributed ubiquitously worldwide, and pigs are considered as one of the main reservoir hosts. Eight hundred one porcine fecal specimens were collected from seven intensive pig farms in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China. Cryptosporidium spp. were screened via PCR amplification of the small ribosomal subunit RNA gene, and 143 specimens (17.9%, 143/801) from all seven farms tested positive for Cryptosporidium spp. Cryptosporidium prevalence in the pigs differed significantly among farms (p < 0.01). The highest Cryptosporidium spp. prevalence in post-weaned pigs was 39.5% (111/281), followed by fattening pigs (23.2%, 30/129), pre-weaned pigs (1.2%, 2/169), and sows (0/222). Significant differences were observed between age groups (p < 0.01). C. suis was the predominantly identified species (62.9%, 90/143), followed by C. scrofarum (35.7%, 51/143), and C. parvum (1.4%, 2/143). Two C. parvum specimens were subtyped by analyzing the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene sequences and were identified as IIdA14G1 and IIdA15G1. To our knowledge, this is the first report of C. parvum infection in pigs in China. The identification of three Cryptosporidium species, including zoonotic C. parvum in pigs in Xinjiang raises concern for the health of both swine animals and personnel in the pig industry.

High prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection caused by C. scrofarum and C. suis among pigs in Thailand

Cryptosporidium spp. is an important intestinal protozoan causing diarrhea among both healthy and immunocompromised patients especially those with HIV/AIDS. Cryptosporidium spp. can be transmitted via foodborne, waterborne and person-to-person routes. In addition, several Cryptosporidium species are zoonotic. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection among pigs raised in both smallholder (<50 heads/farm) and large scale farms (50-500 heads/farm) in Chonburi Province, eastern Thailand using nested PCR amplifying the small subunit of the ribosomal RNA (SSU-rRNA) gene. DNA sequencing was also performed to identify the species of Cryptosporidium. A total of 245 fecal samples were collected from 11 pig farms. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection was 20.8% (51/245) which were found in both smallholder and small large scale pig farms. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection among pigs aged ≤6 months was significantly higher than those aged >6 months (p < .001). Among 51 Cryptosporidium positive samples, Cryptosporidium scrofarum (42/51, 82.4%) and Cryptosporidium suis (9/51, 17.6%) were identified. The prevalence of C. scrofarum infection observed among pigs aged ≤6 months was significantly higher when compared with those aged >6 months (20.7% and 2.1%, respectively, p < .001). The high prevalence of C. scrofarum and C. suis infections among pigs could be a potential source of infection to humans.

Molecular identification and epidemiological comparison of Cryptosporidium spp. among different pig breeds in Tibet and Henan, China

Background

Cryptosporidium spp. are important zoonotic pathogens infecting a wide range of vertebrate hosts, and causing moderate to severe diarrhea in humans. Cryptosporidium infections are frequently reported in humans and animals worldwide, but little research has been done on local pig breeds such as Tibetan pigs and Yunan Black pigs and imported pig breeds such as Landrace pigs in China. Therefore, a total of 1089 pig fecal samples from four intensive farms in four areas of China, including Tibetan pigs from Gongbujiangda County (n = 180) and Mainling County (n = 434), Tibet, Yunan Black pigs from Sanmenxia, Henan Province (n = 246), and Landrace pigs from Kaifeng, Henan Province (n = 229), and were screened for the presence of Cryptosporidium with microscopy and nested PCR amplification of the small subunit rRNA gene.

Results

The total infection rate of Cryptosporidium in 1089 fecal samples of three different pig breeds was 2.11% (23/1089), and the infection rates of Tibetan pigs, Yunan Black pigs, and Landrace pigs were 0.49% (3/614), 0.41% (1/246), and 8.30% (19/229), respectively. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection was significantly higher in weaned piglets (1–2 months) (4.36%, 21/482) than in younger and older age groups (p < 0.01). Sequence analysis of positive samples revealed that there was no mixed infection in our study population, which included 12 cases of C. suis mono-infections (52.17%, 12/23) and 11 cases of C. scrofarum mono-infections (47.83%, 11/23). C. suis was identified in one pre-weaned piglet (< 1 month) and 11 weaned piglets (1–2 months), while C. scrofarum was only detected in 10 weaned piglets (1–2 months) and one finished pig (> 2 months).

