Effects of acaricidal essential oils from Lippia sidoides and Lippia gracilis and their main components on vitellogenesis in Rhipicephalus microplus (Canestrini, 1888) (Acari: Ixodidae)

Comparative effect of ivermectin and amitraz on cellular architecture of ovaries, synganglion and Gené's organ of Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae)

The present study investigated the effect of ivermectin and amitraz on the cellular architecture of vital organs of Rhipicephalus microplus. Adult female ticks were treated with lethal concentrations (LC95) of ivermectin and amitraz, and the ovaries, synganglion, and Gené's organ were processed 48 h post treatment. In both the treatment groups, the ultra-thin sections of ovary exhibited deformed oocytes, irregular plasmic membrane and chorion layer, extensive vacuolation in the cytoplasm mainly at periphery of the cell and oocyte-pedicel junction. Marked vacuolations in the cortex and neuropile region with significant structural disorganization of the neural fibers were common alterations observed in the synganglion of ticks exposed to ivermectin and amitraz. The tissue sections of Gené's organ revealed deformed tubular glands with severe loss of cellular limit of secretory epithelium and cytoplasmic vacuolations in the ivermectin treated ticks whereas, the alterations were comparatively less severe in amitraz exposed ticks. The cellular deformities in these vital organs probably impaired reproductive function, nerve signal transmission and metabolic activities and thus affected fecundity and survivability of the treated ticks. The findings suggested that the action of ivermectin and amitraz are not restricted to the nervous system of ticks, but also on other vital organs, ovary and Gené's organ affecting the oviposition. The study provided insights into the development of targeted interventions for tick control strategies.

Polymeric films of corn starch enhance the lethal effects of thymol and carvacrol terpenes upon Rhipicephalus microplus ticks

The tick Rhipicephalus microplus is a parasite of great importance in cattle breeding. It is responsible for huge economic losses. The application of synthetic acaricides is used as a form of control. However, resistant strains have been selected over the years, making it necessary to search for new alternative formulations. The present study aimed to formulate biodegradable films impregnated with the terpenes carvacrol and thymol and evaluate their efficacy on larvae and adults of R. microplus through in vitro tests. The following formulations were prepared: Film 1 (starch based); Film 2 (based on starch and glycerol); Film 1 + Carvarcol or Thymol; Film 2 + Carvarcol or Thymol. Terpenes had a final concentration of 5.0 mg/mL. To evaluate the formulations on larvae, the immersion test was performed by dividing into six groups according to the concentration of terpenes: 5.0, 2.5, 1.25, 0.625, 0.313, 0.156 mg/mL and the control groups: 1% ethanol solution; 10% ethanol solution; Film 1; and Film 2. For the evaluations on adult ticks, ten experimental groups (n = 10) were used: 1) Carvacrol; 2) Film 1 + Carvacrol; 3) Film 2 + Carvacrol; 4) Thymol; 5) Film 1 + Thymol; 6) Film 2 + Thymol; 7) Distilled water; 8) 10% ethanol solution; 9) Film 1; and 10) Film 2. In experimental groups 1-6, carvacrol and thymol (free or incorporated in two different biodegradable film formulations) were evaluated at the same concentration (5.0 mg/mL). Each group of ticks was immersed in their respective solutions for five minutes. The results of the tests on larvae showed that the Film 1 + thymol and Film 2 + carvacrol formulations had the lowest lethal concentrations (0.076 and 0.255 mg/mL, respectively), values up to 9.0-fold lower than the monoterpenes tested outside the formulation. Carvacrol and thymol at the concentrations tested were effective in controlling engorged females with a percentage of 32.2% and 63.8%, respectively. When incorporated into biodegradable film formulations, these monoterpenes showed much greater efficacy. Film 1 + carvacrol and Film 2 + carvacrol with control percentages of 71.6% and 97.2%, respectively, while the formulations Film 1 + thymol and Film 2 + thymol showed values of 96.9% and 100.0%. The tick control activity of the biopolymer formulations with thymol and carvacrol was demonstrated through the high mortality rates of larvae and engorged females of the tick R. microplus. Therefore, the results obtained indicate that these formulations have great potential for tick control mainly because of the percentage of control up to 100% in engorged females in in vitro tests.