Conclusions

This is the first report on the identification of Cryptosporidium spp. in Tibetan pigs, and our findings also elucidate the occurrence and distribution of Cryptosporidium in three different pig breeds in Tibet and Henan, China. More molecular epidemiological studies are required to better clarify the prevalence and public health significance of Cryptosporidium in different pigs.

Modelling the fate and transport of Cryptosporidium, a zoonotic and waterborne pathogen, in the Daning River watershed of the Three Gorges Reservoir Region, China

Oospores of Cryptosporidium, a waterborne pathogen of great concern, are widely distributed in surface waters in China and pose a threat to human health. This study seeks to explore the spatio-temporal patterns of Cryptosporidium concentrations. We focus on the Daning River watershed (4166 km²) of the Three Gorges Reservoir Region (TGR) during the period 2008 to 2013 and use the SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model to test two mitigation scenarios. Based on data on animal husbandry, population, agriculture and WWTPs (wastewater treatment plants), Cryptosporidium transport in the Daning River watershed was simulated using a calibrated hydrological and sediment transport model. Our model results showed that the average annual concentration of oocysts in the whole watershed was 9.5 oocysts/10L, but high spatial variability occurred, ranging from 0.7 to 33.4 oocysts/10L. Highest monthly mean oocysts concentrations at the outlets of the sub-basins were found at high runoff and high fertilization or at the lowest flow, while minimum monthly mean oocysts concentrations were recorded at high runoff only. A model parameter sensitivity analysis showed that the Cryptosporidium soil partitioning coefficient (BACTKDQ) and the temperature adjustment factor for Cryptosporidium die-off (THBACT) were the only two sensitive parameters among the microbial parameters. The construction of multiple WWTPs throughout the watershed and composting of 50% of the feces from rural citizens and livestock up to 56 days before its application as fertilizer could significantly reduce the concentration of oocysts. Our Cryptosporidium transport model and simulation results may assist in the establishment of better pollution control countermeasures in the Daning River and other similar watersheds.

Occurrence, Molecular Characterization, and Assessment of Zoonotic Risk of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Pigs in Henan, Central China

Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi are common gastrointestinal pathogens in humans and animals. Little is known about them and the range of species/assemblages/genotypes occurring in domestic pigs in China. Here, we present data on the occurrence and molecular diversity of these pathogens detected in the feces from farms in Henan, central China. Of 897 fecal samples tested, 28 (3.1%), 15 (1.7%), and 408 (45.5%) samples were positive for Cryptosporidium, G. duodenalis, and E. bieneusi, respectively. Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis were most frequently detected in piglets, while E. bieneusi was markedly more prevalent in fattening pigs. Sequence analysis of SSU rRNA gene revealed that positive Cryptosporidium strains belonged to C. suis (n = 18) and C. scrofarum (n = 10). Giardia duodenalis assemblages E (n = 9), assemblages A (n = 3), and assemblages C (n = 3) were characterized based on the sequence analysis of tpi gene. Thirteen E. bieneusi genotypes comprising four novel (pigHN-I to pigHN-IV) and nine known (EbpC, EbpA, pigEbITS5, LW1, H, CM8, G, CHG19, and CHS5) genotypes were identified by ITS sequence analysis of a large proportion (n = 200) of E. bieneusi-positive samples. EbpC was the most frequent genotype, detected in 60 specimens. All 13 genotypes identified in this study clustered in zoonotic Group 1. The findings indicate that the presence of zoonotic species/assemblages/genotypes of these pathogens poses a threat to public health, suggesting that pigs in Henan province could be a significant source of human infection and water pollution.

Molecular Epidemiology of Cryptosporidiosis in China

Molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis is an active research area in China. The use of genotyping and subtyping tools in prevalence studies has led to the identification of unique characteristics of Cryptosporidium infections in humans and animals. Human cryptosporidiosis in China is exemplified by the high diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. at species and subtype levels, with dominant C. hominis and C. parvum subtypes being rarely detected in other countries. Similarly, preweaned dairy calves, lambs, and goat kids are mostly infected with non-pathogenic Cryptosporidium species (C. bovis in calves and C. xiaoi in lambs and goat kids), with C. parvum starting to appear in dairy calves as a consequence of concentrated animal feeding operations. The latter Cryptosporidium species is dominated by IId subtypes, with IIa subtypes largely absent from the country. Unlike elsewhere, rodents in China appear to be commonly infected with C. parvum IId subtypes, with identical subtypes being found in these animals, calves, other livestock, and humans. In addition to cattle, pigs and chickens appear to be significant contributors to Cryptosporidium contamination in drinking water sources, as reflected by the frequent detection of C. suis, C. baileyi, and C. meleagridis in water samples. Chinese scientists have also made significant contributions to the development of new molecular epidemiological tools for Cryptosporidium spp. and improvements in our understanding of the mechanism involved in the emergence of hyper-transmissible and virulent C. hominis and C. parvum subtypes. Despite this progress, coordinated research efforts should be made to address changes in Cryptosporidium transmission because of rapid economic development in China and to prevent the introduction and spread of virulent and zoonotic Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in farm animals.

Immunolocation and enzyme activity analysis of Cryptosporidium parvum enolase

Background

Enolase is an essential multifunctional glycolytic enzyme that is involved in many biological processes of apicomplexan protozoa, such as adhesion and invasion. However, the characteristics of enolase in Cryptosporidium parvum, including the location on the oocyst and the enzyme activity, remain unclear.

Methods

The C. parvum enolase gene (cpeno) was amplified by RT-PCR and sequenced. The deduced amino acid sequence was analysed by bioinformatics software. The gene was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) and purified recombinant protein was used for enzyme activity analysis, binding experiments and antibody preparation. The localisation of enolase on oocysts was examined via immunofluorescence techniques.

Results

A 1,350 bp DNA sequence was amplified from cDNA taken from C. parvum oocysts. The deduced amino acids sequence of C. parvum enolase (CpEno) had 82.1% homology with Cryptosporidium muris enolase, and 54.7–68.0% homology with others selected species. Western blot analysis indicated that recombinant C. parvum enolase (rCpEno) could be recognised by C. parvum-infected cattle sera. Immunolocalization testing showed that CpEno was found to locate mainly on the surface of oocysts. The enzyme activity was 33.5 U/mg, and the Michaelis constant (K_m) was 0.571 mM/l. Kinetic measurements revealed that the most suitable pH value was 7.0–7.5, and there were only minor effects on the activity of rCpEno with a change in the reaction temperature. The enzyme activity decreased when the Ca²⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺ and Na⁺ concentrations of the reaction solution increased. The binding assays demonstrated that rCpEno could bind to human plasminogen.

Conclusion

This study is the first report of immunolocation, binding activity and enzyme characteristics of CpEno. The results of this study suggest that the surface-associated CpEno not only functions as a glycolytic enzyme but may also participate in attachment and invasion process of the parasite.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2200-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Presence of zoonotic Cryptosporidium scrofarum, Giardia duodenalis assemblage A and Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotypes in captive Eurasian wild boars (Sus scrofa) in China: potential for zoonotic transmission

Background

Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi are the main causal pathogens of gastrointestinal disease. However, there are limited reports about the prevalence of these organisms in captive Eurasian wild boars worldwide. Therefore, we examined the occurrence and identified the species/assemblages/genotypes of these pathogens in captive Eurasian wild boars, and estimated the zoonotic potential.

Findings

Of 357 fecal samples collected from captive Eurasian wild boars in China, 155 (43.4%) were infected with Cryptosporidium, G. duodenalis and/or E. bieneusi. The infection rates significantly differed in different areas, but did not differ between wild boars kept indoors and outdoors. Three (0.8%), 11 (3.1%) and 147 (41.2%) fecal samples were positive for Cryptosporidium, G. duodenalis and E. bieneusi, respectively. Sequence analysis of SSU rRNA gene revealed that all of the Cryptosporidium strains belonged to C. scrofarum. Based on the sequence analysis of the β-giardia gene of G. duodenalis, assemblages E and A were characterized. Fourteen E. bieneusi genotypes comprising five novel (WildBoar 7–11) and eight known (EbpC, F, CHG19, CHC5, PigEBITS5, D, RWSH4, SC02) genotypes were identified by ITS sequencing. EbpC was the most frequent genotype, detected in 85 specimens. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all 14 genotypes belonged to Group 1.