Essential oils and isolated compounds for tick control: advances beyond the laboratory

BACKGROUND

Tick control is a worldwide challenge due to its resistance to acaricides. Essential oils (EOs) and isolated compounds (EOCs) are potential alternatives for tick control technologies.

METHODS

A review with EOs and EOCs, under field and semi-field conditions, was performed based on Scopus, Web of Science and PubMed databases. Thirty-one studies published between 1991 and 2022 were selected. The search was performed using the following keywords: "essential oil" combined with "tick," "Ixodes," "Argas," "Rhipicephalus," "Amblyomma," "Hyalomma," "Dermacentor," "Haemaphysalis" and "Ornithodoros." The words "essential oil" and "tick" were searched in the singular and plural.

RESULTS

The number of studies increased over the years. Brazil stands out with the largest number (51.6%) of publications. The most studied tick species were Rhipicephalus microplus (48.4%), Ixodes scapularis (19.4%), Amblyomma americanum and R. sanguineus sensu lato (9.7% each). Cattle (70%) and dogs (13%) were the main target animal species. Regarding the application of EOs/EOCs formulations, 74% of the studies were conducted with topical application (spray, pour-on, foam, drop) and 26% with environmental treatment (spray). Efficacy results are difficult to evaluate because of the lack of information on the methodology and standardization. The nanotechnology and combination with synthetic acaricides were reported as an alternative to enhance the efficacy of EOs/EOCs. No adverse reactions were observed in 86.6% of the studies evaluating EOs/EOCs clinical safety. Studies regarding toxicity in non-target species and residues are scarce.

CONCLUSIONS

This article provides a comprehensive review on the use of EOs and EOCs to reduce tick infestations, in both the hosts and the environment. As future directions, we recommend the chemical characterization of EOs, methodology standardization, combination of EOs/EOCs with potential synergists, nanotechnology for new formulations and safety studies for target and non-target organisms, also considering the environmental friendliness.

Thymol and eugenol against Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato engorged females: Biological, histopathological and bioinformatic analysis

The aim of this study was to evaluate the reproductive biology and histopathology of the ovaries of engorged females of Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato exposed to combinations of thymol and eugenol, as well as to evaluate in silico the possible interactions of thymol and eugenol in tick cell membranes. To evaluate the tick reproductive biology, the adult immersion test (AIT) was performed, in which the engorged females were immersed in solutions of thymol and eugenol, combined or alone, at concentrations of 2.5 and 5.0 mg/mL. Two control groups (water and 3% DMSO) were also performed. The ticks were kept in a controlled chamber (B.O.D - 27 ± 1 °C and 80% ± 5% RH) to evaluate egg production and viability. To perform the ovaries histopathological evaluation, females were immersed in combination of thymol and eugenol (each at 2.5 and 5.0 mg/mL) and control (water and 3% DMSO) solutions. After immersion, the females were kept in B.O.D (27 ± 1 °C and RH of 80% ± 5%) for four days, they were dissected and the ovaries processed for histological analysis. In addition, an in silico analysis was performed using PASS online® software to predict probability activity (PA) of thymol and eugenol in cell membranes. The treatment with the combination of thymol and eugenol (each at 5.0 mg/mL) caused a reduction (p < 0.01) in oviposition, while the treatments with thymol (5.0 mg/mL) and combination of thymol and eugenol (5.0 mg/mL) reduced (p < 0.05) the egg viability. The treatment with combination of thymol and eugenol (5.0 mg/mL) resulted in a control percentage of 99.9%, while in the other treatments, control percentages below 56% were observed. Oocytes from the females exposed to the combinations of thymol and eugenol (each compound at 2.5 mg/mL) showed histopathological changes, except on oocyte V, while those treated with these compounds alone at 2.5 mg/mL, did not reveal any change. Changes in the shape of the oocyte, presence of vacuoles in the cytoplasm and germinal vesicle, reduction and fusion of yolk granules and rupture of some oocytes were observed. In silico analysis, showed that these compounds can act as membrane permeability inhibitors, membrane permeability agonists, membrane integrity antagonists and apoptosis agonists. We conclude that the combination of thymol and eugenol causes changes in the reproductive biology and morphophysiology of engorged females oocytes. The in silico analysis using thymol and eugenol revealed the possibility of disorganization in the cell membranes, a fact that may explain the histopathological alterations observed.