Conclusions

This first report on the occurrence of Cryptosporidium, G. duodenalis and E. bieneusi in captive wild boars in China indicates that the presence of zoonotic species/assemblages/genotypes poses a threat to public health. The findings suggest that wild boars could be a significant source of human infection and water pollution.

Occurrence, clinical involvement and zoonotic potential of endoparasites infecting Swiss pigs

In order to estimate the diversity, clinical involvement and zoonotic potential of parasites in pigs submitted for diagnosis to the PathoPig project of the Swiss Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office, faeces (n=125) from suckling piglets (n=39), weaners (n=60) and piglets beginning fattening (n=26) from 74 Swiss farms were examined by 3 coproscopical methods (i.e. sedimentation/zinc chloride-flotation; SAFC and Ziehl-Neelsen staining). Samples microscopically positive for Cryptosporidium were further tested by PCR/sequencing for species assessment. The most frequently detected parasite was Balantidium coli, a facultative pathogenic ciliate with zoonotic potential, in 5.1, 36.7 and 50.0% of suckling, weaners and fatteners and 43.2% of farms; however, no association with disease was observed. Isospora (syn. Cystoisospora) suis infections were detected in 13.3 and 11.1% of suckling piglets with and without diarrhoea, and in 10.0 and 13.3% of weaners and fatteners with diarrhoea, respectively, and were significant associated with emaciation. Cryptosporidium infections were detected in 10.3, 15.0 and 19.2% of sucklings, weaners and fatteners, respectively, and in 18.9% of the farms. Interestingly, two age-related species were identified: C. suis in younger piglets (2 to 6weeks) and C. scrofarum in older ones (6 to 17weeks). None of the pigs infected with C. scrofarum (n=8), but 3 of 4 piglets infected with C. suis (co-infection with I. suis in 2 cases) had diarrhoea. The zoonotic species C. parvum was not detected, nevertheless, sporadic cases of human infection with the porcine-adapted species have been reported. Ascaris suum, Trichuris suis and Strongylida were rarely detected (<4%) in all age categories.

Occurrence, source, and human infection potential of Cryptosporidium and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in drinking source water in Shanghai, China, during a pig carcass disposal incident

In March 2013, thousands of domestic pig carcasses were found floating in the Huangpu River, a drinking source water in Shanghai, China. To investigate the impact of the pig carcass incident on microbial water quality, 178 river water samples were collected from the upper Huangpu River from March 2013 to March 2014. Samples were concentrated by calcium carbonate flocculation and examined for host-adapted Cryptosporidium and Enterocytozoon bieneusi by ploymerase chain reaction (PCR). Positive PCR products were sequenced to determine Cryptosporidium species and E. bieneusi genotypes. A total of 67 (37.6%) and 56 (31.5%) samples were PCR-positive for Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi, respectively. The occurrence rates of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi in March 2013 (83.3%; 41.7%) and May 2013 (73.5%; 44.1%) were significantly higher than rates in later sampling times. Among the 13 Cryptosporidium species/genotypes identified, C. andersoni and C. suis were the most common species, being found in 38 and 27 samples, respectively. Seventeen E. bieneusi genotypes were found, belonging to 11 established genotypes (EbpC, EbpA, D, CS-8, PtEb IX, Peru 8, Peru 11, PigEBITS4, EbpB, G, O) and six new ones (RWSH1 to RWSH6), most of which belonged to pig-adapted Groups 1d and 1e. EbpC was the most common genotype, being found in 37 samples. The distribution of Cryptosporidium species and E. bieneusi genotypes suggest that dead pigs contributed significantly to Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi contamination in the Huangpu River. Although most Cryptosporidium species found in river water were not major human pathogens, the majority of E. bieneusi genotypes detected were endemic in China. Data from this study should be useful in the development of strategies in addressing future contamination events in drinking water supplies.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium in goats across four provincial level areas in China

This study assessed the prevalence, species and subtypes of Cryptosporidium in goats from Guangdong Province, Hubei Province, Shandong Province, and Shanghai City of China. Six hundred and four fecal samples were collected from twelve goat farms, and the overall infection rate was 11.4% (69/604). Goats infected with Cryptosporidium were found in eleven farms across four provincial areas, and the infection rate ranged from 2.9% (1/35) to 25.0% (9/36). Three Cryptosporidium species were identified. Cryptosporidium xiaoi (45/69, 65.2%) was the dominant species, followed by C. parvum (14/69, 20.3%) and C.ubiquitum (10/69, 14.5%). The infection rate of Cryptosporidium spp. was varied with host age and goat kids were more susceptible to be infected than adult goats. Subtyping C.parvum and C.ubiquitum positive samples revealed C. parvum subtype IIdA19G1 and C. ubiquitum subtype XIIa were the most common subtypes. Other C. parvum subtypes were detected as well, such as IIaA14G2R1, IIaA15G1R1, IIaA15G2R1 and IIaA17G2R1. All of these subtypes have also been detected in humans, suggesting goats may be a potential source of zoonotic cryptosporidiosis. This was the first report of C. parvum subtypes IIaA14G2R1, IIaA15G1R1 and IIaA17G2R1 infecting in goats and the first molecular identification of C.parvum and its subtypes in Chinese goats.

Cryptosporidiumspecies in humans and animals: current understanding and research needs

Cryptosporidiumis increasingly recognized as one of the major causes of moderate to severe diarrhoea in developing countries. With treatment options limited, control relies on knowledge of the biology and transmission of the members of the genus responsible for disease. Currently, 26 species are recognized as valid on the basis of morphological, biological and molecular data. Of the nearly 20Cryptosporidiumspecies and genotypes that have been reported in humans,Cryptosporidium hominisandCryptosporidium parvumare responsible for the majority of infections. Livestock, particularly cattle, are one of the most important reservoirs of zoonotic infections. Domesticated and wild animals can each be infected with severalCryptosporidiumspecies or genotypes that have only a narrow host range and therefore have no major public health significance. Recent advances in next-generation sequencing techniques will significantly improve our understanding of the taxonomy and transmission ofCryptosporidiumspecies, and the investigation of outbreaks and monitoring of emerging and virulent subtypes. Important research gaps remain including a lack of subtyping tools for manyCryptosporidiumspecies of public and veterinary health importance, and poor understanding of the genetic determinants of host specificity ofCryptosporidiumspecies and impact of climate change on the transmission ofCryptosporidium.

Prevalence and genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium in yaks in Qinghai Province of China

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence, species and subtypes of Cryptosporidium infecting yaks in the Qinghai Province of Northwestern China. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. was detected by microscopy and nested-PCR. A total of 586 fecal samples were collected from yaks in 6 counties, of which 142 (24.2%) samples tested positive for Cryptosporidium. The small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene of fifty-five samples were amplified and sequenced successfully and demonstrated that Cryptosporidium bovis (31/55, 56.4%) was the most common species, followed by C. parvum (16/55, 29.1%) and C. ryanae (5/55, 9.0%). Mixed infections of C. parvum and C. bovis (n = 2), C. ryanae and C. bovis (n = 1) were also detected. All three species were found in yaks ranging in age from <1 year, 1–2 years, to >2 years. Cryptosporidium was most commonly detected in spring (28.4%), followed by summer (20.9%), then winter (17.5%). Cryptosporidium parvum positive samples were subtyped using the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene. Subtypes IIaA15G2R1 (n = 8), IIaA16G2R1 (n = 2), IIaA14G1R1 (n = 1), IIaA14G2R1 (n = 1) and IIaA16G3R1 (n = 1) were detected. All of these subtypes are zoonotic, and may pose a potential threat to human health.

Cryptosporidiosis in Farmed Animals

Cryptosporidiosis was first identified as a disease of veterinary, rather than human medical, importance, and infection of farmed animals with different species of Cryptosporidium continues to be of veterinary clinical concern. This chapter provides insights into Cryptosporidium infection in a range of farmed animals – cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, cervids, camelids, rabbits, water buffalo and poultry – presenting not only an updated overview of the infection in these animals, but also information on clinical disease, infection dynamics and zoonotic potential. Although extensive data have been accrued on, for example, Cryptosporidium parvum infection in calves, and calf cryptosporidiosis continues to be a major veterinary concern especially in temperate regions, there remains a paucity of data for other farmed animals, despite Cryptosporidium infection causing significant clinical disease and also, for some species, with the potential for transmission of infection to people, either directly or indirectly.