Role of antioxidant activity of essential oils in their acaricidal activities against Rhipicephalus annulatus

Essential oils of Origanum majorana and Satureja thymbra as well as carvacrol are natural products that are known to have potent antioxidant activities. The current study was designed to investigate the role of the antioxidant properties of these natural products in their acaricidal activities against Rhipicephalus annulatus larvae. The synergistic and/or antagonistic effects of the addition of vitamins E and C and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to these natural products were also evaluated. Larval packet tests were used to evaluate the acaricidal activities against the larvae of R. annulatus. The antioxidant effectiveness of these products was determined by a DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical scavenging assay. The addition of vitamin E at 100 mg/mL to O. majorana and S. thymbra decreased the concentrations required to achieve the death of half of the larvae (LC50) to 0.44 and 0.47%, respectively. The combination of O. majorana and S. thymbra attained the LC50 at 1.54% which was decreased to 0.69% after addition of vitamin E. Also, the addition of vitamin E to carvacrol reduced the LC50 to 0.27%. The total antioxidant activity of these natural products increased significantly in presence of vitamin E. The addition of H2O2 inhibited the acaricidal activity of all tested materials, especially at low concentrations. All treatments induced an increase in lipid peroxidation, whereas carvacrol-treated larvae revealed the lowest values for the superoxide dismutase. Glutathione peroxidase and catalase activity decreased in larvae treated with S. thymbra combined with vitamin E. In conclusion, the addition of vitamins E and C increased the acaricidal activities of the tested compounds, whereas the addition of H2O2 decreased these activities. The antioxidant activities of essential oils and their active components may play an important role in mediating their acaricidal activities.

Acaricidal activity of carvacrol and thymol on acaricide-resistant Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) populations and combination with cypermethrin: Is there cross-resistance and synergism?

This study evaluated the acaricidal activity of thymol and carvacrol on Rhipicephalus microplus populations with different resistance profiles and investigated the synergistic effect of combinations of these monoterpenes with cypermethrin. The adult immersion test (AIT) was used to characterize the susceptibility of tick populations (45 field populations) to synthetic acaricides: deltamethrin, amitraz and chlorfenvinphos. The larval packet test (LPT) was used to determine the LC₅₀ values for thymol (25 tick populations) and carvacrol (20 tick populations). The susceptible strain Porto Alegre (POA) was used as a reference for calculating the resistance ratio (RR). Subsequently, larval immersion tests (LIT) were performed with combinations of cypermethrin with thymol or carvacrol to assess a synergistic effect. In the AIT, deltamethrin showed efficacy > 90% in one (2.2%) population tested (mean: 12.1 and 11.1 for populations 1-25 and 26-40, respectively), whereas amitraz and chlorfenvinphos showed efficacy > 90% for two (4.4%) populations (mean: 61.3 and 47.3 for populations 1-25 and 26-40, respectively) and eight (17.7%) populations (mean: 69.7 and 59.7 for populations 1-25 and 26-40, respectively). In the LPT, the LC₅₀ values for thymol and carvacrol varied from 0.67 to 2.12 mg/mL and 0.55-3.21 mg/mL, with an average LC₅₀ for populations of 1.49 and 1.75 mg/mL, respectively. For thymol, no resistance was observed in any of the populations, values of RR₅₀ > 1.5. There was no correlation between the LC₅₀ values for thymol and the efficacy of the chemical acaricides tested. Regarding carvacrol, for only one tick population had the value of RR₅₀ > 1.5, indicating an incipient resistance. No correlation was observed between the LC₅₀ values for carvacrol and the efficacy of tested acaricides. The combination of thymol and carvacrol with cypermethrin showed a synergistic effect in the resistant population (Jaguar - thymol 4.19 and carvacrol 3.67), and no synergistic interaction were showed in the susceptible population. Answering the questions we conclude that: 1 - The comparison between the LC₅₀ values for thymol and carvacrol in field populations and the susceptible strain POA suggests the absence of cross-resistance (ticks and terpenes), and the differences between the LC₅₀ values for thymol and carvacrol in the different R. microplus populations are inherent to the characteristics of each population tested; 2 - the combination of thymol or carvacrol with cypermethrin showed a synergistic effect with different activity according to the population of ticks.