Prevalence and genetic characterizations of Cryptosporidium spp. in pre-weaned and post-weaned piglets in Heilongjiang Province, China

Background

Cryptosporidium spp. are common intestinal protozoa of humans and animals. There have been few studies conducted on the molecular characterizations of pig-derived Cryptosporidium isolates worldwide, especially in China. Thus, the aim of the present study was to understand the prevalence, distribution and genotypes of Cryptosporidium in pigs in Heilongjiang Province, China.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A total of 568 fecal samples from pre-weaned and post-weaned piglets were collected from eight pig farms from four areas of Heilongjiang Province. The average infection rate of Cryptosporidium was 1.6% (9/568) by microscopy. 113 samples were subjected to PCR amplification of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene of Cryptosporidium, with 55.8% (63/113) being positive for Cryptosporidium. Cryptosporidium suis (n = 31) and C. scrofarumn (n = 32) were identified by DNA sequencing of the SSU rRNA gene. Three types of C. scrofarumn were found at the SSU rRNA locus, with one novel type being detected. Using species/genotype-specific primers for pig-adapted Cryptosporidium spp., 22 and 23 respectively belonged to C. suis and C. scrofarum mono-infections, with 18 co-infections detected. The infection peaks for C. suis (60%, 24/40) and C. scrofarum (51.2%, 21/41) were respectively found in the piglets of 5 to 8 weeks and more than 8 weeks.

Conclusion/Significance

The detection of C. suis and C. scrofarum in pre-weaned and post-weaned piglets has public health implications, due to the fact that the two species are both zoonotic Cryptosporidium. The novel C. scrofarum type detected may be endemic to China.

Occurrence of Cryptosporidium suis and Cryptosporidium scrofarum on commercial swine farms in the Czech Republic and its associations with age and husbandry practices

From 2009 to 2011, the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. was investigated on 22 farms in the Czech Republic. A total of 1,620 individual faecal samples of pigs of all age categories (pre-weaned, starters, pre-growers, growers, and sows) were evaluated for presence of Cryptosporidium spp. by standard microscopy and molecular tools. Genotyping was done through PCR amplification and characterization of the SSU rRNA (species-specific protocols) and GP60 loci. Cryptosporidium spp. was found on 16 of 22 farms with a range 0.9-71.4 %. Overall, 194 (12 %) specimens were positive by microscopy and 353 (21.8 %) by PCR. While RFLP and direct sequencing of the PCR-amplified products showed presence of Cryptosporidium suis (142), Cryptosporidium scrofarum (195), Cryptosporidium muris (3) and 13 samples had mixed infections with C. suis and C. scrofarum, species-specific molecular tools identified C. suis (224), C. scrofarum (208), Cryptosporidium parvum subtype IIa A16G1R1b (1), and C. muris (3). In addition, a total of 82 pigs had concurrent infections with C. suis and C. scrofarum. The analysis by age showed that C. suis was primarily detected among pre-weaned, whereas C. scrofarum was mostly detected among starters, especially those weaned at a younger age. Moreover, C. scrofarum never has been detected in animals younger than 6 weeks of age. Also, piglets weaned at 3 weeks of age were twice more likely to be infected with C. scrofarum than piglets weaned at an older age. Pigs raised on straw bedding were more likely to have Cryptosporidium than pigs raised on slats/slurry systems. The infections with different species were not associated with loose faeces or intensity of oocyst shedding, even when comparing different age groups.

Cryptosporidium parvum infection in SCID mice infected with only one oocyst: qPCR assessment of parasite replication in tissues and development of digestive cancer

Dexamethasone (Dex) treated Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) mice were previously described as developing digestive adenocarcinoma after massive infection with Cryptosporidium parvum as soon as 45 days post-infection (P.I.). We aimed to determine the minimum number of oocysts capable of inducing infection and thereby gastrointestinal tumors in this model. Mice were challenged with calibrated oocyst suspensions containing intended doses of: 1, 10, 100 or 10⁵ oocysts of C. parvum Iowa strain. All administered doses were infective for animals but increasing the oocyst challenge lead to an increase in mice infectivity (P = 0.01). Oocyst shedding was detected at 7 days P.I. after inoculation with more than 10 oocysts, and after 15 days in mice challenged with one oocyst. In groups challenged with lower inocula, parasite growth phase was significantly higher (P = 0.005) compared to mice inoculated with higher doses. After 45 days P.I. all groups of mice had a mean of oocyst shedding superior to 10,000 oocyst/g of feces. The most impressive observation of this study was the demonstration that C. parvum-induced digestive adenocarcinoma could be caused by infection with low doses of Cryptosporidium, even with only one oocyst: in mice inoculated with low doses, neoplastic lesions were detected as early as 45 days P.I. both in the stomach and ileo-caecal region, and these lesions could evolve in an invasive adenocarcinoma. These findings show a great amplification effect of parasites in mouse tissues after challenge with low doses as confirmed by quantitative PCR. The ability of C. parvum to infect mice with one oocyst and to develop digestive adenocarcinoma suggests that other mammalian species including humans could be also susceptible to this process, especially when they are severely immunocompromised.

Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium in pigs in central Vietnam

Little information is available on the epidemiology of Cryptosporidium in pigs in central Vietnam. The aims of this study were to investigate the prevalence and to characterize the genotype distribution of Cryptosporidium isolates in pigs in this region. A total of 193 pig fecal samples were screened for the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts using the modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining method, and 28 (overall prevalence 14.5 %) were identified as positive by microscopic observation. Positive samples were further analyzed by polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing. Genetic identification based on the 18S ribosomal RNA and 70 kDa heat shock protein genes revealed that pigs in Vietnam are infected with two species/genotypes (Cryptosporidium suis and Cryptosporidium pig genotype II). This study is the first molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium in pigs in Vietnam. The presence of these host-adapted species/genotypes suggests that pigs may not pose a significant public health risk in this area. More extensive studies are necessary to ascertain the zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium in porcine hosts in Vietnam.

Cryptosporidium scrofarum n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in domestic pigs (Sus scrofa)

We describe the morphological, biological, and molecular characteristics of Cryptosporidium pig genotype II and propose the species name Cryptosporidium scrofarum n. sp. to reflect its prevalence in adult pigs worldwide. Oocysts of C. scrofarum are morphologically indistinguishable from C. parvum, measuring 4.81-5.96 μm (mean=5.16)×4.23-5.29 μm (mean=4.83) with a length to width ratio of 1.07±0.06 (n=400). Oocysts of C. scrofarum obtained from a naturally infected pig were infectious for 8-week-old pigs but not 4-week-old pigs. The prepatent period in 8-week-old Cryptosporidium-naive pigs was 4-6 days and the patent period was longer than 30 days. The infection intensity of C. scrofarum in pigs was generally low, in the range 250-4000 oocysts per gram of feces. Infected pigs showed no clinical signs of cryptosporidiosis and no pathology was detected. Cryptosporidium scrofarum was not infectious for adult SCID mice, adult BALB/c mice, Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus), southern multimammate mice (Mastomys coucha), yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis), or guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus). Phylogenetic analyses based on small subunit rRNA, actin, and heat shock protein 70 gene sequences revealed that C. scrofarum is genetically distinct from all known Cryptosporidium species.

Cryptosporidium species in Australian wildlife and domestic animals

Cryptosporidium is an important enteric parasite that is transmitted via the fecal-oral route, water and food. Humans, wildlife and domestic livestock all potentially contribute Cryptosporidium to surface waters. Most species of Cryptosporidium are morphologically indistinguishable and can only be identified using molecular tools. Over 24 species have been identified and of these, 7 Cryptosporidium species/genotypes are responsible for most human cryptosporidiosis cases. In Australia, relatively few genotyping studies have been conducted. Six Cryptosporidium species (C. hominis, C. parvum, C. meleagridis, C. fayeri, C. andersoni and C. bovis) have been identified in humans in Australia. However, little is known about the contribution of animal hosts to human pathogenic strains of Cryptosporidium in drinking water catchments. In this review, we focus on the available genotyping data for native, feral and domestic animals inhabiting drinking water catchments in Australia to provide an improved understanding of the public health implications and to identify key research gaps.